Biography

Friedrich-Heinrich-Alexander Humboldt was born on September 14, 1769 in Berlin. He spent his childhood with his older brother Wilhelm in Tegel. The conditions under which they grew up and were brought up could not be more favorable for development. Both boys were raised at home.

Science was difficult for Alexander. His memory was good, but he was not distinguished by his quick thinking and in this respect lagged far behind Wilhelm, who easily and quickly grasped every subject.

In 1783, the brothers, together with their teacher, moved to Berlin. It was necessary to expand their education, for which various scientists were invited. Private lectures and life in Berlin continued until 1787, when both brothers went to Frankfurt an der Oder to enter the university there. Wilhelm entered the law faculty, and Alexander entered the cameral faculty.

Alexander Humboldt remained at the University of Frankfurt for only a year. Then he spent about a year in Berlin studying technology, Greek language and botany. Alexander's studies were encyclopedic in nature. Classical literature, history, natural science, mathematics interested him in to the same degree. Humboldt remained at the University of Göttingen until 1790. Then his independent studies began.

In March 1790, Alexander undertook a journey with Forster from Mainz along the Rhine to Holland, and from there to England and France. The desire to become better acquainted with geology and the glory of the Freiberg Academy attracted him to Freiberg, where he went in 1791. The famous Werner, head of the Neptunist school, read geology here.

After he left Freiberg, the academic years Humboldt, since his career began in 1792. At this time he was 23 years old. Alexander's abilities were now revealed in full brilliance. He had extensive and versatile knowledge, spoke several languages, published a number of independent studies on geology, botany and physiology, and was considering plans for future travel.

In the spring of 1792, Alexander Humboldt received a position as assessor of the mining department in Berlin, and in August he was appointed Oberbergmeister (head of mining) in Ansbach and Bayreuth, with a salary of 400 thalers. The activities associated with this position coincided well with the desires of Humboldt, who was deeply interested in mineralogy and geology. The constant travel required by his position was important as preparation for future travels.

Alexander Humboldt spent the winter of 1797-1798 in Salzburg, engaged in geological and meteorological research.

In 1799, Humboldt went on a long journey through South America and Mexico. Only on August 3, 1804, after almost five years in America, Humboldt landed in Bordeaux.

A. Humboldt decided to stay in Paris to study and publish the materials he collected. In 1805, Alexander Humboldt went to Italy to visit his brother. In 1806-1807 he lived in Berlin, and then asked the Prussian king to allow him to live in Paris and received permission. After that, he lived in France for almost twenty years (1809-1827), leaving it only occasionally and for short periods.

The stay in the “capital of the world” was devoted almost exclusively to work. Humboldt got up around 7 o'clock in the morning, at 8 went to his friend F. Arago or to the institute, where he worked until 11-12 o'clock, then had a quick breakfast and went back to work. At about seven in the evening the scientist had dinner, and after dinner he visited friends and salons. Only around midnight did he return home and again work until two, or even until half past three. Thus, 4-5 hours a day were left for sleep. “Periodic sleep is considered an outdated superstition in the Humboldt family,” he used to say jokingly. He led such an active lifestyle until his death and, most surprisingly, he always remained healthy and strong physically and mentally.

This period of his activity can be called a period of discoveries; the subsequent years of his life were devoted mainly to the continuation and development of previously done research.

Numerous and varied scientific works did not prevent Humboldt from being interested in politics, court news, and even, simply put, gossip and trifles, known as “news of the day.” In the salons, he shone not only with his scholarship, eloquence and wit, but also with his knowledge of all sorts of anecdotes and trifles that occupied society.

The Prussian king Frederick William III was personally disposed towards Humboldt, loved his conversation and valued his company. In 1826, he invited his learned friend to move to Berlin.

In the first year of his life in Berlin, he gave a series of public lectures “on the physical description of the world.” The lectures attracted many listeners. Not only did Berlin residents flock to them in droves, but also curious people came from other European cities to listen to Humboldt. The king and his family, the most important dignitaries, ladies of the court, professors and writers were present here, along with countless audiences from the most diverse walks of life.

The readings began on November 3, 1827 and ended on April 26, 1828. At the end of the lectures, a specially appointed committee presented Humboldt with a medal with the image of the sun and the inscription “Illuminating the whole world with bright rays.”

Russian Emperor Nicholas I invited the scientist to take a trip to the East “in the interest of science and the country.” Such a proposal could not have been more consistent with Humboldt’s wishes, and he, of course, accepted it, asking only for a year’s delay to complete some of the work begun and prepare for the trip.

On April 12, 1829, Alexander Humboldt left Berlin and arrived in St. Petersburg on May 1. From here the travelers went through Moscow and Vladimir to Nizhny Novgorod. From Nizhny, the scientist sailed along the Volga to Kazan, from there to Perm and Yekaterinburg. Here, in fact, the real journey began. For several weeks, travelers moved through the Lower and Middle Urals and explored its geology. Humboldt then went to Siberia.

The last destination of the trip was Astrakhan. Humboldt “did not want to die without seeing the Caspian Sea.”

From Astrakhan, the travelers made a short trip along the Caspian Sea, then went back to St. Petersburg, where they arrived on November 13, 1829.

Thanks to the conveniences enjoyed by the travelers and their scientific zeal, this expedition produced rich results. For two years the scientist processed the results of the expedition in Paris.

Since 1832, Alexander Humboldt lived mainly in Berlin, however, from time to time visiting the capital of the world and other European cities.

In 1842, he was appointed Chancellor of the Order pour Ie merite, established by Frederick II to reward military merit. Frederick William IV gave it a civilian class. The order was to be given to the greatest representatives of science, art and literature in Germany and Europe.

Alexander Humboldt received countless awards and honors from governments and scientific institutions. His name is immortalized on geographical maps, in textbooks of zoology and botany, etc. Many rivers and mountains bear his name.

It is hardly possible to name another scientist who enjoyed such popularity. He was like the sun of the scientific world, to which all major and minor scientists were drawn. They went to pay homage to him, like pious Catholics to the Pope. We deliberately went to Berlin to see Alexander Humboldt - “to kiss the papal shoe.”

Among the public, his fame was supported by his publicly available writings. This aspect of his activity finally culminated in the long-planned “Cosmos”. "Cosmos" represents a body of knowledge of the first half of the 19th century and, most precious of all, a body compiled by a specialist, because Humboldt was a specialist in all areas, except perhaps higher mathematics. It's almost unbelievable, but it's true.

Unusual activity and mental stress seemed to weaken his physical and spiritual strength. But nature made an exception for him. IN last years In his life, approaching the age of ninety, he led the same active lifestyle as he had once done in Paris.

Main achievements

The largest work was extensive research with electricity on animals, undertaken by Humboldt after familiarizing him with Galvani's discovery. The result of these studies was the two-volume work “Experiments on Irritated Muscle and Nerve Fibers,” published only in 1797-1799. Some of these experiments were carried out by him on his own body with the assistance of Dr. Schallern: Humboldt’s back served as an object of study, wounds were specially made on it and then they were galvanized different ways. Schallern observed the results, since Humboldt, of course, could only sense them.

The results of the trip to South America and Mexico were impressive. Humboldt is only one point inside South America- Quito - was precisely defined astronomically, its geological structure was completely unknown. Alexander Humboldt determined the latitude and longitude of many points, made about 700 hypsometric measurements (height measurements), that is, he created the geography and orography of the area, studied its geology, collected data on the country’s climate and understood its distinctive features. He also managed to collect huge botanical and zoological collections - about four thousand species of plants alone, including one thousand eight hundred new to science.

The connection of the Amazon and Orinoco systems was proven, maps of the flow of both rivers were corrected and expanded, the direction of some mountain ranges was determined and new, hitherto unknown ones were discovered, the distribution of mountains and lowlands was clarified, and the sea current along the western coast of America, called the Humboldtian current, was mapped. He did not ignore ethnography, archeology, history, languages, and the political state of countries: a wealth of material was collected on all these subjects, later developed partly by Humboldt himself and partly by his collaborators.

The publication of An American Journey required many years and the collaboration of many scholars. Humboldt himself took upon himself mainly the general conclusions, while his staff processed the factual material. The first volume was published in 1807, the last in 1833. The entire publication consists of 30 volumes and contains 1425 tables.

The works of Alexander Humboldt represent such an extensive encyclopedia of natural science, all of them are connected into one whole by the idea of ​​a physical description of the world.

While still serving as chief bergmeister, Humboldt began researching the chemical composition of air. Later they were continued together with Gay-Lussac and led to the following results: the composition of the atmosphere generally remains constant, the amount of oxygen in the air is twenty-one percent, the air does not contain a noticeable admixture of hydrogen. This was the first accurate study of the atmosphere, and later his work confirmed these data in essential features.

Alexander Humboldt devoted a number of studies to air temperature. In order to discover the causes of temperature differences, it was necessary to have a picture of the distribution of heat on the globe and a method for further developing this picture. Humboldt accomplished this double task by establishing so-called isotherms - lines connecting places with the same average temperature over a known period of time. The work on isotherms served as the basis for comparative climatology, and Humboldt can be considered the creator of this most complex and difficult branch of natural science.

Some important discoveries he accomplished while conducting research on terrestrial magnetism. Alexander Humboldt was the first to actually prove that the intensity of the earth's magnetism varies at different latitudes, decreasing from the poles to the equator. He also owned the discovery of sudden disturbances of the magnetic needle (“magnetic storms”), which, as later studies showed, occur simultaneously in various points globe under the influence of still unknown reasons. Further, they discovered a secondary deviation of the magnetic needle during the day. The arrow does not remain stationary, but moves first in one direction, then in the opposite direction. Humboldt showed that this phenomenon repeats itself twice during the day. He also showed that the magnetic equator (the line connecting the points where the magnetic needle is horizontal) does not coincide with the astronomical one.

In a work undertaken with Biot, Alexander Humboldt tried to determine the magnetic equator, but a lack of data led the authors to assume a much greater correctness than actually exists.

At the beginning of the 19th century, geology was just beginning to emerge. Having been a supporter of Werner at the beginning of his career, Humboldt subsequently became one of the main drivers of the plutonic theory. Humboldt contributed to its triumph mainly through his research on volcanoes.

Printed works:

§ Mineralische Beobachtungen über einige Basalte am Rhein, Braunschweig, 1790 (German)

§ Humboldt A. von. Voyage aux regions équinoxiales du Nouveau Continent, fait en 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803 et 1804 par Alexander Humboldt et Aimé Bonpland / red. A. de Humboldt. - Grand edition. - Paris: F. Schoell, 1805 (French) (Reise in die Aequinoctial-Gegenden des neuen Continents. (Übers. Hermann Hauff). Die einzige von Humboldt autorisierte Übersetzung; bei J.G. Cotta, Stuttgart 1859 (German))

§ Humboldt A. von. Ideen zu einer Physiognomik der Gewächse. - Tübingen: J.G. Cotta, 1806 (German)

§ Humboldt A. von. Ideen zu einer Geographie der Pflanzen nebst einem Naturgemälde der der Tropenlländer, auf Beobachtungen und Messungen gegründet welche nom 10 ten Grade nördlicher bis zum 10 ten Grade südlicher Breite, in den Jahren 1799, 1800-1803 angestellt worden sind, von Al. von Humboldt und A. Bonpland. - Tübingen: F.G. Cotta; Paris: F. Schoell, 1807 (German)

§ Humboldt A. von. Ansichten der Natur mit wissenschaftlichen Erläuterungen. Bd 1. Über die Steppen und Wüsten. Ideen zu einer Physiognomik der Gewächse. Über Wasserfälle des Orinoco, bei Atures und Maypures. - Tübingen: J.G. Cotta, 1808 (German)

§ Humboldt A. von. De distributione geographica plantarum: secundum cœli temperiem et altitudinem montium, prolegomena. - Lutetiæ Parisiorum: Libraria Græco-Latino-Germanica, 1817 (lat.)

§ Humboldt A. von. Die lignes isothermes et de la distribution de la chaleur sur le globe // Mém. Physique et de Chimie de la Soc. d'Arcueil. 1817. T. 3. P. 462-602 (French)

§ Humboldt A.de. Sur les lois que l’on observe dans la distribution des formes végétales // Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles. Strasbourg ; Paris: F.G. Levrault, imprimeur du Roi, 1820. T. 18. P. 359-436 (French)

§ Humboldt A. von. On the physiognomy of plants / trans. with him. A. F. Sevastyanova. - St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1823

§ Deutsche Übersetzung: Kritische Untersuchungen über die historische Entwickelung der geographischen Kenntnisse von der Neuen Welt und die Fortschritte der nautischen Astronomie in dem 15ten und 16ten Jahrhundert. Aus dem Franz. Ubers. von Jul. Ludw. Ideler. Berlin, Nicolai, 1836 u. 1852. (German)

§ Zentralasien (zusammen mit Wilhelm Mahlmann) 2 Bde. Berlin, Klemann, 1844 (German)

§ Humboldt A. von. Kosmos - Entwurf einer physischen Welbeschreibung. - Stuttgart; Tübingen: G. Gottaschen. - Bd 1. - 1845; Bd 2. - 1847; Bd 3. - 1850; Bd 3 (Abt. 2). - 1851; Bd 4. - 1858; Bd 5. - 1862 (German)

§ Ludmilla Assing(Hrsg.): Briefe von Alexander von Humboldt an Varnhagen von Ense aus den Jahren 1827 bis 1858. Leipzig 1860 (German)

§ Humboldt A. von. Cosmos: Experience of physical world description / trans. with him. N. Frolova. - Ed. 2nd. - M.: Type. A. Seeds, 1862-1963. - Part 1. - 1862; Part 2 - 1862; Part 3. - 1863

§ Ernst Werner Maria von Olfers(Hrsg.): Briefe Alexander v. Humboldt's an Ignaz v. Olfers, Generaldirektor der Kgl. Museen in Berlin. Nürnberg und Leipzig (German)

§ Humboldt A. Geography of plants / ed., with introduction. Art. and biogr. essay by E.V. Wulf, edited by. ed. N. I. Vavilova. - M.; L.: Selkhozgiz, 1936. - 228 p.

§ Humboldt A. Pictures of nature / trans. with him. T. I. Konshina, ed. S. V. Obrucheva. - - M.: Geographgiz, 1959

§ Humboldt A. Travel to the equinox regions of the New World in 1799-1804. - M.: Geographgiz. - T. 1: Tenerife Island and Eastern Venezuela. - 1963; T. 2: Sailing the Orinoco. - 1964; T. 3: Countries of Central and South America. Cuba Island. - 1969

§ Ilse Jahn, Fritz G. Lange(Hrsg.): Die Jugendbriefe Alexander von Humboldts. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1973 (German)

§ Kurt-R. Biermann(Hrsg.): Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und Carl Friedrich Gauß. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1977 (German)

§ Kurt-R. Biermann(Hrsg.): Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und Heinrich Christian Schumacher. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1979 (German)

§ Kurt-R. Biermann(Hrsg.): Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1982 (German)

§ Kurt-R. Biermann(Hrsg.): Alexander von Humboldt. Vier Jahrzehnte Wissenschaftsförderung. Briefe an das preußische Kultusministerium. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1985 (German)

§ Herbert Pieper(Hrsg.): Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und C. G. Jacob Jacobi. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1987 (German)

§ Hanno Beck(Hrsg.): Studienausgabe. 7 Bände (erschienen in 10 Bänden). Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1987-1997, ISBN 3-534-03100-8 (German)

Bd. 1: Schriften zur Geographie der Pflanzen. 1989, ISBN 3-534-03101-6

Bd. 2: Die Forschungsreise in die Tropen Amerikas. 3 Bände, ISBN 3-534-03102-4

Bd. 3: Cuba-Werk. 1992, ISBN 3-534-03103-2

Bd. 4: Mexico-Werk. 1991, ISBN 3-534-03104-0

Bd. 5: Ansichten der Natur. 1987, ISBN 3-534-03105-9

Bd. 6: Schriften zur Physischen Geographie. 1989, ISBN 3-534-03106-7

Bd. 7: Kosmos. 2 Bände, 1993, ISBN 3-534-03107-5

§ Ulrike Moheit(Hrsg.): Alexander von Humboldt. Briefe aus America. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1993 (German)

§ Hans-Joachim Felber(Hrsg.): Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1994 (German)

§ Ingo Schwarz, Klaus Wenig(Hrsg.): Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und Emil du Bois-Reymond. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 1997 (German)

§ Ulrike Moheit(Hrsg.): Das Gute und Große wollen. Alexander v. Humboldts Amerikanische Briefe. Berlin 1999 (German)

§ Margot Faak(Hrsg.): Alexander von Humboldt. Reise durch Venezuela. Auswahl aus den amerikanischen Reisetagebüchern. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 2000 (German)

§ Margot Faak(Hrsg.): Alexander von Humboldt. Reise auf dem Río Magdalena, durch die Anden und Mexico. Aus seinen Reisetagebüchern. 2 Teile. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). 2. Auflage. Berlin 2003 (German)

§ Ingo Schwarz(Hrsg.): Alexander von Humboldt und die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. Briefwechsel. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 2004 (German)

§ Ulrike Leitner(Hrsg.): Alexander von Humboldt. Von Mexico-Stadt nach Veracruz. Tagebuch. (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung). Berlin 2005 (German)

§ Ingo Schwarz(Hrsg.): Briefe von Alexander von Humboldt an Christian Carl Josias Bunsen Neue Edition. Berlin 2006 (German)

§ Alejandro de Humboldt. Cartas americanas. ISBN 980-276-118-4, ISBN 980-276-119-2 (Spanish)

§ Alexander von Humboldt. Sitios de las Cordilleras. - Sevilla, 2008, ISBN 978-84-9862-068-9 (Spanish)

Contribution to environmental development

Humboldt based his botanical geography on the climatic principle. He pointed out the analogy between the gradual change in vegetation from the equator to the pole and from the foot of the mountains to the top. The scientist characterized the plant belts that alternate as one climbs to the top of a mountain or when moving from the equator to northern latitudes, and made the first attempt to divide the globe into botanical regions. Humboldt discovered relative changes in the composition of the flora, the predominance of certain plants in parallel with climatic conditions.

The principle established by Humboldt remains the guiding principle of this science, and although his writings are outdated, he will forever retain the glory of the founder of botanical geography.

This great traveler contributed to autecology by developing Theophrastus' ideas about life forms and climatic zonation. Following Lamarck, although, apparently, without the influence of his ideas, Humboldt came to the concept of the biosphere. He wrote about the need to build a holistic picture of the world. The process of understanding nature, in his opinion, can only be achieved by combining knowledge of all the phenomena and creatures that the surface of the Earth offers, since “in this grandiose sequence of causes and effects nothing can be considered in isolation.”

Conclusion

Alexander Humboldt lived a long and bright life, devoting himself entirely to science. He was a versatile person, oriented in many areas of science, such as geology, mineralogy, zoology, botany, physics, anatomy, etc.

The merits of this great figure can be listed endlessly; it is not for nothing that he was nicknamed “Aristotle of the nineteenth century.”

He made a colossal contribution to the development of such sciences as mineralogy, botany, and geology.

It was Humboldt who gave rise to botanical geography, contributed to the development of climatology, introduced the concepts of vertical and latitudinal zone and much more.

Bibliography

1. Fundamentals of general ecology. Mirkin B.M., Naumova L.G., 2003

2. Electronic journal about travel and adventures “Space of Travel”. Alexander Humboldt: http://ppjournal.ru

3. Great people: biographies and biographies. Humboldt Alexander von: http://www.biografguru.ru

4. Scientists, researchers, travelers, teachers. Biography of Alexander Humboldt: http://www.biogr.ru

1. Engelhardt M. A. Alexander Humboldt, his life, travels and scientific activities. Biogr. feature article. - St. Petersburg: Printing house of the Public Benefit Partnership, 1891

Humboldt is one of the greatest minds of the 19th century who made fundamental contributions to many fields of knowledge. He is rightly also called one of the founders of geography in its modern sense. In 1790, Humboldt traveled through Germany, went down the Rhine to its mouth, and visited Flanders, the Netherlands, England and France. In 1791, based on his complete journey, Humboldt published the article “Mineralogical observations of basalts on the Rhine.” For some time he worked as a mining engineer at a mine, and in his spare time he conducted scientific research. At this time, he published “Experiments on the Chemical Decomposition of Air”, “Freiberg’s Flora”, “Aphorisms on the Chemical Physiology of Plants” and selected materials for a future book on the history and geography of plants.

Humboldt's main scientific credo as a geographer was the search for relationships and interdependence that exist in nature. Humboldt thought in terms of ecology long before the advent of this science. But it was not only the natural side of processes that worried Humboldt. He had a genuine interest in the development of civilizational processes, the state and development of the economy, the situation of the population, especially the disadvantaged part of it. In 1800, Humboldt and Bonpland made a difficult journey up the Orinoco River through virgin forests to the place where it bifurcates into two branches, one of which, Casicchiare, heads towards the Amazon. The 1,725-mile course of the Orinoco has been mapped.

Humboldt spent some time in Cuba and prepared the article “ Experience about the political situation in Cuba" Humboldt studied cultivated types of vegetation and farming experience. Observations in the Andes and in the mountains of Europe gave grounds to draw conclusions about the peculiarities of climate and vegetation changes with altitude, and to formulate the main patterns of altitudinal zonation.

Moving across the sea from Callao in Peru to Guayaquil in Ecuador, and then to Acapulco in Mexico, Humboldt drew attention to the unusually low water temperature, explained it by the rise of deep waters, and called the described current the Peruvian. On many maps for more than a century this current was also called the Humboldt Current.

1803 Humboldt and Bonpland spent Mexico, completed a number of radial routes to the northern semi-deserts and southern tropical forests, climbed volcanic cones, collected materials about the features of nature, the original way of life and occupations of the population. The result of this part of the journey was a number of publications and a two-volume work “ On the political state of the Kingdom of New Spain" That was the name at that time for the vast territory of which modern Mexico is a part. It was a detailed regional monograph containing characteristics of the relief using measurements of elevations, climate based on its own meteorological observations, and population in four groups (Spaniards, Spaniards born in Mexico, Indians and blacks). An atlas of maps of the country was attached to the monograph. Humboldt proposed five options for the route of the shipping connection Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. One of them was later used to build the Panama Canal.

Paris was chosen as the place for processing the collected materials and compiling a report on the trip. Humboldt attracted prominent scientists to analyze and describe the collected collections. Intensive work took twenty years, and the report - " Journey to the equinox regions of the New World" - 30 volumes. Humboldt widely used the method of comparison and comparison of geographical objects and phenomena in different regions of the globe.

In 1829, Humboldt made his long-planned trip to Russia. It was published Mineralogical and geognostic journey through the Urals, Altai and the Caspian Sea"in two volumes. This was followed by a two-volume book " Essays on the Geology and Climatology of Asia", published in Paris in 1831.

Twelve years later, Humboldt’s three-volume monograph “ central Asia».

Humboldt’s main book, as he admitted, was to be “Cosmos, an experiment in the physical description of the world” with the task of drawing a unified picture of the world from distant nebulae to microbes. The work remained unfinished. Along with the atmosphere, hydro and lithosphere, Humboldt considered the sphere of life as an all-planetary phenomenon. Humboldt introduced the concept of “cultural sphere” into science, meaning nature modified by man. Humboldt contributed a lot of new things to the development of geosciences and landscape science.

Humboldt, not without reason, argued that man cannot act on nature, cannot take possession of any of its forces, if he does not know these natural forces, does not know how to measure and calculate them. The emergence of physical geography as a complex science is associated with the name of Humboldt. For Humboldt, nature is a single whole, permeated with universal interconnection, and the main task of geography is to study the dependence of organic life on inanimate nature. The nature of individual territories must be considered in its relation to the whole.

A contemporary of Humboldt was Ritter In 1811, Ritter published a two-volume textbook on European geography.

His scientific concept was based on unity in diversity. He sought to understand the relationships that hold territorial integrity together. Ritter viewed the interaction between organic and inorganic nature, and nature itself as a single system. Life, psyche, morals of people and the economy of countries depend on the natural environment. Ritter argued that geoscience should consider the Earth as the home of the human race. Ritter believed that the subject of geography is “spaces on earth's surface, filled with earthly matter, no matter what kingdom of nature this substance belongs to and no matter in what form it appears.” Geography, according to Ritter, is comparative geography. Ritter was a proponent of the regional concept of geography. Ritter considered continents, parts of continents and countries as the largest regional units. His multi-volume work “Earth Science” was written. For the first time in world geographical science, he developed the spatial principle, which separated the subject of geography and isolated it from other sciences. He deduced a law according to which human culture should spread from east to west.

Ritter was a German geographer, one of the founders of modern geography. Author of the fundamental work “Geography in relation to nature and history of mankind” (during Ritter’s lifetime, 19 volumes devoted to Asia and Africa were published). He paid a lot of attention to studying the geography of Russia. He developed the comparative method in geography and its analytical component. He is considered a supporter of geographic possibilism (adaptation of human society to natural conditions). Ritter's ideas largely determined the development of geographical thought in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

A. Humboldt and K. Ritter occupied a very high place in the scientific community, they introduced a lot of new things into geography, tried to cover as much knowledge about the Earth as possible, to understand the system of “interrelations between components that determine the appearance of individual territories and the natural change natural conditions on the planet as a whole.

"All truth occurs in the human
mind through three stages: First: “What nonsense!?”
Then: “Is there something to this!?”
Finally: “Who didn’t know this?”

Attributed to Alexander Humboldt

German explorer of South America, founder of botanical geography. The philologist's younger brother Wilhelm Humboldt .

In 1799 he made an expedition to South America.

“On July 16, 1799, travelers landed on the shores of Venezuela. From the very first steps they were stunned by the beauty and richness of the tropical nature they saw for the first time. The first three days they rushed about, Not able to stop at studying something specific. The impulsive Bonilan swore that he would go mad if these miracles were not exhausted soon. Apparently, the cold, rational Humboldt was no less excited.

On this expedition, which became Humboldt’s “finest hour,” the young scientist visited Venezuela, until then closed to non-Spaniards, and spent 4 months on the river. Orinoco and proved its connection with the Amazon. A huge amount of material was collected in Venezuela, he did not stop there and went to Cuba, then returned to the mainland, climbed the river. Magdalena, crossed the mountain pass and went to Kiya. Then he explored the Andes all the way to northern Peru and visited the upper reaches of the Amazon. My attention was paid to the study of volcanoes. Humboldt climbed Chimborasodo to an altitude of 5881 m above sea level and, although he did not reach the crater (the height of the volcano is 6272 m), he still set a record, since no explorer had ever reached such a high point. Humboldt was very proud of this ascent, since at that time Chimborazo was considered the highest peak in the world. […]

Despite the fact that the expedition did not make any territorial discoveries, scientific results historians rank her among the greatest. It was then that Humboldt tested his method of scientific research, which became a model for 19th-century travel. Scientists brought with them huge collections: only the herbarium consisted of 6 thousand plant specimens, about half of which were unknown to science. Humboldt analyzed the materials obtained by the expedition for about thirty years, and not alone, but with a number of other scientists. At the same time, one should take into account Humboldt’s amazing ability to work: he only needed 4-5 hours a day to sleep, and this regime did not in any way affect his health.”

“Humboldt himself later became one of the pioneers of scientific exploration of the Earth. He spent many years traveling around South America, Western and Southwestern Siberia, which resulted in discoveries in various fields scientific knowledge: geography, botany, mineralogy. A. Humboldt tried to summarize all the knowledge acquired during his travels and the knowledge that existed before him in his work “Cosmos. Experience of physical description of the world" (1845-1862). In this study, the philosopher set as his goal to understand natural phenomena in their entirety and imagine nature as a living whole, driven not by God, but by internal forces. Researchers in the history of philosophy called A. Humboldt's views on the world natural-historical materialism. The views of a materialist philosopher are characterized by a belief in objective reality outside world, laws of nature. The philosopher also spoke about the possibility of knowing nature and its laws.”

Tabachkova E.V., Philosophers, M., “Ripol Classic”, 2002, p. 132.

“We must not forget about the other side scientific activity Humboldt, which had a great influence on the development of science in the 19th century. Humboldt, like many naturalists of the late 18th century, was a spontaneous materialist, but most materialist naturalists of that time adhered to metaphysical and mechanistic views on the development of nature. Humboldt did not view the world as something unchanging - he studied natural phenomena in their interaction and, more importantly, in their evolution. At the end of his life, he expressed these advanced scientific and philosophical views in a huge comprehensive report "Cosmos". This summary was especially important because it appeared in the middle of the 19th century, when the modern materialist dialectics of nature began to take shape. Humboldt's scientific productivity was colossal: the number of his works exceeds 700 , and among them there are many voluminous monographs. But Humboldt's influence on scientific world and the impact on the leading circles of his contemporary society was not limited to his printed works. Humboldt often gave scientific and popular science reports and series of lectures and was very fond of communicating with people of various social backgrounds. He devoted several hours every day to these meetings, and spoke willingly and in detail about scientific and social problems. His epistolary activity was also great: every day he wrote up to a dozen letters! He also received very extensive mail; so, at the end of his life, on March 15, 1859, he placed an advertisement in newspapers in which he asked to spare him, write to him less and give him the opportunity to work: during this period he received from 1600 before 2000 letters and manuscripts per year.

From the editor in the book: Alexander Humboldt, Travel to the equinoctial regions of the New World in 1799-1804, M., “State Publishing House of Geographical Literature”, 1963, p. 7-8.

History and theoretical foundations of linguoculturology

At the beginning of the 19th century, the German scientists brothers Grimm, whose ideas were developed in Russia in the 70s of the 19th century, tried to solve the problem of the relationship between language, culture and ethnicity.

The problem of the relationship between language, culture, and ethnicity is not new. Also in early XIX V. German scientists tried to solve them - the brothers Grimm, whose ideas found their development in Russia in the 60-70s of the 19th century. - in the works of F.I. Buslaeva, A.N. Afanasyeva, A.A. Potebni.

Language is the spirit of the people. (Humboldt)

At the beginning of the 21st century, the Austrian school "WORTER UND SACHEN" ("Words and Things") emerged, which directed the problem of "Language and Culture" along the path of a specific study of the constituent elements - the "bricks" of language and culture, demonstrating the importance of the cultural approach in many areas of linguistics, and above all - in vocabulary and etymology.

Culture shapes and organizes the thought of a linguistic personality, and forms linguistic categories and concepts. The idea of ​​learning culture through language is not new.

In linguistics at the end of the 20th century, it became possible to accept the following postulate: language is not only associated with culture, it grows from it and expresses it.

There are attempts to periodize and establish linguoculturology:

prerequisites for the formation of culture, the development of science (works of Humboldt and Potebnya)

establishment of linguoculturology as an independent field of research

appearance fundamental science linguoculturology.

W. Humboldt: date of life, his definition of the concept of “language”, his contribution to the development of linguistics

Wilhelm von Hummboldt (German) Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Humboldt; June 22, 1767 - April 8, 1835, Tegel Palace, Berlin) - German philologist, philosopher, linguist, statesman, diplomat.

According to W. Humboldt, language is the “national spirit”, it is the “very being” of the people. Culture reveals itself primarily in language. He is the true reality of culture, he is capable of introducing a person into culture. Language is a culture’s fixed view of the universe and itself.

he was the founder of general linguistics and the developer theoretical foundations language analysis.V. von Humboldt was a very talented person who distinguished himself in many fields of science and politics. He was a major statesman in Prussia: he held ministerial and diplomatic posts, and played a significant role at the Congress of Vienna, which determined the structure of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon. He founded the University of Berlin, which today bears the names of him and his brother, A. von Humboldt, the famous naturalist and traveler. He is the author of many scientific works in philosophy, legal sciences, aesthetics, literary criticism and linguistics.

The scientist studied linguistics in the last decades of his life, after retiring from active government and diplomatic activities. A profound thinker and theorist, Humboldt was an outstanding polyglot: he knew Sanskrit, ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, French, English, Italian, Spanish, Basque, Provençal, Hungarian, Czech, ancient Egyptian and late Egyptian-Coptic, as well as Chinese and Japanese. Humboldt was one of the first researchers to explore the indigenous languages ​​of North and South America, the languages ​​of Indonesia and Polynesia. Studying the language of the Spanish Basques, which is sharply different from the languages ​​of the Indo-European family, Humboldt came to the idea that different languages ​​are not just different shells of human consciousness, but different visions of the world. Even in his first work, “On the comparative study of languages ​​in relation to different eras of their development,” the idea is strongly emphasized that a language, even at the initial stages of its existence, represents an integral and complete formation. “In order for a person to understand at least one single word, not simply as a mental impulse, but as an articulate sound denoting a concept, the entire language must be completely and in all its connections contained in it. There is nothing singular in language, each individual the element manifests itself as a part of the whole."

Contribution of A. Humboldt to the science of “Ecology”

A huge role in the development of environmental ideas was played by the German scientist A. Humboldt (1769-1859), who laid the foundations of biogeography. In the book “Ideas of Plant Geography” (1807), he introduced a number of scientific concepts that are used by ecologists today (plant ecobiomorph, species association, vegetation formation, etc.).

He was the first to introduce into science the concept of “sphere of life” (lebenssphere), that is, all living things on the planet, which later became known in translation as the equivalent - the biosphere. One of the first (after Buffon, Lamarck) to single out Life as another planetary phenomenon, along with the litho-, atmospheric, and hydrosphere

Patterns of action of environmental factors on the functions of organisms and responses of living organisms

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

1. The law of optimum. Each factor has certain limits positive influence on organisms. The result of a variable factor depends primarily on the strength of its manifestation. Both insufficient and excessive action of the factor negatively affects the life activity of individuals. The favorable force of influence is called the zone of optimum of the environmental factor or simply the optimum for organisms of a given species. The greater the deviation from the optimum, the more pronounced the inhibitory effect of this factor on organisms (pessimum zone). The maximum and minimum transferable values ​​of a factor are critical points, beyond which existence is no longer possible and death occurs. The limits of endurance between critical points are called the ecological valency of living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor.

Representatives of different species differ greatly from each other both in the position of the optimum and in ecological valency. For example, arctic foxes in the tundra can tolerate fluctuations in air temperature in the range of more than 80 °C (from +30 to _55 °C), while warm-water crustaceans Copilia mirabilis can withstand changes in water temperature in the range of no more than 6 °C (from +23 to +23 °C). +29 °C). The same strength of manifestation of a factor can be optimal for one type, pessimal for another, and go beyond the limits of endurance for a third.

The broad ecological valency of a species in relation to abiotic environmental factors is indicated by adding the prefix “eury” to the name of the factor. Eurythermal species - tolerate significant temperature fluctuations, eurybates - a wide range of pressure, euryhaline - varying degrees of salinity of the environment.

The inability to tolerate significant fluctuations in a factor, or narrow ecological valence, is characterized by the prefix “steno” - stenothermic, stenobatic, stenohaline species, etc. In a broader sense, species whose existence requires strictly defined environmental conditions, are called stenobionts, and those that are able to adapt to different environmental conditions are called eurybionts. ecology energy food

Conditions that approach critical points due to one or several factors at once are called extreme.

The position of the optimum and critical points on the factor gradient can be shifted within certain limits by the action of environmental conditions. This occurs regularly in many species as the seasons change. In winter, for example, sparrows withstand severe frosts, and in summer they die from chilling at temperatures just below zero. The phenomenon of a shift in the optimum in relation to any factor is called acclimation. In terms of temperature, this is a well-known process of thermal hardening of the body. Temperature acclimation requires a significant period of time. The mechanism is a change in enzymes in cells that catalyze the same reactions, but at different temperatures (so-called isoenzymes). Each enzyme is encoded by its own gene, therefore, it is necessary to turn off some genes and activate others, transcription, translation, assembly of a sufficient amount of new protein, etc. The overall process takes on average about two weeks and is stimulated by changes in environment. Acclimation, or hardening, is an important adaptation of organisms that occurs under gradually approaching unfavorable conditions or when entering territories with a different climate. She appears in these cases integral part general acclimatization process.

2. Ambiguity in the effect of a factor on different functions. Each factor has a different effect on different functions of the body (Fig. 3). The optimum for some processes may be a pessimum for others. Thus, air temperature from +40 to +45 °C in cold-blooded animals greatly increases the rate of metabolic processes in the body, but inhibits motor activity, and the animals fall into thermal stupor. For many fish, the water temperature that is optimal for the maturation of reproductive products is unfavorable for spawning, which occurs at a different temperature range.

The life cycle, in which during certain periods the organism primarily performs certain functions (nutrition, growth, reproduction, settlement, etc.), is always consistent with seasonal changes in a complex of environmental factors. Mobile organisms can also change habitats to successfully carry out all their vital functions.

• 3. Diversity of individual reactions to environmental factors. The degree of endurance, critical points, optimal and pessimal zones of individual individuals do not coincide. This variability is determined both by the hereditary qualities of individuals and by gender, age and physiological differences. For example, the mill moth butterfly, one of the pests of flour and grain products, has a critical minimum temperature for caterpillars of _7 °C, for adult forms _22 °C, and for eggs _27 °C. Frost at _10 °C kills caterpillars, but is not dangerous for the adults and eggs of this pest. Consequently, the ecological valency of a species is always broader than the ecological valence of each individual individual.
• 4. Relative independence of adaptation of organisms to different factors. The degree of tolerance to any factor does not mean the corresponding ecological valency of the species in relation to other factors. For example, species that tolerate wide variations in temperature do not necessarily also need to be able to tolerate wide variations in humidity or salinity. Eurythermal species can be stenohaline, stenobatic, or vice versa. The ecological valencies of a species in relation to different factors can be very diverse. This creates an extraordinary diversity of adaptations in nature. A set of environmental valences in relation to various environmental factors constitutes the ecological spectrum of a species.
• 5. Discrepancy in the ecological spectra of individual species. Each species is specific in its ecological capabilities. Even among species that are similar in their methods of adaptation to the environment, there are differences in their attitude to some individual factors.
• 6. Interaction of factors. The optimal zone and limits of endurance of organisms in relation to any environmental factor can shift depending on the strength and in what combination other factors act simultaneously (Fig. 5). This pattern is called the interaction of factors. For example, heat is easier to bear in dry rather than humid air. The risk of freezing is much greater in cold weather with strong winds than in calm weather. Thus, one and the same factor in combination with others has different effects. environmental impact. On the contrary, the same environmental result can be obtained in different ways. For example, plant wilting can be stopped by both increasing the amount of moisture in the soil and lowering the air temperature, which reduces evaporation. The effect of partial substitution of factors is created.

At the same time, mutual compensation of environmental factors has certain limits, and it is impossible to completely replace one of them with another. The complete absence of water or at least one of the basic elements of mineral nutrition makes the life of the plant impossible, despite the most favorable combinations of other conditions. The extreme heat deficit in the polar deserts cannot be compensated by either an abundance of moisture or 24-hour illumination.

7. Rule of limiting factors. The possibilities for the existence of organisms are primarily limited by those environmental factors that are furthest away from the optimum. If at least one of the environmental factors approaches or goes beyond critical values, then, despite the optimal combination of other conditions, the individuals are threatened with death. Any factors that strongly deviate from the optimum acquire paramount importance in the life of a species or its individual representatives at specific periods of time.

Limiting environmental factors determine the geographic range of a species. The nature of these factors may be different (Fig. 6). Thus, the movement of the species to the north may be limited by a lack of heat, and into arid regions by a lack of moisture or too high temperatures. Biotic relationships can also serve as limiting factors for distribution, for example, the occupation of a territory by a stronger competitor or a lack of pollinators for plants. Thus, pollination of figs depends entirely on a single species of insect - the wasp Blastophaga psenes. The homeland of this tree is the Mediterranean. Figs brought to California did not bear fruit until pollinators were introduced there. The distribution of legumes in the Arctic is limited by the distribution of the bumblebees that pollinate them. On Dikson Island, where there are no bumblebees, legumes are not found, although due to temperature conditions the existence of these plants there is still permissible.

To determine whether a species can exist in a given geographic area, it is necessary first to determine whether any environmental factors exceed the limits of its ecological valence, especially during the most vulnerable period of development.