Many animals and plants are capable of producing various substances that serve them to protect themselves from enemies and to attack other organisms. The smelly substances of bedbugs, the venoms of snakes, spiders, scorpions, and plant toxins are classified as such devices.
Biochemical adaptations also include the appearance of a special structure of proteins and lipids in organisms living at very high or low temperatures. Such features allow these organisms to exist in hot springs or, conversely, in permafrost conditions.

Rice. 28. Hoverflies on flowers


Rice. 29. Chipmunk hibernating

Physiological adaptations. These adaptations are associated with metabolic restructuring. Without them, it is impossible to maintain homeostasis in constantly changing environmental conditions.
A person cannot do without fresh water for a long time due to the peculiarities of his salt metabolism, but birds and reptiles, spending most of their lives in the sea and drinking sea water, have acquired special glands that allow them to quickly get rid of excess salts.
Many desert animals accumulate a lot of fat before the onset of the dry season: when it oxidizes, a large amount of water is formed.
Behavioral adaptations. A special type of behavior in certain conditions is very important for survival in the struggle for existence. Hiding or frightening behavior when an enemy approaches, storing food for an unfavorable period of the year, hibernation of animals and seasonal migrations that allow them to survive a cold or dry period - this is not a complete list of various types of behavior that arise during evolution as adaptations to specific living conditions (Fig. 29).

Rice. 30. Mating tournament of male antelope

It should be noted that many types of adaptations are formed in parallel. For example, the protective effect of protective or warning coloring is greatly enhanced when combined with appropriate behavior. Animals with a protective coloring freeze in a moment of danger. Warning coloration, on the contrary, is combined with demonstrative behavior that scares away predators.
Of particular importance are behavioral adaptations associated with procreation. Marital behavior, choice of a partner, family formation, caring for offspring - these types of behavior are innate and species-specific, i.e., each species has its own program of sexual and child-parent behavior (Fig. 30-32).

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

State educational institution

TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY

"I CONFIRM":

And about. vice-rector-chief

_______________________

__________ _____________ 2011

BIOCHEMICAL ADAPTATION

Training and metodology complex. Working programm

for postgraduate students of the specialty(03.01.04 Biochemistry)

full-time and part-time forms of education

"PREPARED FOR PUBLICATION":

"______"___________2011

Considered at a meeting of the Department of Anatomy and Physiology of Humans and Animals " 24 » May 2011 Protocol No. 11.

Meets the requirements for content, structure and design.

Volume 9 pages.

Head department ______________________________//

Considered at a meeting of the educational committee of the Biological Department of IMENIT

« 30 » May 2011 Protocol No. 2

FGT corresponds to the structure of the main professional educational program of postgraduate professional education (postgraduate studies)

"AGREED":

Chairman of the Educational Committee _________________________________/

« 30 » May 2011

"AGREED":

Beginning postgraduate department

and doctoral studies___________

"______"______2011

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

State educational institution

higher professional education

TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY

Institute of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies

Department of Anatomy and Physiology of Human and Animals

BIOCHEMICAL ADAPTATION

Training and metodology complex. Working programm

for graduate students of specialty 03.01.04 Biochemistry

Tyumen State University

Kyrov adaptation Training and metodology complex. Work program for graduate students of the specialty 01/03/04 Biochemistry. Tyumen, 2011, 9 pages.

The work program is compiled in accordance with the FGT to the structure of the main professional educational program of postgraduate professional education (postgraduate studies).

EDITOR IN CHARGE: , Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Anatomy and Physiology of Humans and Animals

© Tyumen State University, 2011.

Training and metodology complex. The work program includes the following sections:

1. Explanatory note:

1.1. Goals and objectives of the discipline

Goal: Study the basis of adaptation of metabolic processes at the molecular level.

Objectives: study the basic concepts associated with adaptation at the molecular level, discuss ways of adaptation of the organism to various living conditions, study methods for assessing adaptive changes

1.2. The place of discipline in the structure of OOP.

A special discipline in a branch of science and scientific specialty.

Contents of the discipline: enzyme activity during adaptive changes in metabolism, biochemical aspects of adaptation to various environmental conditions, stress and cell transport systems.

Biochemistry, Fundamentals of enzymology, Membrane transport, Regulation of metabolic processes.

As prerequisite knowledge for mastering this discipline, you need: Human physiology, Biochemistry and molecular biology.

1.3. Requirements for the results of mastering the discipline:

As a result of mastering the discipline, the student must:

Basic understanding of the strategy of biochemical adaptation and enzymatic variability, basic concepts of metabolic adaptation

Hibernation due to changes in environmental factors. Mechanisms of thermoregulation of the body. Anhydrobiosis. Hibernation. Turning off active metabolism. Diapause in insects. The role of lipids during hibernation. Slowing down the breakdown cycles of substances during hibernation. Hibernation of small and large mammals. Adaptation to temperature of homothermic animals. Adaptation to temperature in poikilothermic animals.

Ways to remove decay products from the body. The role of the immune system in maintaining the activity of an adapting organism. Ammonium animals. Modification of the urea cycle. Adaptation in the process of ontogenesis. Adaptation to living in aqueous solutions. Adaptation to the depths of the sea.

Biochemical adaptation: mechanisms and strategies.

1. Strategy for long-term biochemical adaptation.

2. Strategy of short-term biochemical adaptation.

Cellular metabolism. Adaptation of enzymes to metabolic changes

1. Quantitative adaptation of the enzyme.

2. Qualitative adaptation of the enzyme.

3. Intermediate metabolites and reducing equivalents.

Adaptation to physical activity. Stress and cell transport systems.

1. Passive and active transport during adaptation

2. Cholinergic system when environmental conditions change

Adaptation to oxygen regime and diving

1. Conditions of hypoxia and energy metabolism.

2. Adaptation of aerobic and anaerobic pathways for the breakdown of metabolites.

Respiratory system under changes in environmental factors. Mechanisms of thermoregulation of the body.

1. Cryoprotective proteins.

2. Hibernation in animals

3. Mechanisms of thermoregulation

Body detoxification system. Immune system and environmental influences.

2. Scientific discussion “Detoxification of the body as a protective mechanism”

8. Educational and methodological support for independent work of graduate students. Assessment tools for ongoing monitoring of progress, intermediate certification based on the results of mastering the discipline.

Table 3

Types of independent work carried out by students when studying the discipline and monitoring their implementation

	Type of independent work	Students’ activities during this type of independent work	Evaluation method
	Deepening and systematization of acquired knowledge using basic literature	It is assumed that as students master the material, they additionally independently study lecture notes, as well as recommended sections of basic and additional literature.	answer at the seminar
	Preparing for a seminar on the topic	As the lecture material is mastered, students' theoretical knowledge is monitored on certain topics of the discipline presented in the thematic planning section. Students independently prepare for the seminar using lecture materials, basic and additional literature.	answer at the seminar
	Familiarization with the content of electronic sources (on the topic)	Students independently prepare for the seminar using materials from electronic sources.	answer at the seminar
	Preparing presentations	In preparation for the seminar, students independently prepare slides using appropriate software to more fully cover the seminar issues.	answer at the seminar
	Preparation of abstracts	The topic includes students’ independent preparation of essays covering various aspects of the subject.
	Preparation for the scientific discussion “Detoxification of the body as a protective mechanism”	The topic includes a discussion on the assessment of detoxification mechanisms.	answer at the seminar

Sample topics for essays and tests:

1. Aerobic adaptation to physical activity.

2. Anaerobic adaptation to physical activity.

3. Energy substrates under conditions of adaptation.

4. Adaptation of passive cell transport systems

5. Adaptation of active cell transport systems.

6. Enzymatic changes in the pathways of breakdown of energy substrates.

7. Regulation of metabolism during physical activity.

Questions for testing:

1. Basic mechanisms and strategies of biochemical adaptation.

2. Adaptation of enzymes to metabolic loads.

3. Adaptation to short, high-intensity physical activity.

4. Adaptation to long-term physical activity.

5. Adaptation under anoxic conditions.

6. Adaptation to the temperature of homothermic animals.

7. Adaptation to temperature of poikilothermic animals.

8. Adaptation of cholinergic systems.

9. Stress. Failure of adaptation mechanisms.

10. The influence of aerobic and anaerobic training on physical activity.

11. Adaptation to diving.

12. Turning off active metabolism. The role of hibernation.

13. Adaptation in the process of ontogenesis.

14. Adaptation to living in aqueous solutions.

15. Adaptation to the depths of the sea.

16. Cryoprotection.

17. Detoxification of the body.

18. Adaptation of cell transport systems

9. Educational technologies.

When implementing various types of educational work during the development of the discipline, the following types of educational technologies are used:

Multimedia teaching aids:

In the lecture course, students are shown animated slides and video clips for a more complete coverage of the material. In the course of independent preparation for seminar classes, students develop slides using PowerPoint software to more fully cover the material presented.

Specialized programs and equipment:

When preparing and delivering a lecture course, Microsoft Office package programs are used ("MO PowerPoint, Windows Media Player, Internet Explorer"), this software is also used by students during independent work.

Interactive technologies:

Discussions during seminars

Scientific discussion on the topic “Detoxification of the body as a protective mechanism”

10. Educational, methodological and information support of the discipline.

10.1. Main literature:

1. Varfolomeev enzymology. M: Academy, 20s.

2. , Shvedova. M: Bustard. 20s.

3. Human biochemistry 2t. M: Peace. 20s.

4. Somero J. Biochemical adaptation. M: Peace. 19s.

5. Zimnitsky, in the biochemical mechanisms of adaptation of the body. – M.: Globus, 2004. – 240 p.

6. . Biochemical foundations of the chemistry of biologically active substances. Tutorial. BINOMIAL. 20s.

7. Publications in the journal “Biological Membranes” 2005-present. V.

8. Publications in the journal “Biochemistry” 2005 – present. V.

9. Publications in the journal “Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry” 2005-present. V.

10.2. Additional literature:

1. Plakunov enzymology. M.: Logos, 20 p.

2. Regulation of enzymatic activity. M.: Mir, 19 p.

3. Kurganov enzymes. M. Nauka, 19с.

4. Rozanov processes and their correction in extreme conditions. Kyiv: Zdorovya, 19с.

5. Chemical enzymology. / Ed. , K. Martinek. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 19 p.

6. Problems of biochemical adaptation / Sub. ed. M: Medicine. 19s.

7. , Pshennikov to stressful situations and physical activity. M: Medicine. 19s.

10.3. Software and Internet resources:

11. Technical means and logistical support of the discipline.

The discipline is provided by computer presentations compiled by the author. The faculty has 4 multimedia auditoriums for conducting lectures. The laboratory room is equipped with equipment and reagents for conducting practical biochemical research.

The evolution of adaptation is the main result of the action of natural selection. Classification of adaptation: morphological, physiological-biochemical, ethological, species adaptations: congruence and cooperation. The relativity of organic expediency.

Answer: Adaptation is any feature of an individual, population, species or community of organisms that contributes to success in competition and provides resistance to abiotic factors. This allows organisms to exist in given environmental conditions and leave offspring. The adaptation criteria are: vitality, competitiveness and fertility.

Types of adaptation

All adaptations are divided into accommodation and evolutionary adaptations. Accommodation is a reversible process. They occur when environmental conditions suddenly change. For example, when relocating animals find themselves in a new environment, but gradually get used to it. For example, a person who moved from the middle zone to the tropics or the Far North experiences discomfort for some time, but over time gets used to the new conditions. Evolutionary adaptation is irreversible and the resulting changes are genetically fixed. This includes all adaptations that are affected by natural selection. For example, protective coloring or fast running.

Morphological adaptations manifest themselves in structural advantages, protective coloration, warning coloration, mimicry, camouflage, adaptive behavior.

The advantages of the structure are the optimal proportions of the body, the location and density of hair or feathers, etc. The appearance of an aquatic mammal, the dolphin, is well known.

Mimicry is the result of homologous (identical) mutations in different species that help unprotected animals survive.

Camouflage - devices in which the body shape and color of animals merge with surrounding objects

Physiological adaptations- acquisition of specific metabolic features in different environmental conditions. They provide functional benefits to the body. They are conventionally divided into static (constant physiological parameters - temperature, water-salt balance, sugar concentration, etc.) and dynamic (adaptation to fluctuations in the action of a factor - changes in temperature, humidity, light, magnetic field, etc.). Without such adaptation, it is impossible to maintain a stable metabolism in the body in constantly fluctuating environmental conditions. Let's give some examples. In terrestrial amphibians, large amounts of water are lost through the skin. However, many of their species penetrate even into deserts and semi-deserts. The adaptations that develop in diving animals are very interesting. Many of them can survive for a relatively long time without access to oxygen. For example, seals dive to a depth of 100-200 and even 600 meters and stay under water for 40-60 minutes. The chemical sense organs of insects are amazingly sensitive.

Biochemical adaptations ensure the optimal course of biochemical reactions in the cell, for example, the ordering of enzymatic catalysis, the specific binding of gases by respiratory pigments, the synthesis of necessary substances under certain conditions, etc.

Ethological adaptations represent all behavioral responses aimed at the survival of individuals and, therefore, the species as a whole. Such reactions are:

Behavior when searching for food and a sexual partner,

Pairing,

Feeding offspring

Avoiding danger and protecting life in the event of a threat,

Aggression and threatening postures,

Kindness and many others.

Some behavioral reactions are inherited (instincts), others are acquired throughout life (conditioned reflexes).

Species adaptations are discovered when analyzing a group of individuals of the same species; they are very diverse in their manifestation. The main ones are various congruences, the level of mutability, intraspecific polymorphism, the level of abundance and optimal population density.

Congruences represent all the morphophysiological and behavioral features that contribute to the existence of the species as an integral system. Reproductive congruences ensure reproduction. Some of them are directly related to reproduction (correspondence of genital organs, adaptations to feeding, etc.), while others are only indirect (various signal signs: visual - mating attire, ritual behavior; sound - birdsong, roar of a male deer during the rut and etc.; chemical - various attractants, for example, insect pheromones, secretions from artiodactyls, cats, dogs, etc.).

Congruences include all forms of intraspecific cooperation- constitutional, trophic and reproductive. Constitutional cooperation is expressed in the coordinated actions of organisms in unfavorable conditions, which increase the chances of survival. In winter, bees gather in a ball, and the heat they generate is spent on joint warming. In this case, the highest temperature will be in the center of the ball and individuals from the periphery (where it is colder) will constantly strive there. In this way, the insects constantly move and, through joint efforts, they survive the winter safely. Penguins also cluster in a close group during incubation, sheep during cold weather, etc.

Trophic cooperation consists of uniting organisms for the purpose of obtaining food. Joint activity in this direction makes the process more productive. For example, a pack of wolves hunts much more efficiently than an individual. At the same time, in many species there is a division of responsibilities - some individuals separate the chosen victim from the main herd and drive it into ambush, where their relatives are hiding, etc. In plants, such cooperation is expressed in joint shading of the soil, which helps retain moisture in it.

Reproductive cooperation increases the success of reproduction and promotes the survival of offspring. In many birds, individuals gather on lekking grounds, and in such conditions it is easier to find a potential partner. The same thing happens at spawning grounds, rookeries of pinnipeds, etc. The likelihood of pollination in plants increases when they grow in groups and the distance between individual individuals is small.

The Law of Organic Purpose, or Aristotle's Law

1. The deeper and more versatile science studies living forms, the more fully they are revealed expediency, that is, the purposeful, harmonious, seemingly reasonable nature of their organization, individual development and relationship with the environment. Organic expediency is revealed in the process of understanding the biological role of specific features of living forms.

2. Expediency is inherent in all types. It is expressed in the subtle mutual correspondence of the structures and purpose of biological objects, in the adaptability of living forms to living conditions, in natural focus features of individual development, in the adaptive nature of the forms of existence and behavior of biological species.

3. Organic expediency, which became the subject of analysis of ancient science and served as the basis for teleological and religious interpretations of living nature, received a materialistic explanation in Darwin’s teaching about creative role natural selection, manifested in the adaptive nature of biological evolution.

This is the modern formulation of those generalizations, the origins of which go back to Aristotle, who put forward ideas about final causes.

The study of specific manifestations of organic expediency is one of the most important tasks of biology. Having found out what this or that feature of the biological object under study is for, what is the biological significance of this feature, thanks to Darwin’s evolutionary theory, we are getting closer to answering the question of why and how it arose. Let us consider the manifestations of organic expediency using examples related to various areas of biology.

In the field of cytology, a striking, clear example of organic expediency is cell division in plants and animals. The mechanisms of equational (mitosis) and reduction (meiosis) division determine the constancy of the number of chromosomes in the cells of a given plant or animal species. Doubling the diploid set in mitosis ensures that the number of chromosomes in dividing somatic cells remains constant. Haploidization of the chromosome set during the formation of germ cells and its restoration during the formation of a zygote as a result of the fusion of germ cells ensure the preservation of the number of chromosomes during sexual reproduction. Deviations from the norm, leading to polyploidization of cells, i.e., to a multiplication of the number of chromosomes against the normal one, are cut off by the stabilizing effect of natural selection or serve as a condition for genetic isolation, isolation of the polyploid form with its possible transformation into a new species. In this case, cytogenetic mechanisms come into play again, causing the preservation of the chromosome set, but at a new, polyploid level.

In the process of individual development of a multicellular organism, the formation of cells, tissues and organs for various functional purposes occurs. The correspondence of these structures to their purpose, their interaction in the process of development and functioning of the body are characteristic manifestations of organic expediency.

A wide range of examples of organic feasibility are represented by devices for the reproduction and distribution of living forms. Let's name some of them. For example, bacterial spores are highly resistant to unfavorable environmental conditions. Flowering plants are adapted to cross-pollination, particularly with the help of insects. The fruits and seeds of a number of plants are adapted for dispersal by animals. Sexual instincts and instincts of caring for offspring are characteristic of animals at various levels of organization. The structure of caviar and eggs ensures the development of animals in the appropriate environment. The mammary glands provide adequate nutrition for the offspring of mammals.

Modern concepts of the species. The reality of existence and the biological significance of species.

Answer: A species is one of the main forms of organization of life on Earth and the basic unit of classification of biological diversity. The diversity of modern species is enormous. According to various estimates, about 2-2.5 million species (up to 1.5-2 million animal species and up to 500 thousand plant species) currently live on Earth. The process of describing new species continues continuously. Every year hundreds and thousands of new species of insects and other invertebrate animals and microorganisms are described. The distribution of species among classes, families and genera is very uneven. There are groups with a huge number of species and groups - even of high taxonomic rank - represented by a few species in the modern fauna and flora. For example, an entire subclass of reptiles is represented by only one species - the hatteria.

At the same time, modern species diversity is significantly less than the number of extinct species. Due to human economic activity, a huge number of species become extinct every year. Since the conservation of biodiversity is an indispensable condition for the existence of humanity, this problem is becoming global today. C. Linnaeus laid the foundations of modern taxonomy of living organisms (System of Nature, 1735). K. Linnaeus established that within a species, many essential characteristics change gradually, so that they can be arranged in a continuous series. K. Linnaeus considered species as objectively existing groups of living organisms, quite easily distinguishable from each other.

Biological concept of species. The biological concept was formed in the 30s-60s of the XX century. based on the synthetic theory of evolution and data on the structure of species. It is most fully developed in Mayr's book “Zoological Species and Evolution” (1968). Mayr formulated the biological concept in the form of three points: species are determined not by differences, but by isolation; species do not consist of independent individuals, but of populations; Species are defined based on their relationship to populations of other species. The decisive criterion is not fertility during crossing, but reproductive isolation.” Thus, according to the biological concept A species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other similar populations. This concept is also called polytypic. The positive side of the biological concept is its clear theoretical basis, well developed in the works of Mayr and other proponents of this concept. However, this concept is not applicable to species that reproduce sexually and in paleontology. The morphological concept of the species was formed on the basis of a typological one, more precisely, on the basis of a multidimensional polytypic species. At the same time, it represents a step forward compared to these concepts. According to her, the species is a set of individuals that have hereditary similarity in morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics, freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring, adapted to certain living conditions and occupying a certain area in nature - habitat. Thus, in modern literature, mainly two concepts of the form are discussed and applied: biological and morphological (taxonomic).

The reality of existence and biological significance of species.

For objects of biological science to exist means to have the subject-ontological characteristics of biological reality. Based on this, the problem of the existence of a gene, species, etc. “is resolved in the language of this level by constructing appropriate experimental and “observational” techniques, hypotheses, concepts that assume these entities as elements of their objective reality.” Biological reality was formed taking into account the existence of various levels of “living”, which represents a complex hierarchy of the development of biological objects and their connections.

Biological diversity is the main source of satisfaction for many human needs and serves as the basis for its adaptation to changing environmental conditions. The practical value of biodiversity is that it is an essentially inexhaustible source of biological resources. These are primarily food products, medicines, sources of raw materials for clothing, production of building materials, etc. Biodiversity is of great importance for human recreation.

Biodiversity provides genetic resources for agriculture, constitutes the biological basis for global food security and is a necessary condition for the existence of humanity. A number of wild plants related to crops are of great economic importance at the national and global levels. For example, Ethiopian varieties of Californian barley provide protection against pathogenic viruses, in monetary terms amounting to $160 million. USA per year. Genetic disease resistance achieved using wild wheat varieties is estimated at $50 million in Turkey

1. Maintaining the structural integrity of macromolecules (enzymes of contractile proteins, nucleic acids, etc.) when they function under specific conditions.

2. Sufficient supply of the cell:

a) energy currency - adenosine triphosphate (ATP);

b) reducing equivalents necessary for the occurrence of biosynthesis processes;

c) precursors used in the synthesis of storage substances (glycogen, fats, etc.), nucleic acids and proteins.

3. Maintaining systems that regulate the speed and direction of metabolic processes in accordance with the needs of the body and their changes when environmental conditions change.

Highlight three types of biochemical adaptation mechanisms.

1. Adaptation of macromolecular components of cells or body fluids:

a) the quantities (concentrations) of existing types of macromolecules, such as enzymes, change;

b) new types of macromolecules are formed, for example, new isoenzymes, which replace macromolecules that were previously present in the cell, but have become not entirely suitable for working under changed conditions.

2. Adaptation of the microenvironment in which macromolecules function. The essence of this mechanism is that adaptive changes in the structural and functional properties of macromolecules are achieved by modifying the qualitative and quantitative composition of the environment surrounding these macromolecules (for example, its osmotic concentration or composition of dissolved substances).

3. Adaptation at the functional level. Its essence is to regulate the functional activity of macromolecules previously synthesized by the cell.

Under the adaptation strategy understand the functional-temporal structure of flows of information, energy, substances, ensuring the optimal level of morphofunctional organization of biosystems in inadequate environmental conditions.

You can select three options for the “strategy” of adaptive behavior of the human body.

1. First type (sprinter type strategy): the body has the ability to produce powerful physiological reactions with a high degree of reliability in response to significant but short-term fluctuations in the external environment. However, such a high level of physiological reactions can be maintained for a relatively short period of time. Such organisms are poorly adapted to long-term physiological overloads from external factors, even if they are of average magnitude.

2. Second type (stayer type strategy). The body is less resistant to short-term significant fluctuations in the environment, but has the ability to withstand physiological loads of average strength for a long time.

3. The most optimal type of strategy is intermediate type, which occupies a middle position between these extreme types.

The formation of adaptation strategies is genetically determined, but in the process of individual life, appropriate education and training, their options can be subject to correction. It should be noted that in the same person, different homeostatic systems may have different physiological adaptation strategies.

It has been established that in people with a predominance of the strategy of the first type (the “sprinter” type), the simultaneous combination of work and recovery processes is weakly expressed and these processes require a clearer rhythm (i.e., division in time).

In people with a predominance of type 2 strategy (stayer type), on the contrary, reserve capabilities and the degree of rapid mobilization are not high, but work processes are more easily combined with recovery processes, which provides the possibility of long-term workload.

Thus, in northern latitudes, people with variants of the “sprinter” strategy experience rapid exhaustion and impaired lipid-energy metabolism, which leads to the development of chronic pathological processes. At the same time, in people belonging to the “stayer” strategy variant, adaptive reactions to the specific conditions of high latitudes are the most adequate and allow them to remain in these conditions for a long time without the development of pathological processes.

In order to determine the effectiveness of adaptation processes, certain criteria And methods for diagnosing functional states of the body.

R.M. Baevsky (1981) proposed to take into account five main criteria:

■ 1 - level of functioning of physiological systems;

■ 2 - degree of tension of regulatory mechanisms;

■ 3 - functional reserve;

■ 4 - degree of compensation;

■ 5 - balance of elements of the functional system.

The circulatory system, in particular its three properties, can be considered as an indicator of the functional state of the whole organism, with the help of which the transition from one functional state to another can be assessed.

1. Level of functioning. This should be understood as maintaining certain values ​​of the main indicators of myocardial-hemodynamic homeostasis, such as stroke and minute volume, pulse rate and blood pressure.

2. Functional reserve. To assess it, functional stress tests, such as orthostatic or exercise testing, are usually used.

3. The degree of tension of regulatory mechanisms, which is determined by indicators of autonomic homeostasis, for example, the degree of activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and the level of excitation of the vasomotor center.

Classification of functional states during the development of adaptation diseases(Baevsky R.M., 1980).

1. State of satisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions. This state is characterized by sufficient functional capabilities of the body; homeostasis is maintained with minimal stress on the body's regulatory systems. Functional reserve is not reduced.

2. State of tension of adaptation mechanisms. The functional capabilities of the body are not reduced. Homeostasis is maintained due to a certain tension of regulatory systems. Functional reserve is not reduced.

3. State of unsatisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions. The functionality of the body is reduced. Homeostasis is maintained due to significant tension in regulatory systems or due to the inclusion of compensatory mechanisms. Functional reserve is reduced.

4. Failure (breakdown) of adaptation mechanisms. A sharp decrease in the functional capabilities of the body. Homeostasis is disrupted. Functional reserve is sharply reduced.

Disadaptation and development of pathological conditions occurs in stages.

The initial stage of the border zone between health and pathology is a state of functional tension of adaptation mechanisms. The state of tension of adaptation mechanisms, not detected during a traditional clinical examination, should be classified as pre-zonological, i.e. preceding the development of the disease.

The later stage of the border zone is a state of unsatisfactory adaptation. It is characterized by a decrease in the level of functioning of the biosystem, mismatch of its individual elements, and the development of fatigue and overwork. The state of unsatisfactory adaptation is an active adaptive process. The state of unsatisfied adaptation can be classified as premorbid, since a significant decrease in the functional reserve allows, when using functional tests, to identify an inadequate response of the body, indicating a hidden or initial pathology.

From a clinical point of view, only failure of adaptation refers to pathological conditions, because it is accompanied by noticeable changes in traditionally measured indicators, such as heart rate, stroke and minute volume, blood pressure, etc.

In their manifestations, adaptation diseases are polymorphic in nature, covering various systems of the body. The most common adaptation diseases occur during long-term stay of people in unfavorable conditions (mountain sickness, etc.). Therefore, to prevent adaptation diseases, methods are used to increase the effectiveness of adaptation.

Methods for increasing the effectiveness of adaptation may be specific or nonspecific.

TO non-specific methods include: active rest, hardening, moderate physical activity, adaptogens and therapeutic dosages of various resort factors that can increase nonspecific resistance and normalize the activity of the main body systems.

Adaptogens- these are means that carry out pharmacological regulation of adaptive processes in the body. Based on their origin, adaptogens can be divided into two groups: natural and synthetic. Sources of natural adaptogens are terrestrial and aquatic plants, animals and microorganisms. The most important adaptogens of plant origin include ginseng, eleutherococcus, Schisandra chinensis, Aralia Manchurian, zamanikha, rose hips, etc. Preparations of animal origin include: pantocrine, obtained from deer antlers; rantarin - from reindeer antlers, apilak - from royal jelly.

Substances isolated from various microorganisms and yeasts (prodigiogan, zymosan, etc.) are widely used. Vitamins have high adaptogenic activity. Many effective synthetic compounds are derived from natural products (petroleum, coal, etc.).

Specific methods increasing the effectiveness of adaptation are based on increasing the body’s resistance to any specific environmental factor - cold, hypoxia, etc. These include medications, physiotherapeutic procedures, special training, etc. (Mountain E.P., 1999).

Definition of Stress

Stress (English stress - tension) is a nonspecific reaction of tension of a living organism in response to any strong impact. This is a state of critical load, which manifests itself in the form of a specific syndrome consisting of nonspecific changes within a biological object.

The concept of stress and adaptation syndrome was developed by the Canadian scientist Hans Selye in 1936 for humans. The mechanism of development of the general adaptation syndrome and stress reaction according to G. Selye is presented in Figure 2.

Rice. 2. Three phases of the general adaptation syndrome (A) and the main ways of forming the stress reaction (B) (according to G. Selye)

In response to any stress factor that disrupts homeostasis, two types of responses develop:

1) specialized reactions on the part of the body, specifically reacting to this stimulus, depending on its nature, inherent only in this system;

2) in the form of a complex of nonspecific changes, such as stress reactions or the general effort of the body to adapt to changed conditions, with the help of the stress-realizing adrenergic and pituitary-adrenal system.

General adaptation syndrome â

This is a complex process of structural and functional restructuring, aimed at reprogramming the adaptive capabilities of the body in order to solve new problems put forward by the environment;

üa process that contributes to the formation of a new structural and functional organization of the body and a more perfect state of homeostasis corresponding to given conditions;

is a process that ultimately leads to changes in phenotype.

Pathological processes developing during general adaptation syndrome

Catabolic effect stress syndrome is aimed at erasing old structural traces that have lost their biological significance.

Desynchronosis– a universal reaction, an integral part of the general adaptation syndrome, the process of destroying the old biorhythmological stereotype, changing previous biological rhythms to form a new rhythmological stereotype.

Classification of stress factors:

Almost any environmental factor can become extreme.

There are: positive and negative stress (distress).

The most severe form of distress is shock.

Stress factors are classified:

II. By influence on the state of the body: – (on metabolism, membrane permeability, biorhythms, etc.);

III. By time influence: influence periodically (seasonality, etc.); episodic (fires, floods, etc.).

IV. By the nature of the intervention: having a direct effect - overheating, hypothermia, etc.); having an indirect effect - photoperiodism, biorhythms, etc.

The levels of manifestations of stress reactions are distinguished:

The I level of stress manifestation is characterized by damage that is not perceived by the naked eye, as well as damage that is detected only when compared with the control. Level I reactions are accompanied by an increase or decrease in enzyme activity, changes in metabolism and the functioning of biomembranes, the amount and state of pigments, hormones, changes in energy balance.

Level II manifestations are characterized by changes in size and shape, growth pattern, necrosis, premature aging, shortening the duration of reproductive age, changes in fertility. Level II manifestations of stress correspond to behavioral reactions: spatial or temporal avoidance, use of constitutional features of the body, which is manifested by changes in body configuration and protective skin color in the form of melanism. This also includes various variants of biorhythmic reactions.

Anthropogenic stress can be distinguished:

Ø on the one hand, these are new environmental parameters caused by human activity (the appearance of xenobiotics);

On the other hand, there is anthropogenic modification of existing natural factors (artificial radioactivity).

Acute and chronic stress, elastic and plastic stress loads

Stress is classified according to the nature of its initial manifestations, speed of development and duration.

Acute stress is characterized by: sudden onset, acute (rapid) development,

short duration.

Chronic stress in which an unfavorable factor of low intensity affects for a long time or is often repeated, has:

imperceptible onset, gradual development, long course.

Acute stress is an elastic load that causes reversible changes, while chronic stress is a plastic load that leads to irreversible changes.

Stress Resilience Options

All the diversity of resistance to stress loads is carried out on the basis of 2 options for increasing resistance:

ªstress avoidance: behavior changes, biorhythms, special life cycles;

ªstress tolerance.

Tolerance can be congenital or acquired. Due to the higher innate tolerance of individuals, mechanisms of resistance to stress are formed, which are fixed in the form of inherited traits. Acquired tolerance is the result of adaptation to stress.

Stress is conventionally divided into non-psychogenic and psychogenic (psycho-emotional) (Isaev L.K., Khitrov N.K., 1997).

Non-psychogenic stress is formed under the influence of various physical, including mechanical, chemical and biological factors or a lack of compounds necessary for life (O 2, H 2 O, etc.), if the degree of this deficiency is life-threatening.

Psycho-emotional stress occurs under the influence of negative social factors, the importance of which in the life of a modern person is constantly increasing.

Prolonged psycho-emotional stress leads to a decrease in the functionality of the central nervous system and is clinically manifested by the development of various forms of neuroses - neurasthenia, obsessive-compulsive neurosis, hysteria. Today, psycho-emotional stress is considered as the most important risk factor for the occurrence of hypertension and hypotension, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, gastric and duodenal ulcers, neurogenic skin diseases, endocrine diseases and many others (Topolyansky V.D., Strukovskaya M.V., 1986 ).

The development of stress and its outcomes largely depend on the properties of the body, its nervous system (including the autonomic one), endocrine organs, especially the pituitary gland and adrenal glands, the state of the immune system, blood circulation, etc. The degree of training is important in the development of stress, i.e. long-term adaptation, formed under repeated exposure to a specific stressor in an optimal mode. For example, residents of high mountains are highly resistant to oxygen starvation (hypoxic stress), athletes are highly resistant to physical stress, etc. Age, gender and constitution of the body are important in the formation of resistance to stressors. In particular, newborns easily tolerate hypoxia; women are more resistant to blood loss than men.

In the usual development of stress, three stages are observed:

1) alarm reaction (alarmreaction); mobilization of the body's defenses, activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and sympathoadrenal systems, which results in increased release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary gland, stimulation of the steroid function of the adrenal glands and accumulation in the human blood, primarily of the glucocorticoid hormone cortisone, the secretion of mineralocorticoids is inhibited, an increase is observed release of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla and the neurotransmitter norepinephrine from sympathetic nerve endings. There is an increase in the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles (stimulation of glycogenolysis), mobilization of lipids and proteins (stimulation of gluconeogenesis), the level of glucose, amino acids and lipids in the blood increases, β-cells of the insular apparatus are activated with a subsequent increase in insulin levels in the blood. There is a decrease in the activity of the thyroid and gonads, lymphopenia, an increase in the number of leukocytes and eosinophils, a decrease in the thymic-lymphatic apparatus, suppression of anabolic processes, mainly a decrease in the synthesis of RNA and protein. Usually the circulatory function increases, blood is redistributed in favor of the brain, heart and working skeletal muscles, external respiration is activated.

It is very important that in organs and systems that are not involved in adaptation, for example, during prolonged hypoxic or physical stress, catabolism increases, and atrophic and ulcerative processes can develop; the function of such organs and systems decreases (digestive, immune, reproductive), increased catalytic processes in tissues can lead to a decrease in body weight. This redistribution of functional and plastic activity at the first stage of stress helps to save the body's energy costs, but can become one of the mechanisms of the pathogenic effect of stress . During the anxiety stage, the body's nonspecific resistance increases, and it becomes more resistant to various influences.

2) stage of resistance (stageofresistance); in the case of successful emergency adaptation, despite the ongoing effect of the stress agent, neuroendocrine abnormalities disappear, metabolism and the activity of physiological systems are normalized. Thus, the body enters the second stage of stress, or adaptation, which is characterized by increased resistance to extreme factors.

In the endocrine glands, the supply of adaptive hormones (ACTH, glucocorticoids) is normalized, and in the tissues the level of glycogen and lipids, reduced in the first stage of stress, is restored; There is a decrease in insulin in the blood, which enhances the metabolic effects of corticosteroids. Activation of synthetic processes in tissues is observed, followed by restoration of normal weight of the body and its individual organs. With the transition to the stage of resistance, nonspecific resistance decreases, but the body's resistance to the factor that caused the stress increases.

3) stage of exhaustion (stageofexhausion). In case of excessively intense or prolonged action of the stress factor, as well as insufficiency of regulatory executive systems, the third stage of stress is formed - exhaustion. This stage is dominated mainly by the phenomena of damage and decay.

The pituitary-adrenal and sympathoadrenal systems are inhibited, and the level of corresponding hormones in the endocrine glands falls, the amount of catecholamines in the adrenal medulla, in tissues and blood decreases. In this case, catabolic processes begin to predominate in the body, the mass of organs decreases, and atrophic and degenerative changes develop in them. Specific and nonspecific resistance of the body decreases.

Quite often at this stage, disorders of the central circulation (arrhythmias, arterial hypotension) and microcirculation (stasis, microthrombosis and hemorrhages) develop (Isaev L.K., Khitrov N.K., 1997).

In recent years, it has been established that not only stress-related, but also anti-stress neuroendocrine mechanisms take part in the formation of stress. Moreover, the severity of stress and its consequences sometimes depend not only on the state of the pituitary-adrenal and sympathoadrenal systems, but also on the ability of anti-stress mechanisms to ensure the adequacy of the response of physiological adaptation systems. If anti-stress mechanisms are insufficient, stress can become so intense that damage to organs and systems develops in the body.

Anti-stress mechanisms are presented at different levels of regulation. In the central nervous system, these are GABAergic and serotonergic neurons that weaken sympathetic influences and reduce the release of corticoliberin. In peripheral organs, a decrease in the release of norepinephrine and a decrease in the effectiveness of its action on adrenergic receptors is caused by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, certain classes of prostaglandins, adenosines and other compounds.

The meaning of stress is not unambiguous: depending on specific conditions, it can have both positive and negative biological significance for the body. Stress was formed in evolution as a general biological adaptive reaction of living beings to dangerous and harmful factors. In addition, stress is the first stage in the development of long-term adaptation of the body if the stressor acts for a long time in a training mode (Meyerson F.Z., 1988). Long-term, especially periodic, action of various hypoxic factors (O2 deficiency, blood loss, cyanide), hypoglycemia, physical stress, hypothermia, etc. causes a training effect. As a result, the emergency is replaced by long-term adaptation of the body. At the same time, stress can become a factor in the development of pathological conditions in the body.

Features of non-psychogenic stress.

Dangerous and harmful environmental factors can cause the development of stress. Among physical influences, the most common stressors are sharp fluctuations in barometric pressure that go beyond the physiological capabilities of the body, temperature fluctuations, magnetic anomalies, mechanical trauma, exposure to dust, electrical trauma, ionizing radiation, etc. (Isaev L.K., Khitrov N.K., 1997). Chemical influences that disrupt tissue metabolism and cause hypoxia, for example, O 2 deficiency, exposure to CO (carbon monoxide), nitro compounds, etc. are extremely dangerous stress factors.

Under the influence of non-psychogenic extreme factors, the emergence of various forms of pathology is possible at all stages of the formation of a stress state.

Firstly, the reaction of anxiety and tension may not develop at all if the intensity of the harmful factor is so great that it exceeds the capabilities of the body's adaptation systems. Thus, under the influence of high O 2 deficiency, toxic concentrations of CO 2, and glucose deficiency in the blood, almost immediately without the first two phases of stress, an exhaustion phase occurs in the form of hypoxic and hypoglycemic coma, respectively. A similar situation occurs with severe irradiation - radiation coma, overheating - heat stroke, etc. Similar conditions arise if the intensity of the stressor is low, but there is a deficiency of regulatory systems, for example, insufficiency of the adrenal cortex or decreased activity of the sympathoadrenal system.

Secondly, a weakened or excessive tension reaction and, accordingly, weak or inadequately strong activation of the pituitary-adrenal and sympathoadrenal systems are possible. With insufficient activity of neuroendocrine stress mechanisms, as in the first case, rapid exhaustion and the development of extreme states are formed - usually collapse or coma. With excessive activity of the above mechanisms, due to an excess of catecholamines, myocardial necrosis, myocardial dystrophy, hypertensive states, ischemic kidney damage can develop, and as a result of an excess of corticosteroids, ulcerative lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, immune deficiency with a tendency to infections and a number of other disorders (Vasilenko V. H. et al., 1989).

Thirdly, under the influence of extremely intense pathogenic environmental factors, after an alarm reaction manifested by general arousal, the resistance phase does not develop, but immediately depletion of regulatory systems and depression of physiological functions occurs. This sequence is characteristic of shock conditions in which excessive afferentation, for example pain (traumatic, burn shock), plays a leading role in the inhibition of the function of the central nervous system of the autonomic department and endocrine system.

Fourthly, situations are possible when, under the influence of a stress factor, the adrenal cortex intensively releases not glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone), but mineralocorticoids (aldosterone, deoxycorticosterone). This is probably due to a violation of the biosynthesis of corticosteroids in the adrenal cortex. In this case, with repeated stress exposure, there is a high tendency to develop inflammatory and allergic diseases, hypertension, sclerotic processes in the kidneys, up to renal failure.

Types of adaptation of biological systems to stress

Changes under stress over time unfold in the form of 5 successive stages:

Stage 1 – state of stable homeostasis;

Stage 2 – initial state after stress;

Stage 3 – excessive reaction;

Stage 4 – stabilized state;

Stage 5 – a state of new stable homeostasis.

Characteristics of biosystems at the 1st stage of stress

At the first stage, biosystems at all levels of the organization are in a state of dynamic equilibrium - this is a healthy, viable organism.

Characteristics of biosystems at the 2nd stage of stress

At the second stage, called the “initial state,” immediately after exposure to acute or chronic stress, pronounced changes in composition, structure and function are most often recorded. Sometimes the structural and functional organization can remain without external changes, but the homeostasis of the body is always disturbed

Changes in biosystems at the 3rd stage of stress

At the organismal level an excessive reaction manifests itself in the form of activation of inadequate, compensatory-adaptive reactions (proliferation, hyperreactions).

Changes in biosystems corresponding to stages 4 and 5

The fourth stage is the stage of a stabilized state.

At the organismal level adequate adaptive adaptive reactions are formed from predominantly specific systems (cardiovascular, respiratory, excretory).

The fifth stage is characterized by the formation of a new state of dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis).

In cases where the acting factor is excessively strong or complex, the required adaptive reaction turns out to be impracticable. For example, elevated temperature combined with high relative humidity disrupts thermoregulation to a greater extent. As a result, the initial disturbances of homeostasis remain, and the stress syndrome stimulated by them reaches excessive intensity and duration, turning into an instrument of damage and the cause of numerous stress-related diseases.

Biological rhythms

In any phenomenon of the nature surrounding us, there is a strict repeatability of processes: it is a universal property of living matter. Our whole life is a constant change of rest and active activity, sleep and wakefulness, fatigue from hard work and rest.

Biological rhythms(biorhythms) - regular, periodic repetition in time of the nature and intensity of life processes, individual states or events.

Biological rhythms are a fundamental property of the organic world, ensuring its ability to adapt and survive in cyclically changing environmental conditions. This is accomplished due to the rhythmic alternation of the processes of anabolism and catabolism (Oransky I.E., 1988).

The study of the biorhythms of living systems, their connection with the rhythms existing in nature, is a relatively recent science - chronobiology(biorhythmology), an integral part of which is chronomedicine.

The main parameters of rhythm are period, MEZOR, amplitude, acrophase.

Rice. 2.1.1. Schematic representation of the rhythm and its indicators:

T- time. The reciprocal of the period, in units of cycles per unit of time, is the rhythm frequency. M(MEZOR) - the average level of the indicator during one biological cycle. A(amplitude) - distance from MEZOR to the maximum of the indicator. Acrophase is the moment in time corresponding to the registration of the maximum signal value and the time of the greatest decline in the process - as bathyphase..The number of cycles completed per unit time is called frequency... In addition to these indicators, each biological rhythm is characterized curve shape, which is analyzed by graphically depicting the dynamics of rhythmically changing phenomena ( chronogram, phase map and etc.). The simplest curve describing biorhythms is a sine wave. However, as the results of mathematical analysis show, the structure of the biorhythm is, as a rule, more complex.

According to the degree of dependence on external conditions, biorhythms are divided into exogenous and endogenous.

Exogenous(external) rhythms depend on the rhythm of geographical and cosmic factors (photoperiodism, ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, rhythm of cosmic radiation, gravity, etc.).

Endogenous active rhythms are established under the influence of constantly operating external conditions, the biological effect of which does not go beyond the boundaries of the adaptive-compensatory reserves of the human body. autonomous (syn. spontaneous, self-sustaining, self-exciting) oscillations caused by active processes in the living system itself (the majority of biological systems include these: many microrhythms and all ecological rhythms).

Always present in biorhythm two components- exogenous and endogenous. The endogenous rhythm is directly determined by the genetic program of the body, which is implemented through the nervous and humoral mechanisms.

Biorhythms have internal and external regulation. Internal regulation of biorhythms determined by the functioning of the so-called biological clock.

According to modern ideas, the body operates biological clock of three levels(Bilibin D.P., Frolov V.A., 2007).

First level related to activities epiphysis: rhythms are in strict hierarchical subordination to the main pacemaker, located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus (SCN). The hormone that conveys information about the rhythms generated by the SCN to organs and tissues is melatonin(according to the chemical structure - indole), predominantly produced by the pineal gland from tryptophan. Melatonin is also produced by the retina, the ciliary body of the eye, and the gastrointestinal tract. Activation of the regulatory activity of the pineal gland in relation to biorhythms is “triggered” by the change of day and night (the input “receptor” is also the eyes, although not only them).

The rhythm of melatonin production by the pineal gland is circadian in nature and is determined by the SCN, impulses from which regulate the activity of noradrenergic neurons of the superior cervical ganglia, whose processes reach pinealocytes. Melatonin is a messenger not only of the main endogenous rhythm generated by the SCN and synchronizing all other biological rhythms of the body, but also a corrector of this endogenous rhythm relative to the rhythms of the environment. Consequently, any changes in its production that go beyond normal physiological fluctuations can lead to a mismatch between the biological rhythms of the body and each other. (internal desynchronosis), and the rhythms of the body with the rhythms of the environment (external desynchronosis).

Second level biological clock is associated with supraoptic part of the hypothalamus, which, with the help of the so-called subcommissural body has connections with the pineal gland. Through this connection (and perhaps through a humoral route), the hypothalamus receives “commands” from the pineal gland and further regulates biorhythms. The experiment showed that destruction of the supraoptic part of the hypothalamus leads to disruption of biorhythms.

Third level biological clock lies at the level cellular and subcellular membranes. Apparently, some parts of the membranes have a chronoregulatory effect. This is indirectly evidenced by facts about the influence of electric and magnetic fields on membranes, and through them on biorhythms.

Thus, the hypothalamic-pituitary system plays a coordinating role in synchronizing the rhythms of all cells of a multicellular organism (Bilibin D.P., Frolov V.A., 2007).

External regulation of biorhythms is associated with the rotation of the Earth around its axis, its movement along the solar orbit, with solar activity, changes in the Earth’s magnetic field and a number of other geophysical and cosmic factors, and among the exogenous factors that perform the function of “time sensors”, the most significant are light, temperature and periodically repeated social factors (work, rest, nutrition). Atmospheric pressure and geomagnetic field play a lesser role as time sensors. Thus, in humans there are two groups of external synchronizers - geophysical and social (Bilibin D.P., Frolov V.A., 2007).

Throughout their lives, organisms adapt to continuously changing factors of the external and internal environment. At the same time, the indispensable and only condition for the life of living organisms is the constancy of the internal environment, i.e. homeostasis. The relative dynamic constancy of the body's environment and the functioning of all organs and systems necessary for the preservation of life are supported by adaptive reactions of the body.

Adaptation is a system of internal and mutual adaptation of the body and higher biological, environmental and other systems to each other with the determining role of the latter.

The following levels of adaptation are distinguished:

subcellular (increased synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, activation of the mitochondrial apparatus of the cell, as the energy station of the cell).

cellular

tissue

separate body

separate organ system

whole organism

group

population

biocenotic

ecosphere.

The concept of adaptation should not be considered as applicable only to an individual organism; adaptation is the process of maintaining the entire ecosphere in a relatively stable state, i.e. its homeostasis and individual organisms are only links in this mechanism.

From a physiological and pathophysiological point of view, the concepts of “adaptation”, “norm” and “pathology” should be given only in order to substantiate the view that normological and pathological processes are different qualitative manifestations of the same process - adaptation or adaptation. At the same time, pathology is not always an adaptive anomaly, nor is it an adaptive norm.

Based on this, all diseases are the result of errors in adaptive reactions to external stimuli; from this point of view, most diseases (nervous disorders, hypertension, gastrointestinal tract and peptic ulcer, some types of rheumatic, allergic, cardiovascular diseases and kidney diseases) are diseases of adaptation, those. pathological processes and diseases are just features of adaptive reactions.

One of the ways to maintain homeostasis is response - the development of general adaptive reactions. The development of these reactions is subject to the quantitative-qualitative principle: the body responds to different amounts of stimulus with qualitatively different reactions. At the same time, the quantity (measure) is common in the action of stimuli of various quality and serves as the basis for the formation of several standard responses of the body. The quality of the stimulus is superimposed on this standard response as a basis.

In this case, it is necessary to distinguish between the measure and norm of adaptation. There is an individual, strictly determined, unique norm and a population (species) norm, which is basically statistical and probabilistic (reference values). In medical diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases, both norms must be taken into account. Each specific norm is strictly individual and almost every person is in one way or another a deviation from the norm.

According to the theory of adaptive reactions, depending on the strength (measure) of the impact, 3 types of adaptive reactions can develop in the body:

response to weak impacts - training response

reaction to influences of medium strength - activation reaction

reaction to strong, extreme impacts - stress reaction according to G. Selye.

The training reaction has 3 stages: the orientation stage, the restructuring stage, and the training stage. In the central nervous system, protective inhibition predominates. In the endocrine system, the activity of gluco- and mineralocorticoid hormones first moderately increases, and then the secretion of uric acid gradually increases and the secretion of glucocorticosteroids normalizes against the background of moderately increased functional activity of the thyroid and gonads.

The activation reaction has 2 stages: the stage of primary activation and the stage of persistent activation. Moderate, physiological arousal predominates in the central nervous system. In the endocrine system, there is an increase in the secretion of UA with normal secretion of GC and an increase in the functional activity of the thyroid and gonads. The increase in the activity of the endocrine glands is more pronounced than during the training response, but does not have the nature of pathological hyperfunction. In both stages of the activation reaction, active resistance to damaging agents of various nature increases.

The activation reaction is divided into calm activation (SA) and increased activation (PA). PA is caused by stimuli that are somewhat larger in absolute value than SA. With PA, large changes in blood pressure, blood glucose levels and energy metabolism are observed.

Training reactions and adaptation reactions are those adaptive reactions that occur during the normal life of an organism.

The stress response develops in response to extremely strong stimuli. Stress is a nonspecific basis of pathological processes - a disease syndrome in general, which contributes to the understanding of the commonality during various pathological processes, which helps not only to reveal pathogenesis, but also to justify therapy for a number of diseases. It is currently believed that about 10,000 diseases and more than 100 thousand disease symptoms develop based on stress.

Selye's stress theory. The body's reaction does not depend on the quality of the stimulus, but depends only on the strength of the stimulus. In the first stage of stress - the anxiety reaction, which lasts 24-48 hours, A is released into the blood by the adrenal glands, stimulating the secretion of ACTH from the pituitary gland, leading to an increase in the secretion of GC from the adrenal cortex. The secretion of uric acid is inhibited.

After the alarm reaction comes the stage of resistance. At this stage, resistance to external stimuli is increased.

If the effect of the stressor is repeated or it is very strong, then the stage of resistance passes into the stage of exhaustion. The nature of the changes is close to what is observed during an anxiety reaction: GCs predominate over MK, the activity of the thyroid and gonads, and the immune system is reduced.

What is the biological meaning of the first stage - the anxiety reaction?

When encountering a strong stimulus, the main task is to obtain energy in a short time at any cost in order to provide the necessary conditions for “fight” or “flight.” A rapid release of energy is mobilized by A and HA even in a disadvantageous way due to the breakdown of fats, carbohydrates and proteins (primarily lymphoid tissue). GCs in large quantities inhibit the thymus, lymph glands, immune reactions, and also participate in inflammatory reactions, i.e. suppress the activity of the body's defense systems. MKs that have the opposite effect on inflammation. processes, on the contrary, are suppressed. These changes are biologically appropriate, because a protective response adequate to the high strength of the stimulus (for example, an inflammatory reaction) could lead the body to death. If immunosuppression had not developed, then under stress in conditions of tissue damage in the post-stress period, autoimmune diseases could have arisen. Therefore, at first the body has to weaken, rather than strengthen, its response: in response to the action of a strong stimulus, the activity of the main defense systems does not increase, but decreases.

All these adaptive changes that occur in the first stage of stress can cause serious consequences in the body, especially under conditions of hypokinesia and physical inactivity, when the changes inherent in stress are not reflected in muscle work. The alarm reaction is an example of a case in the body where protection is achieved at the cost of damage.

But how can we imagine why, following an alarm reaction, i.e. against the background of suppression of the body’s defenses, the stage of resistance is formed without any additional influences, i.e. Is there normalization or even increased stability? It is known that in the central nervous system, under the influence of strong stimuli, sharp excitation develops, which is then replaced by extreme inhibition - “an extreme measure of protection” according to I.P. Pavlova. With extreme braking, the sensitivity of the central nervous apparatus decreases, due to which other strong influences falling on the body are no longer perceived as strong, and thereby the body’s stability increases. That. the transition from the anxiety stage to the resistance stage is associated with extreme inhibition in the central nervous system.

The exhaustion stage, even more than the anxiety stage, is an example of a state where preservation of life is achieved at the cost of damage. In the most severe cases, this stage can lead to death.

All reactions of the body have something in common in the response to stimuli of different quality, forming the basis for a standard adaptive response. Quality cannot be such a basis, since each stimulus has its own quality. The general thing that characterizes the action of a wide variety of stimuli is the quantity, defined in relation to living things as the degree of biological activity. Quantity, measure is the basis for the generality of the body’s reaction to the action of stimuli of different quality, the basis for the development in the process of evolution of biologically appropriate complex, standard responses of the body.

The mechanisms of nonspecific adaptive reactions are based on general principles.

These complex reactions are characterized primarily by automaticity. The most important role in adaptation belongs to the central nervous system, the main regulatory system of the body. The cortex of the brain with a system of analyzers receives information from the external world, the subcortical formations of the brain - from the internal environment. Automatic regulation of the constancy of the internal environment is carried out mainly by the hypothalamic region of the brain, which is the center of integration of the autonomic part of the nervous system and the endocrine system - the main executive links that implement the influence of the central nervous system on the internal environment of the body. The hypothalamus combines nervous and humoral pathways of automatic regulation. All body systems take part in the implementation of adaptive functions, with the GM being the highest coordinating center of adaptation processes.

Under the influence of weak, threshold (for general reactions) stimuli, a training reaction develops. In the central nervous system, protective inhibition predominates. The biological expediency of this is to reduce excitability and reactivity in relation to a weak stimulus, to which it is most advisable not to respond.

When exposed to stimuli of moderate strength, an “activation reaction” develops. Moderate excitation predominates in the GM. Apparently, irritation of medium strength is optimal for stimulating the body's protective activity. It is most advisable to respond to such irritation through the primary activation of the body's defense systems.

Under the influence of strong, extreme stimuli (stress reaction), a sharp excitation develops in the central nervous system, followed by extreme inhibition - an extreme measure of protection. The biological expediency of this is to reduce excitability and reactivity, since a response adequate to excessive force could destroy the body. Then, due to a decrease in reactivity, strong influences are no longer perceived as strong, and a stage of resistance develops. A decrease in excitability with the development of extreme inhibition leads to the fact that strong stimuli (in the case of repetition of the stressor) are no longer strong for the body and cause the development not of stress, but of an activation reaction or even training. If the effect of the stressor is not repeated and the body is exposed to the usual stimuli of physiological parameters, the training reaction develops more often, but activation reactions can also develop. If the effect of the stressor is systematically repeated or the one-time stressor was extremely strong, the stage of resistance passes into the stage of exhaustion, which can lead to death.

Thus, in fact, the nervous system organizes the pathological process. All adaptive reactions are formed in the central nervous system, in particular in the hypothalamus. Stress reactions are also formed in the central nervous system, which is the nonspecific basis of the pathological process.

Training and activation reactions are also formed there, which are the nonspecific basis of the norm and increase the nonspecific resistance of the body, i.e. in other words, the NS also organizes protection against pathological processes.