What constitutes the content of human thinking. Thinking. I. concept of thinking

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Types of thinking.

The simplest form is visual-effective thinking, directly included in practical action. This type of thinking is determined by reliance on existing experience, lack of analysis of the situation and abstraction, and in these cases is called practical thinking.

Imaginative thinking characterized by the fact that when solving certain problems, a person operates mainly with images of objects and phenomena contained in memory that were included in his activity in the past.

Abstract logical thinking reflects factors, patterns and cause-and-effect relationships that are not amenable to sensory knowledge. It makes it possible to cognize (reflect) individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena without their connection with other features of the same objects and phenomena. Very complex in its own way psychological structure thinking with probabilities, based not on directly perceived objects and phenomena, but on taking into account the degrees of probability (possibility) of expected events.

Some a special form of thinking - understanding, in which all the necessary connections, relationships and generalizations are not rediscovered by a person independently, but are already given in a certain situation of concepts and judgments that reflect these connections.

Understanding what has been discussed allows us to gain a deeper understanding of the properties of human thinking. But, besides this, there is also a number of its properties that more generally define thinking and are called qualities of the mind. These include: criticality, depth, flexibility, breadth, speed, creative mind.

All types of mental actions, forms of thinking, properties and qualities of the human mind are manifested to one degree or another in the process industrial training. The more often and more fully they manifest themselves, the more successfully a person’s mental abilities develop, becoming traits of his personality. And high development and a combination of persistent positive thinking properties determine the overall ability to achieve the objective correctness of a decision - the productivity of the mind.

MEMORY

Memory is the ability to imprint, store and subsequently reproduce what we previously perceived, experienced or did. Development of genetics and molecular biology, the discovery of the mechanisms of storage of genetic information, prompted scientists to explain the mechanisms of memory. In particular, it is assumed that the mechanisms of one type of memory have a molecular basis.

Psychologists who were the first to experimentally study memory distinguish four types:

1) motor associated with memorizing and reproducing movements;

2) verbal-logical associated with memorizing, recognizing and reproducing thoughts, concepts, conclusions, etc.; this type of memory is directly related to learning;

3) emotional memory, responsible for remembering and reproducing sensory perceptions together with the objects that cause them;

4) figurative, the scope of which is memorizing sensory images of objects, phenomena and their properties (depending on the type of analyzer that perceives information). Figurative memory is divided into visual, auditory, tactile, etc.

The main memory process should be considered memorization, since it is this that ensures the completeness and accuracy of subsequent reproduction, as well as the duration and durability of information storage. This process can be voluntary or involuntary.

Voluntary memorization is associated with a preliminary determination to remember something specific and, as a rule, with the use of special techniques and methods that make it easier to achieve the goal. This type of memorization is generally more productive than involuntary, but requires more favorable conditions.

Despite the fact that a person’s memory is quite individual, depending on the strength of memorization, accuracy and completeness of reproduction and the nature of the memorized material, we can distinguish verbal-figurative(art), verbal-logical(abstract)and intermediate types of memory.

Within individual memory, two more forms are distinguished: short-term(operational) and long-term. Working memory retains information about the stimulus for about half an hour, after which the information moves into long-term memory or is forgotten. There is reason to believe that RAM is based on the circulation of excitation from one nerve cell to another. It has already been proven that this type of memory is associated with the activity of a special structure of the brain - the hippocampus. When the hippocampus is removed, memory ceases to function and the patient becomes unable to remember anything new. The question of how RAM goes into long-term memory has not yet been resolved. On the model conditioned reflexes It has been shown that during the process of memorization, the appearance and function of synapses that transmit excitation from neuron to neuron change. Changes a lot and chemical composition nerve cells. Experiments have shown that RNA plays a very important role in the process of memorization. It is known that RNA transfers hereditary genetic information from the cell nucleus to the cytoplasm, where the synthesis of a particular protein occurs. Nerve impulses entering nerve cells stimulate the production of RNA, which, in turn, predetermines the synthesis of a new protein, highly sensitive to the familiar impulses that determined its formation. Therefore, familiar impulses excite the cell more easily, and thus the event is recorded in the brain. Over time, if such impulses are not received, the protein gradually disintegrates and traces of stored information are erased. Individual memory is influenced by many factors, and the ability to remember (and forget) depends on heredity, the degree of training, the level of influence of the emotional state, diet, work and rest.

Also distinguished species or genetic memory that determines the transmission of hereditary characteristics from generation to generation. This type of memory determines the so-called reaction norm of a living organism or, in other words, the upper and lower limits of the capabilities of an organism of a given species.

EMOTIONS

From each perceived irritation, two streams of impulses arrive in the cerebral cortex. One goes straight to the cortical part of the corresponding analyzer, where it turns out that we feel and perceive; the second, passing through the reticular formation, clarifies the meaning of this irritation for the body. This assessment underlies various emotional experiences. Just like all levels mental activity, emotions according to the mechanisms of their occurrence are reflexive. Even I.M. Sechenov, analyzing the reflexes of the brain, characterized thinking, will and emotions as reflexes of particular complexity. Thinking and will, according to his view, are reflexes with the end delayed in the last third, emotions are reflexes with the end strengthened in the last third.

Emotions, depending on the character, either cause violent movements or, on the contrary, suppress them. In both cases, they strengthen the final third of the reflex.

Analysis of facial and pantomimic reactions that accompany different emotions has shown that each emotion is characterized by specific movements of the facial muscles, a special expression of the eyes, a certain posture and characteristic movements of the limbs.

Emotional experiences of a more or less long-term nature include emotional states. TO emotional states include mood, frustration and stress. If conflict situations occur frequently and a person constantly feels disadvantaged in some way, a state of frustration arises. It can manifest itself either in constant aggressiveness - the desire to cause pain, or in depression - complete detachment from everything.

The main cause of frustration is poor endurance in the fight against life's difficulties.

Since ancient times, the human mind has been occupied by questions: what is sleep, what causes it, and why do all people and animals experience an irresistible need for it?

The most complete and correct explanation of sleep is given by the theory of Academician I.P. Pavlov. It is based on the doctrine of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.

Thinking- This highest form cognitive activity of a person, a socially conditioned mental process of indirect and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching and discovering something essentially new.

To put it briefly, we can say that thinking- this is a mental cognitive process of reflecting significant connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of the objective world.

Based on thinking, a person, cognizing the world, can connect together individual events and phenomena with logical connections. At the same time, he generalizes the results of sensory experience and reflects the general properties of things. On this generalized basis, a person solves specific cognitive problems. For example, we know you can’t smoke at a gas station, and we don’t even try to do it. Our consciousness has built a logical connection between the explosiveness of gasoline and smoking and made a forecast of what could happen in case of violation of safety regulations.

Thinking provides answers to questions that cannot be resolved through direct, sensory reflection. Thanks to thinking, a person correctly navigates the world around him, using previously obtained generalizations in a new, specific environment.

The main features of the thinking process are:

1. Generalized and indirect reflection of reality.
2. Connection with practical activities.
3. Inextricable connection with speech.
4. The presence of a problematic situation and the absence of a ready answer.

Generalized reflection in reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to that common thing that unites a similar number of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean by this word tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, cabinets, etc.

Indirect reflection reality can be seen in the arithmetic problem of adding several apples or determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. “Apples”, “trains” are just symbols, conventional images, behind which there should not be specific fruits or compounds.

Thinking arises from practical activities, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond its limits. In turn, its correctness is verified during practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked with speech. It operates with concepts, which in their form are words, but in essence are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, verbal concepts can be clarified.

Thinking takes place only when there is problematic situation. If you can get by with the old ways of acting, then thinking is not required.

Currently, there is no single theory in science that explains such a complex mental process as thinking. Each major direction in psychology has its own point of view on this cognitive process.

So from the point of view Gestalt psychology the basis of thinking is the ability of the psyche to form and transform images (“gestalts”). In this case, thinking develops in a closed sphere of consciousness, and is an intuitive finding of the desired result in the form of insight.

In behaviorism, thinking is a subjective reflection complex connections between stimulus and response.

Associative psychology reduces thinking to complex associations between traces of past experience.

Representatives activity approach In psychology, thinking is viewed as special kind cognitive activity, which is gradually formed in children as a result of socialization and training.

From the point of view of scientists working within this direction, thinking is the ability to solve various practical and theoretical problems associated with the transformation of reality during life.

Qualitative characteristics of thinking

Thinking, like other human cognitive processes, has a number of specific qualities (Table 9.1).

Table 9.1. Basic qualities (properties) of thinking

These qualities are present to varying degrees in different people and are important to varying degrees in solving different problem situations. Some of these qualities are more significant when solving theoretical problems, some - when solving practical issues.

Thinking - This is a mental cognitive process of a generalized and indirect reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world in their essential connections and manifestations.

Mental cognitive process reflection of essential connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of the objective world is called thinking. Thinking is indirect in nature, i.e. relies on sensations and perceptions, on data from past experiences stored in memory. Thinking is connected with speech, because reflection of connections and relationships between phenomena occurs in verbal form. It is also related to practical activities.

Thinking is higher cognitive process. In the process of thinking, a person reflects the objective world differently than in the processes of perception and imagination. In perceptions and ideas, external phenomena are reflected in the way they affect the senses: in colors, shapes, movement of objects, etc. When a person thinks about any objects or phenomena, he reflects in his consciousness not these external features, but the very essence of the objects, their mutual connections and relationships.

Thinking process:

Always has an indirect nature;

Relies on the person's existing knowledge about general laws nature and society;

It comes from “living contemplation”, but is not reduced to it;

Reflects connections and relationships between objects in verbal form;

Always in inextricable unity with speech;

Organically connected with practical activities.

The most important feature thinking is that thinking is always associated with the decision of one or another tasks, arising in the process of cognition or practical activity. Therefore, thinking always begins with question, the answer to which is purpose.

Thinking is a special type of activity that has its own structure and types:

The main types of mental operations include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, concretization.

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis - This is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking.

Comparison - this is an operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or differences between them.

Abstraction- a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.

Generalization- this is the unification of many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic.

Concretization - this is the movement of thought from the general to the specific.

Basic forms of thinking: concept, judgment and inference.

Concept- this is a reflection in the human mind of the general and essential properties of an object or phenomenon. Concepts are based on knowledge about these objects or phenomena. Concepts can be general and individual, concrete and abstract.

Judgment- the main form of thinking, during which connections between objects and phenomena of reality are affirmed or reflected. It allows you to verbally assign objects or phenomena to a specific class.

Inference- is the selection of a new judgment from one or more judgments. In some cases, inference determines the truth or falsity of judgments. There are inferences inductive, deductive, by analogy.

By type, thinking is divided into visual-effective, visual-figurative, abstract-logical (abstract).

Visual-effective thinking- this is thinking directly involved in activity. (The game of “Rubik's Cube” is an example of visual-effective thinking. Visual-effective thinking is thinking based on the direct perception of objects in the process of actions with them. In this example, it occurs in a step-by-step mode, when the current goal is determined only by the criteria for successful completion this step, and is also characterized by the absence of a completed action plan.).

Visual-figurative thinking- this is thinking carried out on the basis of images, ideas of what a person perceived before.

Abstract thinking- this is thinking that occurs on the basis of abstract concepts that are not represented figuratively.

From a physiological point of view the thinking process is a complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex. The entire cerebral cortex takes part in the implementation of thinking processes.

When making decisions in the course of thinking, certain functional systems are formed that provide different levels decision-making and the presence of potentials evoked for them - certain reactions of different areas of the cerebral cortex to a specific external event, which are comparable to the real one psychological process information processing. The activity of functional systems of the psyche, the presence of specific levels of decision-making and the manifestation of certain evoked potentials in general act as psychophysiological mechanisms of mental activity.

According to S.L. Rubinstein, every thought process is an act aimed at solving a specific problem, the formulation of which includes a goal and conditions. Thinking begins with a problem situation, a need to understand. In this case, solving a problem is the natural completion of the thought process, and stopping it when the goal is not achieved will be perceived by the subject as a breakdown or failure. The dynamics of the thought process are associated with the emotional well-being of the subject, tense at the beginning and satisfied at the end.

Initial phase thought process is awareness of the problem situation. The formulation of the problem itself is an act of thinking; it often requires a lot of mental work.

The first sign of a thinking person- the ability to see a problem where it exists. The emergence of questions (which is typical in children) is a sign of the developing work of thought. A person sees more problems, the larger the circle of his knowledge. Thus, thinking presupposes the presence of some kind of initial knowledge.

From awareness of the problem thought moves on to its resolution. The problem is solved in different ways. There are special tasks (tasks of visual-effective and sensorimotor intelligence), to solve which it is enough just to correlate the initial data in a new way and rethink the situation.

In most cases To solve problems, a certain base of theoretical generalized knowledge is required. Solving a problem involves using existing knowledge as means and methods of solution.

Application of the rule involves two mental operations:

Determine which rule to use for the solution;

Application general rule to the particular conditions of the problem.

Automated circuits actions can be considered thinking skills. It is important to note that the role of thinking skills is great precisely in those areas where there is a very generalized system of knowledge, for example, when solving mathematical problems.

When deciding For a complex problem, a solution is usually outlined, which is recognized as a hypothesis. Awareness of a hypothesis creates a need for verification.

Criticality- a sign of a mature mind. The uncritical mind easily accepts any coincidence as an explanation, the first solution that comes along as the final one.

When does the check end?, the thought process moves to the final phase - judgment on the issue.

Thus, the thought process is a process that is preceded by awareness of the initial situation (task conditions), which is conscious and purposeful, operates with concepts and images, and which ends with some result (rethinking the situation, finding a solution, forming a judgment, etc.).

Mental activity is realized both at the level of consciousness and at the level of the unconscious, it is characterized by complex transitions and interactions of these levels. As a result of a successful (purposeful) action, a result is achieved that corresponds to a previously set goal, and a result that was not foreseen in the conscious goal is a by-product in relation to it (a by-product of the action).

The problem of conscious and unconscious concretized into the problem of the relationship between direct (conscious) and by-products (unconscious) of action. The by-product of the action is also reflected by the subject. This reflection may participate in the subsequent regulation of actions, but it is not presented in verbalized form, in the form of consciousness. The by-product “is formed under the influence of those specific properties of things and phenomena that are included in the action, but are not significant from the point of view of the goal.”

Speech

Speech called a process practical application a person of language for the purpose of communicating with other people.

Unlike speech, language is a system of conventional symbols with the help of which combinations of sounds that have a certain meaning and meaning for people are transmitted. In the process of communication, people express thoughts and feelings using language, achieve mutual understanding in order to carry out joint activities.

Language and speech, like thinking, arise and develop in the process and under the influence of work. They are the property of only humans: animals have neither language nor speech.

Speech has its own content. The sounds that make up the words of oral speech have a complex physical structure; they distinguish between the frequency, amplitude and vibration shape of air sound waves.

Of special importance in speech sounds is their timbre, which is based on overtones that accompany and complement the main tone of the speech sound.

Speech has its own properties:

- content of speech determined by the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and correspondence to reality;

- clarity of speech is achieved by syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as by using pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words using logical stress;

- expressiveness of speech associated with its emotional richness (in its expressiveness it can be bright, energetic or, conversely, sluggish, pale);

- ineffectiveness of speech lies in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.

Speech performs certain functions:

- expressions(lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expands the possibilities of communication);

- impact( lies in a person’s ability to motivate people to action through speech);

- designations(consists in a person’s ability, through speech, to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names that are unique to them);

- messages(consists in the exchange of thoughts between people through words, phrases).

There are the following types of speech:

- oral- this is communication between people through the utterance of words, on the one hand, and the perception of them by ear, on the other;

- written- speech through written signs;

- monologue- this is the speech of one person expressing his thoughts over a relatively long period of time;

- dialogical- this is a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate;

- external- speech that performs the functions of communication;

- internal- this is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the thinking process of a particular person;

Speech systems, can be divided into two groups: peripheral and central. The central ones include certain structures of the cerebral movement of the brain, and the peripheral ones include the vocal apparatus and hearing organs. Speech is based on the activity of the second signaling system, the work of which consists primarily in the analysis and synthesis of generalized speech signals.

Speech at the same time - very complex system conditioned reflexes. It is based on the second signaling system, the conditioned stimuli of which are words in their audio (oral speech) or visual form. The sounds and forms of words, being at first neutral stimuli for an individual, become conditioned speech stimuli in the process of re-combining them with the primary signal stimulus, causing perceptions and sensations of objects and their properties.

As a result, they acquire semantic meaning, become signals of direct stimuli with which they were combined. The temporary neural connections formed in this case are further strengthened through constant verbal reinforcement, become strong and acquire a two-way character: the sight of an object immediately evokes a reaction of naming it, and, conversely, an audible or visible word immediately evokes the idea of ​​the object designated by this word.

Thinking– this is the process of reflecting significant connections and relationships, objects and phenomena. Mental operations: analysis (decomposition) – synthesis (restoration of the whole); comparison (contrast); abstraction (mental distraction); generalization (unification by attribute).

Forms of thinking:

Concept is a reflection in the human mind of the general and essential properties of an object or phenomenon.

Judgment– this is the main form of thinking in the process of which connections between objects or phenomena are affirmed or denied.

Conclusion- This is the derivation of a new judgment from one or more judgments.

Types of thinking:

Visually - active- thinking directly involved in activity, direct perception and practical implementation of cause-and-effect relationships.

Figurative- carried out on the basis of images of objects and phenomena belonging to human experience.

Abstract is performed on the basis of abstract concepts that cannot be represented figuratively.

Ways of thinking:

Induction - from single facts to general conclusion

Deduction – from a general judgment to a particular one.

Thinking is the highest cognitive process. It is a form of a person’s creative reflection of reality, generating a result that does not exist in reality itself or in the subject at a given moment in time. Human thinking can also be understood as the creative transformation of ideas and images existing in memory. The difference between thinking and other psychological processes of cognition is that it is always associated with an active change in the conditions in which a person finds himself. Thinking is always aimed at solving a problem. In the process of thinking, a purposeful and expedient transformation of reality is carried out. Thinking is a special kind of mental and practical activity that involves a system of actions and operations of a transformative and cognitive nature included in it. Every thought process is in its own way internal structure an action or act of activity aimed at solving a specific problem. This task contains the goal for the individual’s mental activity. The mental act of the subject proceeds from certain motives. The initial moment of the thinking process is usually a problem situation, i.e. a situation for which there are no ready-made solutions. A person begins to think when he has a need to understand something. Thinking usually begins with a problem or question, with surprise or bewilderment, with a contradiction.

Main characteristics.

Objects and phenomena of reality have properties and relationships that can be known directly, with the help of sensations and perceptions, and those that can be known only indirectly and through generalization, i.e. through thinking.

Thinking- this is a cognitive mental process, which is an indirect and generalized reflection of reality, a type of mental activity consisting of knowledge of the essence of things and phenomena, natural connections and relationships between them.

The first feature of thinking- his indirect nature. What a person cannot know directly, directly, he knows indirectly, indirectly: some properties through others, the unknown through the known. Thinking is always based on the data of sensory experience - sensations, perceptions, ideas - and on previously acquired theoretical knowledge.

The second feature of thinking- his generality. Generalization is possible because all properties of objects in reality are related to each other. The general exists and manifests itself only in the individual, in the concrete. People express generalizations through speech and language. Philosophical concepts of matter, motion, law, phenomenon, quality, etc. - the broadest generalizations expressed in words. Generalization is also inherent in images (ideas and even perceptions).

Thinking- This highest level man's knowledge of reality. The sensory basis of thinking is sensations, perceptions and ideas. Information enters the brain through the senses. The content of information is processed by him. The most complex (logical) form of information processing is the activity of thinking. The transition from sensation to thought - complex process, which consists primarily of isolating an object or its specific feature, and establishing what is essential, common to many objects.

The objective material form of thinking is language. A thought becomes a thought both for oneself and for others only through the word. Thanks to language, people's thoughts are not lost, but are passed on as a system of knowledge from generation to generation.

Thinking provides answers to questions that cannot be resolved through direct, sensory reflection. Thanks to thinking, a person correctly navigates the world around him, using previously obtained generalizations in a new, specific environment. Human activity is rational thanks to knowledge of the laws and relationships of objective reality.

Thinking is an indirect and generalized reflection of the essential, natural relationships of reality. This is a generalized orientation in specific situations of reality.

In thinking, the relationship between the conditions of activity and its goal is established, knowledge is transferred from one situation to another, and a given situation is transformed into an appropriate generalized scheme.

The mechanism of human thinking is hidden, silent, inner speech. It is characterized by hidden, unnoticeable articulation of words and micro-movements of the speech organs. The latter are associated with excitations in the speech motor zone of the cerebral cortex. A feature of inner speech is its abbreviation, conciseness, condensation. But when mental difficulties arise, internal speech takes on an expanded form and often turns into whispered or loud speech. This allows you to better analyze and consolidate abstract speech material: wording, task conditions, etc.

Language is a means of abstraction, abstraction of essential features of objects, a means of recording and storing knowledge, a means of transmitting knowledge to other people. It is only thanks to language that the socio-historical experience of all humanity becomes the property of the individual. The tool of thinking is the meaning of the word.

Thinking is socially conditioned, it arises only in social conditions human existence, it is based on knowledge, i.e. on the socio-historical experience of mankind.

Types of thinking and criteria for their classification.

It is important to understand that thinking is a qualitatively heterogeneous process, the relationships between different types thinking is very complex.

In psychology, the following somewhat conditional classification of types of thinking has been accepted and widespread on such various grounds as:

Thinking - this is a mental cognitive process of reflecting significant connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of the objective world.

In the process of thinking, a person reflects the objective world differently than in the processes of perception and imagination. In perceptions and ideas, external phenomena are reflected in the way they affect the senses: in colors, shapes, movement of objects, etc. When a person thinks about any objects or phenomena, he does not reflect in his consciousness these external features, but the very essence of objects, their mutual connections and relationships.

The essence of any objective phenomenon should be known only when this phenomenon is considered in organic connection with others. In the process of perceiving, for example, a tree, a person, reflecting in his consciousness the trunk, branches, leaves and other parts and features of this particular, separate, specific object, can perceive this tree in isolation from other phenomena, admire its shape, the freshness of its green foliage , bizarre bends of the trunk. The thinking process proceeds differently. In an effort to understand the basic laws of the existence of a given phenomenon, to penetrate into its essence, a person must necessarily reflect in his mind the relationship of this object with other objects and phenomena. It is impossible to understand the essence of a tree if you do not know what significance the chemical composition of the soil, moisture, air, sunlight etc.
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Only the reflection of these connections and relationships allows a person to understand the function of the roots and leaves of a tree, the role they play in the cycle of substances in the plant world.

The object itself is reflected in the process of thinking differently than in perception; in thinking, we not only identify individual parts of an object (this is also possible in perception), but we try to understand in what relationships these parts are with each other. Thinking allows one to penetrate into the essence of phenomena in only one way - through the reflection of those connections and relationships that a given phenomenon has with others.

w n phenomena. This reflection of connections and relationships cannot be realized if we do not renounce the specific features of the object and do not begin to think about it in its most general form. In the process of thinking, a specific image of a single object (a given oak tree, a given birch tree) recedes into the background. We are now thinking about wood in general, which should be oak, birch, and any other type of tree.

The thinking process is characterized by the following features. η

1. Thinking always has an indirect nature.
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Establishing connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the objective world, a person relies not only on immediate sensations and perceptions, but also on the data of past experience preserved in his memory.

2. Thinking is based on the knowledge a person has about the general laws of nature and society. In the process of thinking, a person uses knowledge already formed on the basis of previous practice general provisions, which reflect the most general connections and patterns of the surrounding world.

3. Thinking comes from “living contemplation”, but is not reduced to it. Reflecting connections and relationships between phenomena, we always reflect these connections in an abstract and generalized form, as having general meaning for all similar phenomena of a given class, and not just for a specific, specifically observed phenomenon.

4. Thinking is always a reflection of connections and relationships between objects in verbal form. Thinking and speech are always in inextricable unity. Due to the fact that thinking takes place in words, the processes of abstraction and generalization are facilitated, since words by their nature are very special stimuli that signal reality in the most generalized form.

5. Human thinking is organically connected with practical activity. In its content it is based on human social practice. This is by no means Not simple “contemplation” of the external world, and such a reflection of it, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ

meets the challenges that arise before a person in the process of labor and other activities aimed at reorganizing the world around him.

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. It allows you to understand the components of an object which have great value to understand it.

Synthesis - This is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. Thanks to synthesis, we obtain a holistic concept of a given object or phenomenon as consisting of naturally related parts.

Comparison - this is an operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or differences between them. By comparing phenomena identified in the process of thinking, we understand them more accurately and penetrate deeper into their uniqueness.

Abstraction- a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them. Abstraction allows you to penetrate “into the depths” of an object, to reveal its essence, forming a corresponding concept about this object.

Generalization- this is the unification of many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic. It allows us to reflect in our consciousness the entire essence of a phenomenon.

Concretization - this is the movement of thought from the general to the specific. Thanks to concretization, our thinking becomes vital, behind it we always feel the directly perceived reality.

Secondly, the content of thinking is manifested through its forms: concept, judgment and inference.

Concept - This is a reflection in a person’s consciousness of the general and essential properties of an object or phenomenon.

Judgment- the main form of thinking, in the process of which the cortex affirms or reflects connections between objects and phenomena of reality. It allows you to verbally attribute objects or phenomena to a specific

Inference- is the selection of a new judgment from one or more judgments. In some cases, inference determines the truth or falsity of judgments.

Thirdly, the content of thinking is manifested in the functioning of it types: visually effective, figurative, abstract.

Visual-effective thinking- this is thinking directly involved in activity.

Imaginative thinking - This is thinking carried out on the basis of images, ideas of what a person perceived before.

Abstract thinking - This is thinking that occurs on the basis of abstract concepts that are not represented figuratively.

And finally, thinking manifests itself through its ways: induction and deduction.

Induction- this is a way of thinking in which inference proceeds from individual facts to a general conclusion. For example, observing in one or two cases the features of a particular object, we extend this provision to all cases of use of all its types, although they were not observed by us.

Deduction- this is a way of thinking carried out in the reverse order of induction. For example, to prove that a given angle in a triangle is greater than another, the following deductive conclusion is constructed: it is known and previously proven that in a triangle, a larger angle always lies opposite the larger side; this angle lies opposite the larger side; from these two reliable positions the conclusion is drawn: this angle is greater than the other.

From a physiological point of view, the thinking process is a complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex. In osu-

The entire cerebral cortex takes part in the implementation of thinking processes.

For the process of thinking, what matters most are the complex temporary connections that are formed between the brain ends of the analyzers. Since the activity of individual areas of the cortex is always determined by external stimuli, the nerve connections formed during their simultaneous excitation reflect the actual connections in the phenomena and objects of the objective world.

These connections and relationships (associations) naturally caused by external stimuli constitute the physiological basis of the thinking process. At first, during the first attempt to penetrate into the essence of this or that phenomenon, these associations are of a generalized nature, reflecting real connections in their most general and undifferentiated form, and sometimes even incorrectly - based on random, unimportant signs. Only in the process of repeated stimulation does differentiation of temporary connections occur; they are refined, consolidated and become the physiological basis of more or less accurate and correct knowledge about outside world. These associations arise primarily under the influence of primary signal stimuli, causing corresponding sensations, perceptions and ideas about the surrounding external environment. Real interactions and interconnections of these stimuli determine the emergence of corresponding temporary neural connections of the first signaling system.

Thinking is based not only on primary signal connections; it necessarily presupposes the activity of the second signaling system in its inextricable connection with the first signaling system. The irritants here are no longer specific objects of the surrounding world and their properties, but words. Speech, being directly related to thinking, makes it possible to reflect in words the interrelation and interdependence of phenomena, because words are not simple signals of individual objects, but generalized stimuli. These new signals eventually came to mean everything that people directly perceived as external.

him and from their inner world and were used by them Not only in mutual communication, but also alone with oneself. Their peculiarity is that they represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which is what our human thinking is.

In this case, thinking is provided by systems of functionally united neurons of the brain, which are responsible for specific mental operations and have their own characteristics, i.e. neural codes.Οʜᴎ reflect a certain frequency of impulsive activity of neurons involved in solving specific mental tasks. The neurons themselves can, based on the mental tasks being solved, rearrange their activities, acting as specific correlates of certain mental operations person.

When making decisions in the course of thinking, certain functional systems, which provide different decision levels and the presence of potentials evoked for them - certain reactions of different zones of the cerebral cortex to a specific external event, which are comparable to the real psychological process of information processing. The activity of functional systems of the psyche, the presence of specific levels of decision-making and the manifestation of certain evoked potentials in general, and act as psychophysiological mechanisms of mental activity.

General characteristics thinking - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “General characteristics of thinking” 2017, 2018.