Factors influencing voluntary attention. Features of voluntary attention. Social factors of voluntary attention. Factors influencing attention

Types of attention.
A person has different types of attention, each of which he needs and each of which plays its own role in his life. These types include: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention; direct and indirect attention; natural and socially conditioned attention.
There are three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary, post-voluntary. Involuntary attention the simplest and most genetically original, also called passive , forced , since it arises and is maintained regardless of the goals facing a person. The activity captures the person in these cases by itself, due to its fascination or surprise. A person involuntarily surrenders to objects, phenomena, and activities that influence him.
Unlike involuntary voluntary attention driven by conscious purpose. It is closely related to the will of a person and was developed as a result of labor efforts, which is why it is also called strong-willed, active, deliberate . Having decided to engage in some activity, we carry out this decision, consciously directing our attention even to what is not interesting to us at the moment, but what we need to do. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of mental processes.
Another type of attention, which, like voluntary attention, is purposeful in nature and requires initial volitional efforts, but then the person, as it were, “enters” into the work: the content and process of the activity, and not just its result, become interesting and significant. This attention has been called post-voluntary (N.F. Dobrynin). By first showing voluntary attention and forcing oneself to engage in some activity without expressed interest in it, a person is more likely to become so interested in this activity that there is no need to make efforts to maintain attention on it. Attention goes from voluntary to involuntary. However, in contrast to truly involuntary attention, post-voluntary attention remains associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests. At the same time, it is also different from voluntary attention, since there is no or almost no volitional effort.
Post-voluntary attention is characterized by prolonged concentration, intense intensity of mental activity, and high labor productivity.
Direct call attention that is attracted and retained by the very object to which it is directed. In this case, between the object that attracts attention and the process of attention itself, there is nothing else that would participate in its regulation.
Indirect is called attention, the processes of which (attracting attention, switching, distraction, concentration, distribution) are regulated with the help of additional means not given to a person by nature. Means of controlling attention include speech, special signs that direct a person’s attention, for example an arrow pointing in a certain direction, a gesture...
Natural They call attention, which is given to a person from birth, by nature, which is included in the work early and gradually improves as the brain matures. Such attention practically does not depend on the experience acquired by a person in the process of life, on his training and upbringing. It has been proven that already at the end of the 1st month of a child’s life, natural attention is included in the work, when the child begins to pay attention to new stimuli.
Socially conditioned is the attention that a person acquires after birth and improves during life. This is attention to objects and phenomena related to human cultural life (books, music, instruments, appliances, things made by human hands, events occurring in society).
Factors that determine attention

What factors is a person's attention determined? It is possible to highlight at least two groups factors that ensure the selective nature of mental processes, determining both the direction, volume and stability of conscious activity.

To the first group include factors characterizing the structure of external stimuli, reaching a person (structure external field).

To the second - factors related to the activities of the subject itself(structure of the internal field).

Let's look at each group separately.

1. The first group consists of factors externally perceived by the subject irritants; they determine the direction, volume and stability of attention, and come closer to the factors of the structure of perception.

One of the factors included in this group is intensity (strength) of the stimulus. If a subject is presented with a group of identical or different stimuli, one of which stands out due to its intensity (size, color, etc.), the subject’s attention is attracted by this particular stimulus. Naturally, when a subject enters a dimly lit room, his attention is immediately drawn to a light bulb that suddenly lights up. It is characteristic that in those cases when two stimuli of equal strength appear in the perceived field and when the relations between them are so balanced that none of them dominates, a person’s attention becomes unstable, and problems arise. fluctuations in attention in which one or the other stimulus becomes dominant. Above, when analyzing the laws of structural perception, we have already given examples of such “unstable structures”.

Another external factor that determines the direction of attention is novelty of the stimulus or its difference from other stimuli.

If, among well-known stimuli, one appears that is sharply different from the rest or is unusual, new, it immediately begins to attract attention and causes a special orienting reflex.

Let's give an example of an experiment.

In its first part, among the identical circles, there is a single cross, sharply different from the other figures; in the second, several rows of identical lines are given, and in one of these rows there is a gap that distinguishes this place from the rest; in the third, among identical large points, one weak point is given that differs from them.

It is easy to see that in all cases attention is directed to different, a “new” element, which sometimes retains the same physical strength as other, familiar stimuli, and sometimes in its intensity can be even weaker than them. It is not difficult to remember that if a familiar, monotonously repeated sound (for example, the roar of a motor) suddenly stops, the absence of a stimulus can become a factor that attracts attention.

Both mentioned conditions determine direction attention. However, there are external factors that determine its volume.

We have already said above that the perception of environmental stimuli reaching a person depends on their structural organization. It's easy to see that we can't successfully perceive big number randomly scattered stimuli, but we can easily do this if they are organized into certain structures.

The structural organization of the perceived field is one of the most powerful means of controlling our perception and one of the most important factors in expanding its volume, and the psychologically sound, rational organization of the structure of the perceived field is one of the most important tasks engineering psychology. It is not difficult to see how important it becomes to ensure the most rational forms of organizing the flow of information reaching the pilot operating the instruments of high-speed or ultra-high-speed aircraft.

All of the listed factors that determine the direction and volume of attention relate to the characteristics of the external stimuli affecting the subject, in other words, to the structure information coming from the external environment.

It's easy to see how important it is to take these factors into account in order to learn scientifically control a person's attention.

2. The second group of factors that determine the direction of attention are those that are associated not so much with the external environment, but with the subject and with the structure of its activities.

This group of factors includes, first of all, the influence that needs, interests And "installations" the subject on his perception and on the course of his activity.

Dealing with problems biological evolution animal behavior, we have already seen the decisive role played in animal behavior biological importance signals.

We pointed out that the duck emits plant odors, and the falcon emits putrefactive odors, which are vital for them, and that the bee reacts to complex shapes, which are signs of flowers, ignoring simple geometric shapes, devoid of them biological significance that the cat, reacting vividly to the scratching of a mouse, does not pay attention to the sounds of leafing through a book or the rustling of a newspaper. The fact that animals' attention is attracted by vital signals is quite well known.

All this equally applies to man, with the only difference that those needs and interests that characterize a person, in the overwhelming majority, are not of the nature of biological instincts and drives, but of the nature of complex motivating factors formed in social history. For example, a person interested in sports will single out from all the information that reaches him the one that relates to a football match, and a person interested in radio engineering news will pay attention to those books on the shelf that relate specifically to this subject.

It is easy to see that a person’s strong interest, which makes some signals dominant, simultaneously inhibits all side signals that are not related to the sphere of his interests. The well-known facts that scientists, immersed in solving a complex problem, cease to perceive all collateral stimuli, clearly indicate this.

Essential for understanding the factors that direct human attention is structural organization human activity.

It is known that human activity is determined by need or motive and is always aimed at a specific goal. If the motive in some cases may remain unconscious, the purpose and subject of its activity are always realized. It is known, finally, that this is precisely why the goal of an action differs from the means and operations by which it is achieved.

While individual operations are not automated, the implementation of each of them constitutes the goal of a given segment of activity and attracts attention; It is enough to remember how the attention of an inexperienced shooter strains to pull the trigger, or the attention of a beginner writing on a typewriter strains to each stroke of the key. When an activity is automated, the individual operations that comprise it cease to attract attention and begin to proceed without awareness, while the main goal continues to be realized. It is enough to carefully analyze the shooting process of a well-trained marksman or the writing process of an experienced typist on a typewriter to see this.

All this shows that the direction of attention is determined psychological structure activities and depends significantly on the degree of its automation. The general task that directs human activity highlights as the subject of his attention that system of signals or connections that are part of the evoked human activity that is caused by this task. The specific goal that the person solving the problem sets for himself makes the signals or actions related to it the center of attention. The process of automation of activity leads to the fact that individual actions that attracted attention become automatic operations, and a person’s attention begins to shift to final goals, ceasing to be attracted by well-established habitual operations. Perhaps the most important fact is that the direction of attention is directly dependent on the success or failure of the activity.

Successful completion of an activity immediately eliminates the tension that remained in the person the entire time he was trying to solve the problem. For example, a person who puts a letter in the mailbox immediately forgets about the fulfilled intention, it stops bothering him. On the contrary, an unfinished activity or an unsuccessful task continues to create tension and attract attention, maintaining it until the task is successfully completed.

Attention comes in like control mechanism into the apparatus of the “action acceptor”: it provides signals indicating that the task has not yet been completed, the action has not been completed, and it is these “reverse signals” that prompt the subject to active activity.

Thus, A person’s attention is determined by the structure of his activity, reflects its course and serves as a mechanism for its control.

All this makes attention one of the most significant aspects of human activity.
More details: http://bookap.info/genpsy/luriya_lektsii_po_obshchey_psihologii/gl45.shtm

36.Structure of attention properties.

1. Will as a factor
Little can be said about the factors of voluntary attention. Already from the name itself it is clear that the main and, one might say, the only factor in this form of attention is our will. IN in this case attention is not influenced by either the intensity factor or the change factor. The decisive role is played by the intention, the conscious desire of the subject. When we need to solve a problem, our attention is directed not to intense or changing stimuli acting at the moment from the environment, but to what needs to be done. In this case, we, of course, have to suppress our current interest, often spending a lot of effort on this in order to ensure a systematic, stable direction of attention.
It is obvious that voluntary attention is, as Ribot noted, a product of rather high cultural development. Voluntary attention could arise only on the basis of that form of practice that is the specific property of a person. Voluntary attention originated and developed in the process of labor: “As soon as the need for labor arose, voluntary attention became the primary factor in this new form of struggle for existence. As soon as a person acquired the ability to work, that is, to carry out activities that are not attractive, but necessary, representing a means of subsistence, he also developed voluntary attention. It is easy to prove that before the emergence of civilization, voluntary attention either did not exist at all, or, like lightning, manifested itself only instantly. Voluntary attention is a social phenomenon... voluntary attention is an adaptation to the conditions of higher, social life.”
The indirect nature of voluntary attention
The first period in the development of a person’s voluntary attention is the time when a person, not yet possessing the ability to organize his attention, still tried to direct someone else’s attention, which was not so difficult. It was enough for these purposes to use what involuntarily attracted attention, thereby directing the attention of his colleague to in the right direction. As you can see, the hand played a huge role in this - after all, showing, pointing with the hand is the most common means of directing attention. It is interesting that the ability to transfer the gaze from the hand to the indicated object, as can be seen, is especially characteristic of humans. Consequently, the switching of attention initially did not occur directly, but through something third, and we can say that to this day it has remained so: voluntary attention - indirect attention. In this sense, it is very interesting that initial stage When learning to read, a person follows the words with his finger, thereby, apparently, helping his attention: where it is difficult to be attentive, a person usually resorts to the help of external means.
An outstanding achievement of Soviet psychology, in particular Vygotsky and his school, is undoubtedly the fact that the importance of mediation, mediating signs in human mental development was emphasized and experimentally substantiated. In particular, the essence of voluntary attention also lies in mediation: a person pays attention to the patterns that direct the natural process of attention, and subsequently, when a task arises to direct his own or someone else’s attention, he resorts to these patterns, thereby using them arbitrarily.
Expectation
A typical case of voluntary attention can be considered expectation, so its study is of particular interest.
Suppose we are waiting to receive some impression; this means that our attention is directed to this future impression, and as soon as it appears, it will immediately capture our attention. How do we do this? According to Müller, this happens in the following way: we try, as far as possible, to restore the state we experienced when perceiving this impression in the past. It is not difficult to restore body position, since we already have a good command of body motor skills and are able to direct it in the right direction. As for the mental content, we restore it in the form of a representation, trying to represent it as best as possible. When, under these conditions, that is, conditions of expectation, the expected impression appears, it naturally instantly captures attention. We can say that in this case the first period of attention - the period of adaptation, or adaptation, which requires, as noted above, a certain time - falls out of the attention process itself, turning into a period of waiting. Therefore, it is clear that the process itself is shortened.
Summarizing everything that has been said by various authors regarding expectation, we can conclude the following: a specific representation of a future impression is not mandatory, expectation is possible without it; It is also not necessary for the subject to experience tension. The main thing and the main thing is the presence of a task, either in the form of a specific thought, or intimate knowledge, or an attitude. Without this latter, according to Frebes, expectation is unable to create even the most vivid performance.
The influence of attention
Revitalization of activity
as the main effect of attention
The influence of attention on a person’s mental activity is enormous. We can say that it represents the most important condition underlying the possibility of fruitful activity. The fact is that each individual person, at each given stage of his development, has at his disposal, as can be seen, only a certain amount of energy. What this energy will be directed to, in the form of what activity it will manifest itself, depends on our attention. However, since attention means the direction of our mental energy in one direction or another, then it is obvious that the influence of attention should indeed be very great and should manifest itself, first of all, in the activation of the corresponding mental activity. When an artist creates a work, both his attention and activity are maximally concentrated on this work. When Archimedes was completely immersed in his geometric problems, his psyche worked most actively, of course, in the sphere of mental operations; When a person learns to ride a bicycle, trying with intense attention to restore his disturbed balance, the most animated activity takes place in the muscular system of his body.
The natural consequence of this lively work of attention is a faster, more accurate, more fruitful flow of activity. Having examined individual directions of human mental activity - perception, representation, thinking, fantasy, feelings, we will be convinced that the revival of attention is followed everywhere by a similar effect, but, of course, in forms corresponding to each of these directions.
Sensory activity
What influence does attention have on such a form of activity as perception? We already have a general answer: it revives this activity, that is, our sensory mechanism in this case begins to work more energetically than when attention acts primarily in a different direction. As a result, we get a higher quality product - clearer and more distinct sensations and perceptions. So, ultimately, we can say that the influence of attention on sensory activity is manifested in the fact that our sensory contents, perceptions and ideas become more salient and distinct.
And indeed, everyone knows perfectly well that what is perceived more carefully is always clearer and more distinct than what is perceived less carefully! This position was also clarified in experimental conditions: the subjects were tachistoscopically - just as when conducting experiments on the volume of attention - presented with several simple stimuli and asked to answer how many elements they perceived clearly. It turned out that: 1) if the subjects received a warning signal before the exposure, they noticed the stimuli faster and more correctly; 2) if something prevented the subjects from concentrating, for example, when they were presented with some other external stimulus along with a tachytoscopic stimulus, they noticed much fewer elements. Obviously, weakening attention is to blame for this. As Westphal's experiments showed, there are several levels of clarity of perception, each of which depends on how intensely the subject pays attention to the task.
Thus, it is safe to say that the effect of attention is to enhance the clarity and distinctness of sensory content.
3. The question of the influence of attention on the intensity of sensory contents
Since attention enhances the salience of a sensation or perception, it can be assumed that it has a similar effect on its intensity. Moreover, clarity and distinctness, on the one hand, and intensity, on the other, are purely quantitative characteristics of sensation, being purely quantitative characteristics.
This question is one of those questions that classical psychology of the 19th century explored with particular interest and energy. Today, almost nothing remains of this lively interest - this issue, together with the problem of sensation, has moved into the background. Nevertheless, its consideration is not without a certain interest - both in essence and especially in historical terms.
The question of the enhancing influence of attention on the intensity of sensations was resolved positively by almost everyone. The only exception was Munstenberg, who argued, contrary to generally accepted opinion, that attention does not enhance sensation, but, on the contrary, weakens it. But no one supported him, and he remained the only adherent of this view. Disagreement among psychologists on this issue manifested itself only in the fact that some were of the opinion about the direct, immediate influence of attention on the intensity of sensation, while others denied this, believing rather that the intensity of sensation intensifies not because attention directly acts on it, but due to the fact that it contributes adaptation of the sense organs, thereby creating the precondition for increasing the intensity of sensation - attention only indirectly affects the intensity of sensation. The first opinion was held by particularly authoritative psychologists - Wundt, G. Müller, Stumpf, in the second - Lipps et al.
Strong arguments in favor of the first opinion were obtained as a result of the experiments of Meyer and Stumpf. Meyer, as a result of straining his attention, received such a visual and intense idea that it even left behind an optical trace. The following conclusion follows from this fact: as soon as under the influence of attention the intensity of representation rises to the level of intensity of perception, then a similar effect should appear in the case of sensation!
Stumpf proved that through attention one can strengthen any tone in a weak chord, thus hearing a certain melody. As for strong tones, he failed to increase their intensity even more. In general, it has been noted that the influence of attention affects the intensity of a weak sensation, although some authors point to a similar effect in the case of a strong sensation (Bentley). The most indisputable results are provided by experiments on comparison of thresholds. As it turned out, in the case of greater concentration of attention, the threshold is lower than when concentration of attention is weaker; it is obvious that the intensity of perception increases.
Thus, the question of the influence of attention on the intensity of sensory contents is resolved positively - if not in general, then at least in relation to sensory contents of weak intensity.
4. The influence of attention on motor activity
The revitalization of motor activity, caused by motor attention, is expressed in an increase in speed, intensification and refinement of movements.
This is very easy to prove:
Instruct the subject to tap the table with the tip of a pencil as quickly as possible. Compare how many times he will be able to do this in case of concentration and in case of any interference. You will be convinced that in the first case the result will be higher than in the second.
Instruct the subject to squeeze the dynamometer with his hand as much as possible under conditions similar to the previous experiment; It turns out that under the influence of attention, motor skills (muscle contractions) will become more intense.
Instruct subjects to draw lines of a certain length under the same conditions, and you will see that if they concentrate their attention, their motor skills will be much more accurate.
It is almost certain that this effect of attention on motor activity is explained by the fact that, as has long been known, it contributes to sensorimotor adaptation.
This fact was discovered during the so-called “reaction experiments”. Ludwig Lange was the first to notice that the time of the so-called simple reaction was either longer or shorter. It turned out that when the subject was given the task along with the signal: after hearing the signal, remove your finger as quickly as possible from the electrical switch (connected to a sensitive device, for example, a Peak chronoscope, to record time, which stops the flow of electric current, as a result of which the device’s hand stops, pointing in thousandths of a second - the so-called “sigma” - the period of time from the moment the signal is given to the raising of the finger, that is, to the reaction; this period of time is called the reaction time), then focusing attention on the task always noticeably reduces the reaction time.
Lange (1888) was the first to notice that when the subject pays more attention to the signal rather than to his reaction, the reaction time increases (sensory reaction), but when he focuses attention on his movement in order not to be late to respond as quickly as possible, the reaction time is noticeable contracts (motor reaction).
This circumstance clearly shows what attention is capable of when it is directed to motor skills: it speeds up the reaction following the preliminary perception of the signal; therefore, attention contributes to sensorimotor adaptation.
5. The influence of attention on memory and intellectual operations
The influence of attention on memory is very great. Some forms of memory, such as involuntary memory, are so closely related to attention that it is difficult to distinguish whether you are dealing with the process of attention or memory. In this sense, it is very significant that the Germans also call immediate memory “the ability to notice” (Me^a^ke11). And indeed, numerous experimental materials have been accumulated that clearly prove that the fruitfulness of immediate memory most of all depends on the attention with which the memorized material is perceived.
Attentive perception of the material being remembered is also important in the case of other forms of memory. However, the influence of attention on memory is not limited to this. Here we are interested in this question from a slightly different plane, in particular, what effect does concentration of attention have on the process of memory, or reproduction. As soon as, under the influence of attention, the idea becomes clear and distinct, this means that under these conditions, facilitation and clarification of its reproduction occurs. This is especially obvious in the case of voluntary memory - recollection.
As for intellectual operations, it has long been known that without the participation of attention it is not even possible to talk about them: attention is quite rightly considered the primary condition for any learning. But there are also experimental arguments that once again confirm the undoubted legitimacy of this observation and specify it. There is no point in dwelling on this. Let us only note what became clear during the course of experiments on studying attention. It turned out that under the influence of attention the fruitfulness and accuracy of mental work increase. However, from special studies it is known that speed and accuracy of work have mutually opposite directions: the more one is, the less the other. According to the results of Crosland (1924), there is a negative correlation between them (specifically, 0.47). Therefore, when understanding the influence of attention on mental work, both of these factors should be taken into account - speed and accuracy.
6. Attention and feeling
According to Tichener, a feeling cannot become the subject of attention. Instead of becoming more pronounced and intense under the influence of attention, it, on the contrary, weakens and fades. For example, if an angry person begins to carefully analyze his emotional state, then as a result he will calm down, in any case, the emotion will almost disappear. Therefore, according to Tichener, attention should be understood as the level of clarity of representation alone.
Of course, it is wrong to talk about attention in relation to feelings in the sense that was done in the case of cognitive processes. The fact is that during cognitive processes, for example perception, the energy of attention and the activity of perception coincide - here attention means the revitalization of the energy of perception. But in the case of feelings the situation is different: a feeling, such as grief, is possible only if we are aware of the circumstance that caused it. No one experiences grief without a reason: without knowing about the death of her child, a mother does not experience any grief. Thus, the direct source of feelings is cognitive processes, awareness of the objective circumstances that determine these feelings. When attention is focused precisely on the source of feelings, that is, with a clear understanding of the circumstances that caused the feeling, the energy of feeling and attention is combined, as a result of which the feeling intensifies. But when our attention stops on the feeling itself, then the experience of its source, the circumstances that caused it, is deprived of mental activity, which begins to work in a different direction, thereby ceasing to nourish the feeling.
However, such a situation is not specific only in the case of feelings, but always manifests itself in similar conditions. Take, for example, dancing, playing a musical instrument, or some other automatic action. It is known that here attention acts in exactly the same way as in the case of feelings: when performing automatic actions, it is enough to pay attention to any individual action for the automaticity to be disrupted, and dancing or playing becomes difficult. This happens for the same reason as in the case of feelings: automatic behavior is based on the general mood of the body, and when attention is directed to it, automatic behavior is performed well. However, if attention moves to individual acts, then the general mood of the body - the basis of automatic behavior - suffers, as a result of which automatic behavior is disrupted.

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………2

Development of attention…………………………………………………………………………………...3

Development of voluntary attention…………………………………………………………….4

Correlation of types of attention………………………………………………………5

Types of attention…………………………………………………………………………………......6

Involuntary attention………………………………………………………..7

Voluntary attention……………………………………………………………..8

Post-voluntary attention………………………………………………………9

Properties of attention………………………………………………………………………………..10

1. Volume………………………………………………………………………………...10

   Stability……………………………………………………………..10

   Intensity……………………………………………………………....11

   Concentration…………………………………………………………….11

   Distribution……………………………………………………………………………….12

   Switching…………………………………………………………….12

   Oscillations………………………………………………………………………………13

Functions and types of attention…………………………………………………………….14

Attention disturbance…………………………………………………………………..15

Distractibility…………………………………………………………...................15

Absent-mindedness…………………………………………………………………………………..16

Inertia………………………………………………………………………………………...18

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………...19

List of used literature…………………………………………………………….20

INTRODUCTION

The flow of information, the expansion of human contacts, the development of diverse forms of mass culture, and the growth in the pace of life lead to an increase in the amount of knowledge necessary for the life of a modern person. The ongoing changes in society have also influenced the development of children, who are actively involved in the whirlpool of our hectic life, and have put forward new demands in general. Preschool education began to be considered as the first stage in the entire system of lifelong education. A preschool institution is designed to create conditions for the intellectual, creative, emotional, and physical development of a child and prepare him for school. One of the indispensable conditions for successful learning at school is the development of voluntary, deliberate attention in before school age. The school places demands on children's spontaneous attention in terms of the ability to act without distractions, follow instructions and control the results obtained.

Children starting school most often suffer from absent-mindedness or underdeveloped attention. Developing and improving attention is just as important as teaching writing, counting, and reading. Attention is expressed in the precise execution of related actions. The images obtained through careful perception are distinguished by clarity and distinctness. With attention, thought processes proceed faster and more correctly, movements are performed more accurately and clearly.

The preschooler’s attention reflects his interests in relation to surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. The child is focused on an object or action only until his interest in this object or action fades away. The appearance of a new object causes a switch of attention, so children rarely do the same thing for a long time.

Currently, the problems of developing attention and conducting psychocorrectional work with children with attention disorders have become relevant. However, recommendations for practical psychologists on these issues relate mainly to elementary school and do not cover the experience of organizing psychocorrectional work with preschool-age children, although today, for further successful training, it is necessary to identify and correct attention disorders in older preschool-age children earlier.

Attention is always concentration on something. In the selection of one object from the mass of others, the so-called selectivity of attention is manifested: interest in one is a simultaneous inattention to another. Attention in itself is not a special cognitive process. It is inherent in any cognitive process (perception, thinking, memory) and acts as the ability to organize this process.

Attention is one of the phenomena of orientation-research activity. It is a mental action aimed at the content of an image, thought or other phenomenon. Attention plays a significant role in the regulation of intellectual activity. According to P.Ya. Halperin, “attention nowhere appears as an independent process; it is revealed as the direction, mood and concentration of any mental activity on its object, only as a side or property of this activity.”

Attention does not have its own separate and specific product. Its result is the improvement of any activity that it accompanies.

Attention is a mental state that characterizes the intensity of cognitive activity and is expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area (actions, object, phenomenon).

The following are distinguished: forms of attention:

Sensory (perceptive);

Intellectual (mental);

Motor (motor).

The main functions of attention are:

Activation of necessary and inhibition of currently unnecessary mental and physiological processes;

Purposeful, organized selection of incoming information (the main selective function of attention);

Retention, preservation of images of a certain subject content until the goal is achieved;

Ensuring long-term concentration and activity on the same object;

Regulation and control of activities.

Attention is associated with the interests, inclinations, and vocation of a person; such personality traits as observation and the ability to notice subtle but significant signs in objects and phenomena depend on his characteristics.

Attention consists in the fact that a certain idea or sensation takes a dominant place in consciousness, displacing others. This greater degree of cognition of a given impression is the basic fact, or effects, namely:

Analytical effect of attention - this representation becomes more detailed, in it we notice more details;

Fixing effect - the idea becomes more stable in consciousness and does not disappear so easily;

Reinforcing effect - the impression, at least in most cases, is made stronger: thanks to the inclusion of attention, a weak sound seems somewhat louder.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION

A child’s attention at the beginning of preschool age reflects his interest in surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. The child is focused until interest wanes. The appearance of a new object immediately causes a shift of attention to it. Therefore, children rarely do the same thing for a long time.

During preschool age, due to the complication of children's activities and their movement in general mental development, attention acquires greater concentration and stability. So, if younger preschoolers can play the same game for 30-40 minutes, then by the age of five or six years the duration of the game increases to two hours. This is explained by the fact that the play of six-year-olds reflects more complex actions and relationships between people, and interest in it is maintained by the constant introduction of new situations. The stability of children's attention also increases when looking at pictures, listening to stories and fairy tales. Thus, the duration of looking at a picture approximately doubles by the end of preschool age; a six-year-old child is more aware of the picture than a younger preschooler and identifies more interesting aspects and details in it.

DEVELOPMENT OF VOLUNTARY ATTENTION

The main change in attention in preschool age is that children for the first time begin to control their attention, consciously direct it to certain objects and phenomena, and stay on them, using certain means for this. The origins of voluntary attention lie outside the child’s personality. This means that the development of involuntary attention itself does not lead to the emergence of voluntary attention. The latter is formed due to the fact that adults include the child in new types of activities and, using certain means, direct and organize his attention. By directing the child’s attention, adults give him the same means with which he subsequently begins to manage his attention.

In one experiment, children were played a game of questions and answers similar to the game of forfeits with prohibitions: “Don’t say ‘Yes’ and ‘No’, don’t take white and black.” As the game progressed, the child was asked a series of questions. The child had to answer as quickly as possible and at the same time follow the instructions:

do not name prohibited colors, such as black and white;

do not name the same color twice;

The experiment was structured in such a way that the child could fulfill all the conditions of the game, but this required constant attention from him, and in most cases the preschoolers did not cope with the task.

A different result was obtained when an adult offered the child a set of colored cards to help, which became external aids for successfully focusing attention on the conditions of the game. The most perceptive children began to use these aids on their own. They identified the forbidden colors, white and black, put the corresponding cards aside, and during the game they used the cards that lay in front of them.

In addition to situational means that organize attention in connection with a specific particular task, there is a universal means of organizing attention - speech. Initially, adults organize the child's attention using verbal instructions. He is reminded of the need to perform a given action, taking into account other circumstances (when you fold the turret, choose the largest ring! Yes, that’s right! And where is the largest now? Remember!!! etc.). Later, the child himself begins to verbally designate those objects and phenomena that need to be paid attention to in order to achieve the desired result.

As the planning function of speech develops, the child gains the ability to organize his attention in advance on the upcoming activity and verbally formulate what he should focus on.

The importance of verbal self-instructions for organizing attention is clearly seen from the following example. Preschool children were asked to select from ten cards with images of animals those that had at least one of the specified images (for example, a chicken or a horse), but under no circumstances take cards that had a prohibited image (for example, a bear). The child selected the cards several times in a row. Initially he was not given any instructions as to the method of action. Under these conditions, he had difficulty completing the task and often got confused. However, the situation changed when the child was asked to repeat the instructions out loud (after carefully examining the images on the cards, he remembered which cards he could take and which ones he could not). Observations have shown that after speaking the instructions, almost all children, starting from senior preschool age, give correct solutions, even if new animals are introduced into subsequent tasks. Children actively used speech to organize their attention during the process of selecting cards.

During preschool age, the use of speech to organize one's own attention increases sharply. This is manifested in particular in the fact that when performing tasks according to the instructions of an adult, children of older preschool age pronounce the instructions ten to twelve times more often than younger preschoolers. Thus, voluntary attention is formed in preschool age with a general increase in the role of speech in regulating the child’s behavior.

RELATIONSHIP OF TYPES OF ATTENTION

Although children of four to six years old begin to master voluntary attention, involuntary attention remains predominant throughout preschool childhood. It is difficult for children to concentrate on monotonous and unattractive activities, while in the process of playing or solving an emotionally charged productive task they can remain attentive for a long time. This feature of attention is one of the reasons why preschool education cannot be based on tasks that require constant tension of voluntary attention. The game elements used in the classroom, productive activities, and frequent changes in activity forms make it possible to maintain children’s attention sufficiently high level.

It should be noted that starting from senior preschool age, they become able to maintain attention on actions that acquire intellectually significant interest for them (puzzle games, riddles, educational-type tasks). The stability of attention in intellectual activity increases noticeably by the age of seven.

By the end of preschool age, children's ability for voluntary attention begins to develop intensively. In the future, voluntary attention becomes an indispensable condition for organizing educational activities at school.

TYPES OF ATTENTION

Attention has lower and higher forms. The former are represented by involuntary attention, the latter by voluntary attention.

Type of attention	Occurrence condition	Main characteristics	Mechanism
Involuntary	The action of a strong, contrasting or significant stimulus that evokes an emotional response	Involuntariness, ease of occurrence and switching	An indicative reflex or dominant characterizing a more or less stable interest of an individual
free	Statement (acceptance) of the problem	Focus according to the task. Requires strong will and tires	The leading role of the second signaling system (words, speech)
Post-voluntary	Entry into activities and the interest arising in connection with this	Maintains focus and relieves stress	Dominant characterizing the interest that arose in the process of this activity

Attention can be passive (involuntary) or active (voluntary). These types of attention differ from each other only in their complexity.

There are times when attention is involuntarily directed to something, i.e. one gets the impression that we do not pay attention to objects or phenomena, but they “take our consciousness by storm” due to their intensity.

Factors determining involuntary attention:

Stimulus intensity;

Stimulus quality;

Repetition;

The suddenness of the appearance of an object;

Object movement;

Novelty of the object;

Agreement with the present content of consciousness.

The arbitrariness of attention develops along with the formation of its individual properties. There is also a third stage in the formation of attention - it consists of returning to involuntary attention. This type of attention is called “post-voluntary”. Concept post-voluntary attention was introduced by N.F. Dobryninin. Post-voluntary attention arises on the basis of voluntary attention and consists of focusing on an object due to its value (significance, interest) for the individual. Thus, three stages of attention development can be distinguished:

Primary attention caused by a variety of stimuli that produce a strong effect on the nervous system;

Secondary attention - focusing on one object, despite the presence of others (differentiation);

Post-voluntary attention, when an object is held in attention without special effort.

5.1. INVOLVED ATTENTION

Involuntary (unintentional) is attention that is caused by certain features of currently existing objects without the intention of being attentive to them. The occurrence of involuntary attention is determined by physical, psychophysiological and mental factors and is associated with the general orientation of the individual. It occurs without volitional effort.

Causes of involuntary attention:

Objective features of objects and phenomena (their intensity, novelty, dynamism, contrast);

Structural organization (united objects are perceived more easily than randomly scattered ones);

The intensity of an object - a stronger sound, a brighter poster, etc. - is more likely to attract attention;

Novelty, unusualness of objects;

Abrupt change of objects;

Subjective factors in which a person’s selective attitude towards the environment is manifested;

The relationship of the stimulus to the needs (what meets the needs attracts attention, first of all).

The main function of involuntary attention is to quickly and correctly orient a person in constantly changing conditions, highlighting those objects that can have the greatest life meaning at the moment.

Depending on internal conditions, three types of involuntary attention are distinguished.

1. Determinants forced attention lie presumably in the species experience of the organism. Since learning this form of attention plays a minor role, it is called innate, natural or instinctive. External and internal activities are reduced to a minimum or become automatic.

2. The second type of involuntary attention depends not so much on the specific, but on the individual experience of the subject. It also develops on an instinctive basis, but in a delayed manner, in the process of spontaneous learning and adaptation of a person to certain living conditions. To this extent, these processes and conditions coincide or do not coincide among representatives of different age and social groups, general and individual zones of objects of attention and inattention are formed. This attention can be called involuntary. The coercive nature and emotional impact of the impressions, thoughts, and ideas that cause it are relatively small. In contrast to the stimulus of forced attention, objects of involuntary attention penetrate into the area of ​​consciousness during moments of relative inaction, periods of rest and actualization of needs. Under these conditions, attention is attracted to nearby objects, voices, etc.

3. The third type of involuntary attention can be called habitual attention. Some authors consider it a consequence or a special case of voluntary attention, while others consider it a transitional form to it. On the part of the subject, this form of attention is determined by attitudes, the intention to perform this or that activity.

Forced, involuntary, habitual attention as varieties of involuntary attention are united by the fact that their motivating reasons lie outside the human consciousness.

Unintentional attention is characterized by the following features:

A person does not prepare in advance for the perception of an object or action;

The intensity of unintentional attention is determined by the characteristics of the stimuli;

Short in time (attention lasts as long as the corresponding stimuli act, and, if it is not consolidated, stops when their effect ends). These features of unintentional attention make it unable to ensure the good quality of a particular activity.

5.2. VOLUNTARY ATTENTION

The source of voluntary (intentional) attention is entirely determined by subjective factors. free attention serves to achieve the goal set and accepted for execution. Depending on the nature of these conditions and on the system of activity in which acts of voluntary attention are included, the following varieties are distinguished.

1. The processes of intentionally paying attention can proceed easily and without interference. Such attention is called properly voluntary in order to distinguish it from the cases of habitual attention discussed earlier. The need for volitional attention arises in a situation of conflict between the chosen object or direction of activity and the objects or tendencies of involuntary attention. The feeling of tension is a characteristic of this type of attention process. Volitional attention can be defined as reluctant if the source of the conflict lies in the motivational sphere. The struggle with oneself is the essence of any processes of volitional attention.

2. The volitional nature of expectant attention is especially evident in situations of solving so-called vigilance tasks.

3. A particularly important option for the development of voluntary attention is the transformation of volitional attention into spontaneous attention. The function of involuntary attention is to create spontaneous attention. If you fail, only fatigue and disgust appear. Spontaneous attention has the qualities of both voluntary and involuntary attention. It is related to voluntary attention by activity, purposefulness, subordination to the intention to listen to the chosen object or type of activity. A common point with involuntary attention is the lack of effort, automaticity and emotional accompaniment.

The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of mental processes. Currently, voluntary attention is understood as an activity aimed at controlling behavior and maintaining stable selective activity.

Characteristics of voluntary (intentional) attention:

Purposefulness is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity:

The organized nature of the activity - a person prepares to be attentive to this or that object, consciously directs his attention to it, organizes the mental processes necessary for this activity;

Sustainability - attention continues for a more or less long time and depends on the tasks or work plan in which we express our intention.

Reasons for voluntary attention:

The interests of a person that motivate him to engage in this type of activity;

Awareness of duty and responsibilities requiring fulfillment as best as possible this type activities.

5.3. POST-VOLUNTARY ATTENTION

Post-voluntary attention- this is an active, purposeful concentration of consciousness that does not require volitional efforts due to high interest in activity. According to K.K. Platonov, post-voluntary attention is highest form voluntary attention. Work absorbs a person so much that breaks in it begin to irritate him, since he has to be drawn into the process again, to get used to it. Post-voluntary attention occurs in situations where the goal of the activity is preserved, but the need for volitional effort disappears.

PROPERTIES OF ATTENTION

Attention is characterized by various qualities or properties. Attention has a complex functional structure formed by the interrelations of its basic properties.

The properties of attention are divided into primary And secondary. The primary ones include volume, stability, intensity, concentration, distribution of attention, and the secondary ones include fluctuations and switching of attention.

6.1. VOLUME

Attention span- this is the number of objects (or their elements) perceived simultaneously with sufficient clarity and distinctness. The more objects or their elements are perceived simultaneously, the greater the volume of attention and the more effective the activity will be.

To measure attention span, special techniques and tests are used. As we age, our attention span expands. The attention span of an adult is from four to seven objects at a time. However, attention span is an individual variable, and the classic indicator of attention span in children is the number 3+-2.

For a child of preschool and primary school age, each letter is a separate object. The attention span of a child who begins to read is very small, but as he masters the technique of reading and gains experience, the amount of attention required for fluent reading also increases. To increase your attention span, special exercises are needed. The main condition for expanding the scope of attention is the presence of skills and abilities of systematization, unification by meaning, grouping of perceived material.

SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability of attention- its temporal characteristic is the duration of retention of attention to the same object or activity. Stability is maintained in practical activities with objects and in active mental activity. Sustained attention is maintained in work that produces positive results, especially after overcoming difficulties that cause positive emotions, feeling of satisfaction.

An indicator of attention stability is high productivity of activity over a relatively long period of time. Sustainability of attention is characterized by its duration and degree of concentration.

Experimental studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic voluntary fluctuations. The periods of such oscillations are usually two to three seconds and reach 12 seconds.

If attention is unstable, the quality of work decreases sharply. The following factors influence the stability of attention:

Complication of the object (complex objects cause complex active mental activity, which is associated with the duration of concentration);

Personal activity;

Emotional state (under the influence of strong stimuli, attention may be distracted by foreign objects);

Attitude to activity;

Pace of activity (for stability of attention, it is important to ensure an optimal pace of work: if the pace is too low or too high, nervous processes radiate (involve unnecessary areas of the cerebral cortex), making it difficult to concentrate and switch attention.

Stability is closely related to the dynamic characteristics of attention, for example, with its fluctuations (punctuation). The dynamics of attention are manifested in shifts in stability over a long period of work, which is divided into the following stages of concentration:

Initial entry into work;

Achieving concentration of attention, then its micro-oscillations, overcome through volitional efforts;

Decreased concentration and performance as fatigue increases.

6.3. INTENSITY

The intensity of attention is characterized by a relatively large expenditure of nervous energy when performing this type of activity. Attention in a particular activity can manifest itself with different intensity. During any work, it manifests itself with varying intensity. During any work, moments of very intense attention alternate with moments of weakened attention. Thus, in a state of fatigue, a person is not capable of intense attention and cannot concentrate, which is accompanied by an increase in inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex and the appearance of drowsiness as a special act of protective inhibition. Physiologically, the intensity of attention is due to an increased degree of excitatory processes in certain areas of the cerebral cortex with simultaneous inhibition of other areas.

CONCENTRATION

Concentration of attention- this is the degree of concentration. Focused is attention that is directed to one object or type of activity and does not extend to others. Concentration (focus) of attention on some objects implies simultaneous distraction from everything extraneous. Concentration is a necessary condition for comprehending and imprinting information entering the brain, and the reflection becomes clearer and more distinct.

Focused attention is of high intensity, which is necessary for performing important activities. The physiological basis of concentrated attention is the optimal intensity of excitatory processes in those parts of the cerebral cortex that are associated with this type of activity while simultaneously developing strong inhibitory processes in other parts of the cortex.

Focused attention is characterized by clearly expressed external signs: appropriate posture, facial expressions, expressive lively gaze, quick reaction, inhibition of all unnecessary movements. At the same time, external signs do not always correspond to the actual state of attention. So, for example, silence in the classroom can indicate both passion for the subject and complete indifference to what is happening.

DISTRIBUTION

Distribution of attention- this is a person’s ability to keep a certain number of objects in the center of attention at the same time, i.e. This is the simultaneous attention to two or more objects while simultaneously performing actions with them or observing them. Divided attention is a necessary condition for the successful performance of many activities that require the simultaneous performance of disparate operations.

Distribution of attention is a property of attention that is associated with the possibility of simultaneous successful execution (combination) of two or more various types activity (or several activities). When considering the distribution of attention, it is necessary to consider that:

The difficulty is combining two or more types of mental activity;

It is easier to combine motor and mental activities;

To successfully perform two types of activities simultaneously, one type of activity must be brought to automaticity.

Distribution of attention is of particular importance during study. The child must simultaneously listen to the adult and write down, retrieve, open, remember, manipulate objects, etc. But only if both types of activities, or at least one, are sufficiently mastered and do not require concentration, such a combination will be successful.

Senior preschooler and junior schoolboy They don’t distribute attention well, they don’t have experience yet. Therefore, you should not force your child to do two things at the same time or, while doing one, distract him from the other. But gradually it is necessary to accustom him to the distribution of attention, to place him in such conditions where it is necessary.

The ability for concentrated or, conversely, distributed attention is formed in the process of practical activity through exercise and accumulation of relevant skills.

SWITCHING

Switching attention- this is a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another or from one activity to another in connection with the formulation of a new task. In general, switching attention means the ability to quickly navigate difficult situation. Switching attention is always accompanied by some nervous tension, which is expressed in volitional effort. Switching attention is manifested in the subject's deliberate transition from one type of activity to another, from one object to another, from one action to another.

Possible reasons for switching attention: demands of the activity being performed, inclusion in a new activity, fatigue.

Switching can be complete (completed) or incomplete (incomplete) - in the case when a person has moved on to another activity, but has not yet been completely distracted from the first. The ease and success of switching attention depends on:

From the relationship between antecedent and subsequent activities;

From the completion of the previous activity, or its incompleteness;

From the subject’s attitude to a particular activity (the more interesting it is, the easier it is to switch, and vice versa);

From the individual characteristics of the subject (such as nervous system, individual experience, etc.);

On the significance of the goal of the activity for a person, its clarity, clarity.

Along with the switching of attention, attention is distracted - an involuntary movement of attention from the main activity to objects that are not important for its successful implementation. It is difficult for a child to start a new job, especially if it does not evoke positive emotions, so it is not recommended to frequently change its content and types unless absolutely necessary. However, when tired and monotonous activities occur, such switching is useful and necessary. Switching attention is one of the trainable qualities.

OSCILLATIONS

Attention fluctuations are expressed in the periodic change of objects to which it refers. Fluctuations in attention differ from changes in its stability. Changes in stability are characterized by periodic increases and decreases in the intensity of attention. Fluctuations can occur even with the most concentrated and sustained attention. The periodicity of fluctuations in attention is clearly manifested in experiments with dual images.

Fluctuation of Attention is explained by the fact that the activity of certain nerve centers cannot continue intensively without interruption. During hard work, the corresponding nerve cells are quickly depleted and need to be restored. Their protective inhibition occurs, as a result of which in those centers that were previously inhibited, it increases and attention switches to extraneous stimuli.

Attention has selective character. Thanks to this, the activity has a certain direction. Externally, attention is expressed in movements, with the help of which we adapt to performing actions. At the same time, unnecessary movements that interfere with this activity are inhibited. So, for example, if we need to carefully examine an object, we listen carefully to something, then we tilt our heads to hear better. This adaptive movement facilitates perception.

Direction, or selectivity, of attention manifests itself in various forms. Initially, the choice of objects of attention is associated with the analysis of a huge flow of information continuously coming from the outside world. This is tentative - research activity takes place largely at the subconscious level. Selectivity occurs largely at the subconscious level. Selectivity of attention manifests itself in vigilance, alertness, and anxious anticipation (involuntary selectivity). The conscious selection of some objects occurs in purposeful cognitive activity. In some cases, selectivity of attention may be in the nature of search, selection, control associated with a specific program (voluntary selectivity). In other cases (for example, reading a book, listening to music, etc.) a clear program is not necessary.

FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF ATTENTION

Attention in human life and activity performs many different functions. It activates the necessary and inhibits currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes, promotes the organized and targeted selection of information entering the body in accordance with its current needs, and ensures selective and long-term concentration on one object or type of activity.

Attention is associated with the direction and selectivity of cognitive processes. Attention is determined by the accuracy and detail of perception, the strength and selectivity of memory, the direction and productivity of mental activity.

Let's consider the main types of attention. These are natural and social conditioned attention, direct attention, involuntary and voluntary attention, sensory and intellectual attention.

Natural attention given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of information novelty.

Social conditioned attention develops during life as a result of training and upbringing.

Directly special attention not managing anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.

Indirect attention regulated using special means, such as gestures, words, etc.

Involuntary attention is not associated with the participation of the will, but arbitrary necessarily includes volitional regulation. Involuntary attention does not require effort to maintain and focus attention on something for a certain time, and voluntary attention has all these qualities.

Finally we can distinguish sensual And intellectual attention . The first is primarily associated with emotions and selective senses, and the second is with concentration and direction of thought.

ATTENTION DISORDERS

There are so-called negative aspects of the Attention process or attention disorders - distractibility, absent-mindedness, excessive mobility and inertia.

Attention disorders are understood as pathological changes in the direction and selectivity of mental activity, expressed in a state of fatigue or organic brain damage, in a narrowing of the object of attention, when a person can perceive only a small number of objects at the same time, in instability of attention, when the concentration of attention is impaired and attention is distracted by side irritants.

The causes of the violation can be external and internal. External causes can be considered various negative influences (stressors, frustrators) and the child’s negative relationships with people around him. The actions of internal causes can be represented as the influence of a disturbed part of the psyche on a healthy one. Attention disorders include:

Inability to maintain attention: the child cannot complete the task to the end, is not collected when completing it;

Decreased selective attention, inability to concentrate on a subject;

Increased distractibility: when completing tasks, children fuss and often switch from one activity to another;

Reduced attention in unusual situations when you need to act independently.

Types of attention disorders: distractibility, absent-mindedness, hypermobility, inertia, narrowing of attention span, instability of attention (if concentration is impaired).

8.1. DISTRACTABILITY

Distractibility(distraction of attention) - involuntary movement of attention from one object to another. It occurs when extraneous stimuli act on a person who is engaged in some activity at that moment.

Distractibility can be external or internal. External distractibility occurs under the influence of stimuli, while voluntary attention becomes involuntary. Internal distractibility occurs under the influence of experiences, extraneous emotions, due to lack of interest and hyper-responsibility. Internal distractibility is explained by extreme inhibition that develops under the influence of boring, monotonous work.

Possible causes of distraction in a child:

Insufficient formation of volitional qualities;

The habit of being inattentive (habitual inattention is associated with a lack of serious interests, a superficial attitude towards objects and phenomena);

Increased fatigue;

Bad feeling;

Presence of psychotrauma;

Monotonous, uninteresting activity;

Inappropriate type of activity;

The presence of intense extraneous irritants;

To organize the child’s attention, it is necessary to include him in the action, to awaken intellectual interest in the content and results of the activity.

ABSORPTION

Distraction of attention is the inability to concentrate on anything specific for a long time. The term “absent-mindedness” means superficial, “sliding” attention. Absent-mindedness can manifest itself:

a) inability to concentrate;

b) in excessive concentration on one object of activity;

There are two types of absent-mindedness: imaginary and genuine. Imaginary absent-mindedness is a person’s inattention to surrounding objects and phenomena, caused by concentration on one particular object (phenomenon) or experience. “With concentrated thinking,” writes I.P. Pavlov, “and when we are carried away by any activity, we do not see or hear what is happening around us - clearly a negative induction.”

The mechanism of absent-mindedness is the presence of a powerful dominant - a focus of imagination in the cerebral cortex, suppressing all other signals coming from the outside. There are scientific absent-mindedness and senile absent-mindedness.

The so-called scientific absent-mindedness is a manifestation of a very high concentration of attention combined with its limited volume. In a state of professorial absent-mindedness, the train of thought is logically ordered and strictly aimed at achieving an ideal and distant goal or finding a solution to a complex problem. Examples of “professorial” absent-mindedness are usually found in the biographies of great philosophers, inventors and scientists.

Attention disorders, called senile absent-mindedness, include poor switching ability combined with insufficient concentration. A person’s attention seems to “stick” to one subject, activity or reflection, but at the same time, unlike “professorial” absent-mindedness, such concentration is ineffective.

A similar phenomenon of absent-mindedness is observed in states of depression and anxiety, when a person’s thinking is long and continuously occupied with repetitive and fruitless thoughts and images.

Absent-mindedness is often referred to as mild exhaustion of attention as a consequence of illness or overwork. In sick and weakened children, this type of absent-mindedness often occurs. Such children may work well at the beginning of a lesson or school day, but soon become tired and their attention wanes. Today there is a tendency to increase the number of children with various health conditions and chronic diseases, and, as a result, attention disorders.

Superficial and unstable attention is found in preschoolers - dreamers and visionaries. Such children often switch out of the lesson, being carried away into an illusory world. V.P. Kashchenko points to another reason for absent-mindedness - experiencing fears, which prevents you from concentrating on the desired task. Nervous, hyperactive and sick children are distracted 1.5-2 times more often than calm and healthy ones.

In each case, it is necessary to understand the causes of violations and the severity of an individual plan for correcting absent-mindedness, taking them into account.

There are many reasons for truly absent-minded attention. The most common are the following:

General weakening of the nervous system (neurasthenia)

Deterioration of health;

Physical and mental fatigue;

The presence of severe experiences, traumas;

Emotional overload due to a large number of impressions (positive and negative);

Disadvantages of upbringing (for example, in conditions of overprotection, a child who receives too many verbal instructions, a large amount of information, gets used to a constant change of impressions, and his attention becomes superficial, observation and concentration are not formed);

Violations of the work and rest regime;

Breathing disorders (the cause of impaired breathing may be adenoids, chronic tonsillitis, etc. a child who breathes through the mouth breathes shallowly, superficially, his brain is not enriched with oxygen, which negatively affects performance, low performance interferes with concentrating his attention on objects and causes absent-mindedness)

Excessive mobility;

Excessive mobility of attention is a constant transition from one object to another, from one activity to another with low efficiency.

INERTITY

Inertia of attention is a low mobility of attention, its pathological fixation on a limited range of ideas and thoughts.

Inattention is very common in childhood. Inattention requires correction if the following signs appear in a child for six months or more:

Inability to concentrate on details, careless mistakes;

Inability to maintain attention and listen to speech addressed to him;

Frequent distraction by extraneous stimuli;

Helplessness in completing a task;

Negative attitude towards tasks that require stress, forgetfulness (the child is not able to retain the instructions for a task in memory throughout its completion)

Loss of items needed to complete a task.

CONCLUSION

In my abstract, I gave the concept of attention, highlighted its types and functions. Thus, we can conclude that the task of forming attention includes not only its development as a separate psychological process, but also the formation of such personality traits that would facilitate the transition of voluntary attention to post-voluntary attention. This includes the formation of a sense of responsibility for the work performed, motivation for the successful implementation of activities, the development of interest, and a clear organization of the activities performed. Specific tasks, as well as the creation of favorable conditions for active, independent work.

Despite the fact that attention studies give rise to numerous unresolved and complex questions, they are undoubtedly very useful, since a person needs to know techniques and methods that allow him to learn to concentrate his attention for successful educational or professional activities. And knowing the main stages of attention development in different years of a child’s life, the teacher can find the necessary means to improve attention.

The study of the human psyche and personality, cognitive processes and methods of their training and development is becoming more and more advanced. Psychologists are inventing newer, more modern models to study these processes. A person, using these models, understands his inner world, which allows you to discover new human abilities.

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7. Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech // Ibid. T.2.

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Sustainability of attention is one of the properties that characterizes the ability to concentrate on the same process or phenomenon for a long period of time.

What is attention

Attention is (in psychology) the purposeful perception of a specific object or phenomenon. It is important to understand that this is a rather changeable phenomenon that can be influenced by both internal and external factors.

In psychology, attention is a kind of relationship between a person and an object with which he interacts. It can be influenced not only by mental and psychological characteristics, but also the individual’s interest in working with certain subjects.

We can say that stability of attention is one of the most important conditions for successful activity in absolutely any field. Thanks to this category, the clarity of a person’s perception of the world around him and the processes that occur in it is determined. Despite the fact that when concentrating on the main object, everything else seems to fade into the background, attention can constantly switch.

Scientists devote a lot of time to studying attention; it cannot be considered a self-sufficient psychological phenomenon or process. It is inextricably linked with many other phenomena and is considered only in close connection with other accompanying processes, being one of their many properties.

Types and forms of attention

We can say that attention is a rather complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It can differ based on the primacy or secondary nature of the perception of information. Thus, we can distinguish between voluntary and involuntary attention.

If a person unconsciously concentrates on a particular object or process, then it is called involuntary. We are talking about unconscious attitudes that can be caused by a strong sudden impact of a stimulus. This type quite often develops into conscious voluntary attention. Also, passive concentration is quite often determined by past impressions, which to some extent are repeated in the present.

Thus, if we summarize the information provided, we can say that involuntary attention is due to the following number of reasons:

• unexpected exposure to an irritating factor;
• power of influence;
• new, unfamiliar sensations;
• the dynamism of the stimulus (it is moving objects that most often cause concentration of attention);
• contrasting situations;
• mental processes.

It occurs as a result of conscious excitatory processes in the cerebral cortex. Quite often, its formation requires outside influence (for example, teachers, parents, authority figures).

It is important to understand that voluntary attention is an indispensable attribute labor activity person. It is accompanied by physical and emotional effort, and also causes fatigue, like physical work. This is why psychologists recommend sometimes switching to abstract objects so as not to subject your brain to colossal stress.

Psychologists distinguish not only voluntary and involuntary attention. After a person has concentrated on an object and studied it well, further perception occurs as if automatically. This phenomenon is called post-voluntary, or secondary.

If we talk about forms of attention, we can distinguish external (on surrounding objects), internal (on mental processes), and also motor (moving objects are perceived).

Basic properties of attention

Psychologists distinguish the following: stability, direction, distribution, volume, intensity, switchability and concentration. Let's look at them in more detail.

• Concentration is the ability to maintain attention on a specific object or process. This means that it stands out and stands apart from the general background. The strength of a connection with an object is determined by how bright, pronounced and clear it is.
• The volume of attention implies the number of objects that can be covered by a person’s consciousness at the same time. Depending on this, people can perceive a different number of information units. The volume can be determined using special tests. Depending on the results, special exercises may be recommended to increase it.
• Sustainability of attention is an indicator that determines the duration of concentration on the same object.
• Switchability is a purposeful change in the object of concentration. This may be due to both the nature of the activity and the need for rest and relaxation.
• Distribution determines the ability of attention to simultaneously concentrate on several objects of different nature. In this case, different sensory organs may be involved.

What is sustained attention?

Sustainability of attention is a property that is determined by the ability to maintain concentration on an object or type of activity for a long period of time. We can say that this is a characteristic that determines the duration of concentration.

It is worth noting that the stability of attention cannot be determined in relation to any one object. A person can switch between objects or activities, however, the overall direction and meaning must remain constant. Thus, if a person is engaged in an activity (or several types of activities) over a certain period of time to achieve a specific goal, then one can judge the stability of his attention.

This category is characterized by a number of requirements, the main thing being the diversity of actions and impressions that they bring. If the nature of the irritation remains unchanged, then in that part of the brain responsible for this or that activity, inhibition is observed, and, as a result, attention begins to dissipate. If the nature and conditions of activity constantly vary, then the concentration will be long-lasting.

It is worth noting that concentration and can alternate, depending on internal and external conditions. Even if an individual is in a state of highest concentration, due to internal brain processes, some fluctuations may occur. If we talk about external stimuli, they cannot always lead to a distraction of attention (this largely depends on their intensity).

Distribution of attention

Divided attention is a state that occurs as a result of simultaneous performance of several actions. For example, a minibus driver not only drives the vehicle, but also controls the situation on the road. The teacher also monitors compliance with discipline while conveying information to students. This category can also be illustrated by the work of a chef, who can simultaneously control the process of preparing several products.

Psychologists study not only the distribution phenomenon itself, but also its physiological nature. This process is caused by the emergence in the cerebral cortex of a certain focus of excitation, which can spread its influence to other areas. In this case, partial braking may occur. However, it has absolutely no effect on the execution of actions if they are brought to automaticity. This explains the ease of implementation complex processes from people who have mastered their profession well.

Distribution of attention can be difficult if an individual simultaneously tries to perform actions that are in no way related to each other (this has been proven by numerous experiments). However, if one of them is brought to automaticity or habit, then the task becomes easier. The ability to combine several activities at the same time falls into the category of health factors.

Levels of attention

The level of attention is the dependence of concentration on a specific activity on physiological and mental processes. So, we can talk about the following categories:

• the level of the physical body implies the awareness that the objects to which attention is directed are separated from the body itself, and therefore are foreign (this makes it possible to perceive them independently of physiological processes);
• the energy level implies a higher level of interaction with objects, which consists of receiving some internal sensations associated with the work process (they can contribute to concentration or dispersion of attention);
• the level of energy metabolism implies that high degree concentration is achieved due to the fact that a person receives moral and physical satisfaction from performing a particular process;
• the level of general space implies that concentration and stability of attention can, to some extent, come from the mere fact of being with an object within one limited territory;
• extraspatial attention is associated with internal mental and psychological processes(we are talking about unconditional understanding or knowledge that an individual receives through experience);
• level of will is the ability to force oneself to concentrate on an unwanted or uninteresting activity due to its necessity to achieve a certain result;
• The level of awareness implies that concentration occurs when a person understands the meaning and anticipates the results of the activity.

How to develop sustained attention

At the moment, there are many methods and tests that allow you to determine levels of attention stability. Unfortunately, their results are not always satisfactory, but this situation is quite fixable. The development of sustained attention becomes possible thanks to techniques developed by psychologists. This allows you to increase your performance and learning ability.

The most effective and frequently used exercises are:

• Set your cell phone timer for two minutes. All this time, you should completely focus your attention on the tip of your finger (no matter which one). If you can cope with this task without problems, then try to complicate it. For example, turn on the TV and try to keep your attention on your finger against its background. It is best if you do such training daily.
• Find a comfortable position and focus completely on your breathing. You can also try to feel your heartbeat. At the same time, the room does not have to be perfect silence; you can turn on music. This exercise is useful not only for developing concentration, but also for relaxation.
• When on public transport, take a seat by the window and fully concentrate on the glass, not paying attention to the objects behind it. Change the priority later.
• The following exercise is performed before bed, because it not only develops concentration, but also helps to relax. Take a standard sheet of text and put a dot in the middle with a green felt-tip pen or marker. You need to look at it for 5 minutes, while not allowing any extraneous thoughts to enter your consciousness.
• If your activity is related to the perception of sounds, then it is necessary to train this particular apparatus. It is advisable to go out to the park and for 10 minutes try to hear exclusively the sounds of nature, without paying attention to the conversations of passers-by or the noise of passing cars.

Psychological health factors are largely related to the ability to maintain sustained attention. This brings success in professional and everyday activities. If your natural abilities are not at the highest level, then you need to develop them with the help of special exercises.

Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology of attention is separate area knowledge, which studies issues of concentration, linking them with nervous processes. Initially, such studies were carried out exclusively on animals, by connecting electrodes to certain areas of the brain. In order to study the stability of human attention, electroencephalogram technology is used. To do this, the body must be awake. In this way, it is possible to record the excitation or inhibition of nerve impulses during the performance of a certain type of activity.

In this context, psychologist E. N. Sokolov plays a huge role. Through a large number of studies, he proved that when performing the same action repeatedly, attention becomes automatic. Thus, the brain stops actively responding to the stimulus, which affects the results of the electroencephalogram. The brain decides that in this case there is no need for excitement, because the body has a certain mechanical memory.

Selective concentration process

It is a psychological and mental process that involves filtering external stimuli and stimuli in order to isolate those that actually require concentration and concentration.

This phenomenon is constantly being studied by psychologists to determine how dependent mental processes are on the selective activity of the brain. This can be explained by simple example. If at first we hear the hum of voices in a noisy place, then as soon as someone addresses us directly, we begin to focus our attention only on this while the background noise is lost.

Psychologists conducted the following experiment: headphones were inserted into the subject’s ears, into which different sounds were fed. To their surprise, the person only heard one of the tracks. At the same time, when a certain signal was given, attention switched to another melody.

Selective attention concerns not only hearing, but also visual perception. If you try to catch different pictures on two monitors with each eye, then you will not succeed. You will only be able to see one image clearly.

Thus, we can say that the human brain has the ability to filter information that comes through certain channels, focusing attention only on one of the essential points. Concentration and switching of attention can be determined by internal or external factors.

Conclusion

Sustainability of attention is a person’s ability to focus on studying a specific object or performing a specific type of activity. It is this factor that largely determines the performance and volume of perceived information. It is important to understand that concentration of attention allows you to discard all secondary factors into the background, but this does not mean that a change of emphasis is excluded.

If we talk about the types of attention, we can distinguish voluntary and involuntary. The first of these is conscious. The focus of attention is precisely the object that directly interests the individual. Moreover, if such concentration occurs regularly, the brain begins to concentrate automatically. This type of attention is called post-voluntary. But it often happens that an individual completely unexpectedly switches to objects or phenomena that have no direct relation to his activity. In this case, we can talk about involuntary attention. These can be sharp sounds, bright colors, etc.

Attention has a number of properties. The main one is concentration. It implies the ability to hold a specific object in the spotlight for a certain period of time. Volume characterizes the number of objects or activities on which a person can simultaneously concentrate, but stability is the time during which this state can persist.

Quite interesting is the phenomenon of attention distribution. This means that a person does not have to concentrate on only one single type of activity. Sometimes, due to the specific nature of the activity, it is necessary to perform several processes simultaneously. Moreover, some of them are brought to automaticity, while others require certain mental and psychological efforts. The most striking examples are the professional activities of a teacher or a vehicle driver.

It is important to understand that not every person is able to maintain the same object in the center of attention for a long time or perform a homogeneous activity. In order to find out your abilities, you can go through certain psychological tests. Based on their results, it is easy to determine the level of attention stability. If it turns out to be unsatisfactory, it is recommended to resort to a number of special exercises.

Psychologists are quite actively studying the phenomenon of selective concentration. This mechanism allows you to select the desired object from a number of similar ones. Moreover, we can talk about visual, auditory, tactile and other types of perceptions. Among the noise of voices, a person can distinguish the speech of the interlocutor; out of several melodies, he hears only one, and if we are talking about two images, then it is impossible to catch them with each eye separately.

Attention is the selective and concentrated direction of human consciousness on a certain object that has a certain stable or situational meaning, in contrast to other surrounding objects.

Periods of formation of attention

Age-related features of the development of attention are an important component in the study of physiological, psychological, emotional and characteristics of a person as a whole. In the process of personality development, attention undergoes a certain evolution:

• In the first few months of life, indicative reflexes appear, which indicates the presence of involuntary signs of attention in the child; the child reveals reactions to change environment, to strong stimuli;
• The first year of a child’s life is an exploratory and orientation activity, which will further contribute to the development of focusing attention . The child is increasingly interested in bright and new objects in the environment;
• The second and third years of life – the development of signs of voluntary attention during the speech influence of adults;
• 4-5.5 years - the ability to direct attention under the influence of instructions from adults. At this age, it is necessary to begin training on switching or distributing attention;
• 5-6 years – the emergence of independent focusing of attention under the influence of one’s own instructions, detailing and analysis of various objects;
• School age – improvement of volitional and voluntary types of attention. During this period of development, there is an increase in the difference in the significance of the voluntary and involuntary. Over time, the indicators level off again. It is at school age, taking into account the characteristics of the child’s psyche, that the following techniques are used to improve the intentional type of attention: creating a clear and clear idea of ​​tasks and their implementation, developing thinking and observation, instilling discipline and responsibility, increasing the stability of attention by increasing the volume and complexity of the proposed information;
• Upon reaching 18-20 years of age, changes in attention are of an evolutionary nature: attention is associated with verbal thinking and memory, which increases the connection of attention with the intellectual process.

Functions of attention

Attention performs a number of important functions:

• Determination of information necessary for processing - selectivity;
• Function of monitoring and evaluating activities;
• Forecast and programming function.

Factors influencing attention

Age-related characteristics of attention associated with the participation of various parts of the brain in thought processes. Efficiency of work performed and focus on this process depends largely on surrounding factors: some environmental factors can distract attention (bright colors, extraneous irritating sounds, emotional discomfort during communication), others help concentrate (silence or calm music, discreet colors in interior design).

Being in a work environment for a long time also negatively affects concentration and ability to work. Therefore, it is recommended to take short (10-15 minutes) breaks, during which you can physically stretch a little and also drink tea or coffee.

Of great importance is the process of fluctuations in mental activity during the day. Scientists have proven that the highest efficiency is observed from 9.00 to 12.00 pm and from 15.00 to 19.00 pm. It is best to plan your working day taking into account these features.

Exercises to develop attention

To increase the degree of concentration, there are various exercises, the goal of which is the ability to limit attention and concentrate only on the object of work.

• Focus your gaze on the phalanx of one of your fingers, try to hold your attention for 2-3 minutes, not paying attention to what is happening around you.
• Turn on an interesting movie or TV show on TV, put a clock in front of you and try to follow the second hand without being distracted by the monitor.
• Turn on some music, preferably dance music, close your eyes and try to focus on your breathing or heartbeat.
• When traveling in public transport, focus your attention first on the glass and then on the objects behind it. It is necessary to repeat several times in a row at different time intervals.
• Before you go to bed, take a sheet of printed text and draw a medium-sized green circle in the center. Focus for 5-7 minutes attention and look at this circle, and then try to fall asleep immediately.
• Try to focus your attention on the sounds around you for 9-10 minutes.
• Try to read a book that is not interesting to you, while trying to get from it at least some information that might interest you. Try to comprehend the information received.

You can develop attention throughout the working day. There are special exercises that allow you to train during breaks between work.

• Before leaving your office, turn to face the room and look around the room for 7-10 seconds. Then, on the way to your break, try to remember in detail the cabinet objects that came into your field of vision.
• Ask a colleague to print any twenty numbers, then try to discover the sequence or relationship in them yourself.
• Take a pencil or pen in both hands and try to draw a rhombus and a circle at the same time. Repeat the procedure several times. This exercise helps develop motor skills and concentration.
• After work, try to remember some new interior details and names.

Attention has several properties (focus, volume, distribution, persistence, switchability). These properties can be developed through various exercises. To improve each of the parameters, there are separate types of training, but for best results it is better to use an integrated approach.