Spain in the XVI. Features of the development of Spain at the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries. Culture of Spain in the 16th-17th centuries

Spain in the 16th century was one of the dominant countries in Western Europe. Spanish society developed steadily, and the financial reserve was constantly replenished with the help of colonies, since Spain was one of the first leading states during the Great Geographical Discoveries. At the same time, a number of internal and external reasons “threw” Spain to the sidelines of Western European history of the New Time.

Internal factor

Among a number of reasons for the truly deep crisis of Spain, a state that, at first glance, is developing successfully, several factors should be highlighted:

Spain was ruined by its own colonies: the irregular and unstable flow of gold and precious metals from the colonies to the Spanish metropolis practically devalued any monetary principle of the state. Prices soon rose, production fell rapidly, and the population quickly became poor;
the economic crisis and the so-called “price revolution” devalued Spanish goods themselves, foreign trade was profitable only with the colonies;
Emperor Philip was wasteful and openly neglected Spanish economic problems. He shared the crown of the Spanish house with the inheritance of the Roman Holy Empire and dealt little with the internal crisis;
Philip's indifference worried the Cortes - representatives of the estate body, who began an open policy against the king, which led to the decentralization of the state.

External factor

While gold-rich Spain began to vegetate in complete inability and unwillingness to manage cash flows, the political and economic situation of a number of other countries noticeably strengthened. The Time of Geographical Discovery was supported, for example, by Holland and England, and Portugal continued to develop new lands and markets.

In the political arena of medieval Europe, attempts to regulate the economy began to emerge - the policy of “mercantilism” and “protectionism”. While Philip of Spain did not pay attention to the rapid fall of his state, the kings of France, England, and leaders of the Netherlands introduced a system of measures that supported their bankers, traders, merchants, and sailors.

At the dawn of modern times, Spain was the strongest power in Europe. As a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, she created the largest colonial empire in the world. The strengthening of Spain was largely facilitated by the annexation of Portugal in 1580, which ranked second in terms of the size of its colonial possessions. The turbulent events of the Reformation practically did not affect it, and as a result of the Italian Wars, Spain consolidated its predominant position in the international arena. At the same time, its main rival - France - in the second half of the 16th century. for a long time plunged into the abyss of destructive civil wars caused by the religious and political division of the country.

The history of modern Spain begins with the unification of the two largest kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula - Aragon and Castile. Initially, the united Spain was a union of these two kingdoms, sealed by the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. In 1479, the royal couple took control of both states, which continued to maintain their previous internal structure. The leading role belonged to Castile, on whose territory 3/4 of the population of the united kingdom lived.

The main factor in the unity of Aragon and Castile was foreign policy. In 1492, their combined forces defeated the last Moorish state on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula - Granada - and thus completed the Reconquista. To commemorate this event, the Pope granted Ferdinand and Isabella the honorary titles of "Catholic Kings". They fully justified the titles they received, striving to strengthen the religious unity of the country and eradicating heresies.

Political structure of Spain

The main feature of Spain's political structure was the lack of strong centralization. Great differences remained between the two kingdoms, and within them between the provinces. Each kingdom had its own bodies of class representation - the Cortes, but as royal power strengthened, their role weakened. The Cortes met less and less frequently, and their functions were limited only to approving taxes and laws established by the king. The life of the various provinces of the state was regulated by local traditions (fueros), which they valued very much.

An important indicator of the strengthening of royal power was its subordination to the Catholic Church in Spain. Starting with Ferdinand of Aragon, the kings headed influential spiritual and knightly orders that played a large role in Spanish society. The “Catholic kings” achieved the right to independently appoint bishops, while foreigners were not allowed to occupy the highest church positions in Spain. The appointment of the Grand Inquisitor, who headed a special ecclesiastical court, was also a royal prerogative. The Inquisition itself acquired not only religious, but also political functions, helping to strengthen the Spanish state. The strengthening of the religious unity of Spain was facilitated by the forced baptism or expulsion outside the borders, first of the Jews, and then of the Moors, the Moriscos, who converted to Christianity.

Features of socio-economic development

Spain entered modern times as a predominantly agricultural country with a very unique social structure. Nowhere in the world was there such a large nobility; in Spain it made up almost 10% of the population. The top layer of the nobility was represented by grandees, the middle layer by caballeros, and at the bottom level of this hierarchy stood ordinary nobles - hidalgos.

The Hidalgos for the most part represented the service class, deprived of property and incapable of any productive activity. During the Reconquista, they only learned to fight, which later ensured the success of the Spanish conquests in America and military victories in Europe.

Participation in the Reconquista was accompanied by the granting of numerous liberties to various segments of the population. This was especially true for Castile. The bulk of the peasants here by the end of the 15th century. enjoyed personal freedom, and the Castilian cities had various privileges. However, at the same time, the peasantry suffered from land shortage, and city dwellers did not have the same opportunities for entrepreneurial activity as in other European countries.

The main industries of the Spanish economy were sheep farming and wool exports. The monopoly in this area has long belonged to an association of sheep farmers called “Mesta”. This noble union had exclusive rights that allowed them to drive numerous flocks of sheep through peasant lands, causing them enormous damage.

Sheep farming in the country flourished to the detriment of grain production, which often led to a shortage of bread. At the same time, owners of sheep farms, unable to organize their own production, preferred to sell raw wool and buy finished cloth abroad. The export of cheap raw materials and the import of expensive products made from them contributed to the development of the economy not of Spain, but of its trading competitors - England and the Netherlands.

The economic life of Spanish society was greatly affected by the consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the creation of the colonial empire. The massive influx of gold and silver from America (“American treasures”) put the country’s economy in new conditions. Spain became the first victim of the “price revolution” taking place in the European economy at that time. The untold wealth obtained without much difficulty in the colonies devalued money, which led to an increase in the price of goods. Over the course of a century, prices in Spain rose on average fourfold, far more than in any other European country. This led to the enrichment of some segments of the population at the expense of others. The wealth exported from the colonies deprived Spanish entrepreneurs and the state of an incentive to develop production. Ultimately, all this predetermined the general lag of Spain behind other European states, which were able to use the opportunities that colonial trade opened up to greater benefit for themselves.

Power of Philip II

The first period of the existence of a united Spain is closely connected with its participation in the Italian Wars, during which the country experienced its greatest prosperity.

The Spanish throne was occupied almost all this time by Carlos I (1516-1556), better known as Charles V of Habsburg, Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1556). After the collapse of the power of Charles V, his son Philip II became king of Spain.

In addition to Spain with its colonies, the Netherlands and Charles’s Italian possessions also came under his rule. Philip II was married to the English queen Mary Tudor, in whose alliance he victoriously ended the last of the Italian wars. The Spanish army was recognized as the strongest in Europe.

In 1571, the allied fleet of the Catholic powers under the command of the Spanish prince won a decisive victory over the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. In 1580, Philip II managed to annex Portugal to his possessions, thus uniting not only the entire Iberian Peninsula, but also the two largest colonial empires of that time. An entire country was named after the king - the Philippines, a Spanish colony on the Pacific Ocean. Madrid, which had been the permanent residence of the king since 1561, quickly became the true capital of a great power. The Madrid court dictated the style of behavior and fashion throughout Europe. However, having reached the heights of foreign policy power, the Spanish monarch was unable to achieve equally impressive successes in the internal development of the country.

The most profitable trade for Spain with America was carried out by monopoly companies under the strict control of royal power, which interfered with its normal development. Agriculture gradually fell into decline under conditions of mass impoverishment of the nobility, accustomed to fighting rather than organizing agricultural labor in their domains. The peasantry and cities were suffocating from high taxes. During the reign of Philip II, the consequences of the “price revolution” manifested themselves in full force. “American treasures” enriched a few representatives of the privileged strata, and also went to pay for foreign goods instead of contributing to the economic development of Spain itself. Significant funds were consumed by the wars. Despite the unprecedented growth of state revenues, which increased 12 times during the reign of Philip II, state expenses constantly exceeded them. Thus, At the moment of Spain's greatest prosperity, the first signs of its decline appeared. The uncompromising policy of Philip II led to the aggravation of all the contradictions characteristic of Spanish society, and then to the weakening of the country's international position.

The first signal of trouble in the kingdom was the loss of the Netherlands by Spain. The richest country in the domain of Philip II was subjected to ruthless exploitation. Just 10 years after the accession of the new king, a national liberation uprising began there, and soon Spain found itself drawn into a full-scale, long, and most importantly, futile war with the newborn republic. For almost twenty years, Spain also waged a difficult war with England, during which its fleet suffered a severe defeat. The death of the "Invincible Armada", sent in 1588 to conquer England, became a turning point, after which the decline of Spain's naval power began. Intervention in the religious wars in France led at the end of the 16th century. to a clash with this power, which also did not bring glory to Spanish weapons. These were the results of the reign of the most powerful king in the history of Spain.

Spain in decline

The history of the reign of the last Spanish Habsburgs is a chronicle of the gradual decline of a once powerful power, before which other European countries trembled. The reign of Philip III (1598-1621) was marked by the final expulsion from Spain of the Moriscos - the descendants of those Moors who were forced to convert to Christianity. Since the Moriscos were the most active entrepreneurs, their expulsion dealt a heavy blow to the weakening Spanish economy. Under this king, Spain ended the war with England, and in 1609 was forced to agree to a truce with the Netherlands, effectively recognizing their independence. Spain's reconciliation with its main trading competitors caused discontent in society, since in conditions of peace, imports from these countries began to grow to the detriment of the Spanish economy.

Soon there was a return to an active foreign policy, and in alliance with the Austrian Habsburgs, Spain entered the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Initially, success accompanied the Spaniards; their new sovereign, Philip IV (1621-1665), was called “king of the planet.” However, the war, in which Spain had to fight the Netherlands, France and Portugal, turned out to be too much for her. Ultimately, Spain lost its leading position in the international arena to France, which had revived its power. Now the role of a minor power awaited her. In the second half of the 17th century. France seized Spanish possessions along its northern borders and then laid claim to Spain itself. The fate of the country was now decided by other powers during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). In Madrid, instead of the Habsburgs, the Buffbons established themselves, and Spain entered a new period in its history.

The rise of Spanish culture

The artistic ideals of the Renaissance and the ideology of humanism had virtually no impact on the culture of Spain, but the period of its external power was accompanied by a genuine flowering of original Spanish art. This was the golden age of Spanish literature and painting.

Signs of cultural upsurge appeared already in the first half of the 16th century, but it reached a special scale under Philip II. A great power needed great art, and the Spanish king understood this very well. The royal power, like the once Renaissance sovereigns of Italy, acted as a patron of the fine arts. During the reign of Philip II, large-scale construction was carried out, enriching Spain with a number of architectural monuments. A new royal residence, El Escorial, was built near Madrid, which became the most remarkable monument of the era.

Spanish culture of that time achieved the greatest success in the field of painting. Taking the baton from Italy, Spain became the country in which European painting took the next big step in its development.

The first great Spanish artist was El Greco (1541-1614). A native of the Greek island of Crete, he settled in Toledo in 1577, where he became a leading representative of the mystical movement in Spanish art. Following this, the rapid development of the national school of painting began. Artists X. Ribeira (1591-1652) and F. Zurbaran (1598-1669) depicted mainly religious and mythological subjects on their canvases.

Spain was especially glorified by its greatest artist, the court painter of Philip IV Diego Velazquez (1599-1660). Among his masterpieces are numerous portraits of the king, members of his family and associates; the famous painting “The Capture of Breda”, dedicated to one of the episodes of the war with the Netherlands. Bartolome Esteban Murillo (1617-1682), the last in this brilliant galaxy, became the founder of the everyday genre in Spanish art. He became the first president of the Seville Academy of Fine Arts.

The most noticeable phenomenon in the field of literature was the development of the chivalric romance, interest in which was stimulated both by memories of the past exploits of the Spanish knights and by continuous wars in Europe and in the colonies. During this period, the great Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes (1547-1616), author of the immortal “Don Quixote,” lived and created his works. This peculiar parody of a chivalric romance reflected the deep decline of the Spanish nobility and the collapse of its ideals.

Already at the end of the 15th century. Modern Spanish drama began to emerge, based on the original traditions of folk culture. The theater played a huge role in the cultural life of Spain during its heyday. In the first half of the 17th century. A genuine revolution took place in this area; Spanish drama took a leading position in European culture. Lope de Vega (1562-1635) is considered the founder of Spanish national drama, whose plays have not left the theater stage to this day. He proved himself to be a master of the “comedy of cloak and sword.” Another major Spanish playwright was Pedro Calderon (1600-1681), the founder of the “drama of honor.”

The most important consequence of the development of literature was the formation of a single Spanish language, which was based on the Castilian dialect.

The achievements of the Spaniards in music were impressive. The most common musical instrument back in the 16th century. became a guitar that, following the Spaniards, fell in love with many other peoples of the world and has not lost its popularity to this day. Spain became the birthplace of such a song genre as romance.

The artistic style of that time, which replaced the Renaissance, was called Baroque. He was distinguished by a freer artistic style, rejection of rigid canons, expansion of themes and a broad search for new subjects in art. But if Baroque became a style common in many European countries, then the so-called Moorish style remained specifically Spanish. Borrowing much from the artistic heritage of the Arab East, it, combined with the traditions of late Gothic, gave birth to many architectural masterpieces. The Alhambra Palace in Granada can be considered the most characteristic of this style.

The development of navigation, geographical discoveries, the exploration of the New World, as well as constant wars posed many practical problems for Spanish science, contributing to the development of natural science, economics, political and legal sciences. Spanish legal scholars of this period were among the founders of the science of international law, which arose in heated polemics with English and Dutch jurists who defended the positions of their countries in the fight against Spain.

From the work of the Spanish economist Don Jerónimo de Ustariza, “The Theory and Practice of Trade and Navigation,” first published in 1724.

“... It is clear that Spain is experiencing a decline only because she neglected trade and did not establish numerous manufactories throughout the vast expanses of her kingdom ... the firmly established principle is that the more the import of foreign goods exceeds the export of ours, the sooner and more inevitably it will be our ruin...
In the same way, it is clear that in order for this trade to be useful to us and bring us great benefits... it is necessary that we make use of the abundance and excellent qualities of our raw materials. Finally, we must strictly apply all those means that will give us the opportunity to sell to foreigners more products of our production than they sell us of their own...
The main thing is that we need to remove the obstacles that we ourselves have erected in the way of the development of manufactures and the sale of their products both outside the state and within it. These obstacles consist of heavy taxes on the foodstuffs that the workers consume, on the raw materials that they process; in an excessive and repeated tax... on every sale, in a tax on fabrics exported from the kingdom."

References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century

Spain is one of the most ancient countries in the world, which has had and continues to influence the development of Europe, the Iberian region, the countries of South and Latin America. The history of Spain is full of drama, ups and downs, contradictions that determined the course of development of the medieval state, the formation of a national state with a single nation and culture, and the identification of the main directions of foreign policy.

Spain in the primitive period

Archaeologists have found finds on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula that date back to the Paleolithic period. This means that Neanderthals reached Gibraltar in the Paleolithic and began to explore the shores of the mainland. Settlements of primitive people are found not only in Gibraltar, but also in the province of Soria, on the Manzanares River, near Madrid.

14-12 thousand years ago in the north of Spain there was a developed Magdalenian culture, whose bearers painted animals on the walls of caves and painted them with different colors. There are also traces of other cultures on the territory of Spain:

Azilskaya.
Asturian.
Neolithic El Argar.
Bronze El Garcel and Los Millares.

In 3 thousand BC, people were already building fortified settlements that protected the fields and crops on them. There are tombs in Spain - large stone structures in the form of trapezoids and rectangles in which nobles were buried. At the end of the Bronze Age, the Tartessian culture appeared in Spain, whose bearers used writing, the alphabet, built ships, were engaged in navigation and trade. This culture contributed to the formation of the Greco-Iberian civilization.

Antique period

1 thousand BC - Indo-European peoples arrived: Proto-Celts, who settled in the north and center; Iberians who lived in the center of the peninsula. The Iberians were Hamitic tribes who sailed to Spain from North Africa and conquered the southern and eastern regions of Spain.
The Phoenicians simultaneously with the Proto-Celts penetrated the Pyrenees, founding here in the 11th century. BC city of Cadiz.
In the east from the 7th century. BC. The Greeks settled and created their colonies on the sea coast.

In the 3rd century. BC, the inhabitants of Carthage separated from Phenicia, and actively began to develop the south and southeast of Spain. The Romans drove the Carthaginians out of their colonies, marking the beginning of the Romanization of the Iberian Peninsula. East Coast The Romans completely controlled the east coast, establishing many settlements here. This province was called Near Spain. The Greeks owned Anladusia and the interior peninsulas, and traded with the Romans and Carthaginians. The Romans called this province Further Spain.

The Celtiberian tribes were conquered by Rome in 182 BC. Next came the turn of the Lusitanians and Celts, tribes that lived in modern Portugal.

The Romans evicted the local population to the most remote regions, as the inhabitants resisted the colonialists. The southern provinces experienced the strongest impact. Roman emperors lived in Spain, theaters, arenas, hippodromes, bridges, aqueducts were built in the cities, and new ports were opened on the coast. In 74, the Spaniards received full citizenship in Rome. In the 1st-2nd centuries. AD Christianity began to penetrate into Spain, and within a hundred years there were many Christian communities here, which the Romans actively fought against. But this did not stop Christianity. At the beginning of the 4th century. AD in Iliberis, near Granada, the first cathedral appeared.

Medieval period

One of the longest stages in the development of Spain, which is associated with the conquest by the barbarians, their founding of the first kingdoms, the Arab conquest, and the Reconquista. In the 5th century Spain was conquered by Germanic tribes, who formed the Visigothic kingdom with its capital in Toledo. The power of the Visigoths was recognized by Rome at the end of the 5th century. AD In subsequent centuries, the struggle for the right to own the Iberian Peninsula took place between the Romans, Byzantines and Visigoths. Spain was divided into several parts. Political fragmentation was intensified by religious schism. The Visigoths professed Arianism, which was prohibited by the Council of Nicaea as a heresy. The Byzantines brought with them Orthodoxy, which supporters of the Catholic faith tried to supplant. Catholicism, as a state religion, was adopted in Spain at the end of the 6th century, which made it possible to erase the boundaries in the development of the Goths and Romano-Spaniards. In the 8th century. An internecine struggle began between the Visigoths, which weakened the kingdom and allowed the Arabs to capture the Pyrenees. They brought with them not only a new government, but also Islam. The Arabs called the new lands Al-Andaluz, and ruled them with the help of a governor. He was subordinate to the caliph who was sitting in Damascus. In the middle of the 8th century. The Emirate of Cordoba was founded, and its ruler Abdarrahman the Third in the 10th century. awarded himself the title of caliph. The caliphate existed until the 11th century, and then broke up into small emirates.

In the 11th century The movement against Muslim Arabs intensified within the caliphate. On the one hand, the Arabs fought, and on the other, the local population, who sought to overthrow the rule of the caliphate. This movement was called the Reconquista, which caused the collapse of the Cordoba Caliphate. In the 11th-12th centuries. on the territory of Spain there were several large state entities - the kingdom of Asturias or Leon, the county of Castile, which united with Leon, the kingdom of Navarre, the county of Aragon, and several small counties belonging to the Franks.

Catalonia in the 12th century. became part of Aragon, which expanded its territories to the south, capturing the Balearic Islands.

The reconquista ended with the victory of the crusaders and the undermining of the influence of the emirs in the Pyrenees. In the 13th century King Ferdinand the Third was able to unite Leon, Castile, and captured Cordoba, Murcia, and Seville. Only Granada retained independence in the new kingdom, which remained free until 1492.

The reasons for the success of the Reconquista were:

Military actions of European Christians who united to fight the Arab threat.
The desire and readiness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims.
Granting Muslims the right to live in Christian cities. At the same time, the faith, traditions and language of the Arabs were preserved.

Unification of the state

The Reconquista and the suppression of the emirs contributed to the fact that the Spanish kingdoms, duchies, and counties embarked on the path of independent development. Stronger state associations, for example, Castile and Aragon, tried to seize weaker counties, within which clashes and civil wars constantly occurred. Neighboring countries - France and England - took advantage of the weakness of Spanish state formations. The prerequisites for the future unification of Spain into a single state began to take shape in the 15th century, Castile was headed by Juan II, the son of the deceased King Enrique III. But instead of Juan, the kingdom was ruled by his brother Ferdinand, who became his brother's co-regent. Ferdinand managed to defend power in Aragon, interfering in the affairs of Castile. In this kingdom, a political alliance was formed against the Aragonese, whose members did not want to strengthen power in Castile.

Between Aragon and Castile during the 15th century. There was a confrontation, internecine wars that provoked civil massacre. Only the appointment of Isabella of Castile as heir to the throne could stop the confrontation. She married Ferdinand of Aragon, former Infante of Aragon. In 1474, Isabella became queen of Castile, and five years later her husband took the royal throne of Aragon. This marked the beginning of the unification of the Spanish state. It gradually included the following territories:

Navarre.
Balearics.
Corsica.
Sicily.
Sardinia.
Southern Italy.
Valencia.

In the occupied lands, the positions of governors or viceroys were introduced, who ruled the provinces. The power of the kings was limited by the Cortes, i.e. parliaments. These were representative bodies of government. The Cortes in Castile were weak and did not have much influence on the policies of the kings, but in Aragon it was the other way around. For the internal life of Spain in the 15th century. the following is typical:

An uprising of serfs or remens, who demanded the abolition of feudal duties.
Civil War 1462-1472
Abolition of serfdom and heavy feudal duties.
Opposition against Jews who lived separately in Spain.
The Spanish Inquisition was established.

Spain in the 16th-19th centuries.

In the 16th century Spain became part of the Holy Roman Empire, where it served the interests of the Habsburgs, who used it against the Lutherans, Turks, and French. Madrid became the capital of the Kingdom of Spain, which happened in the second half of the 16th century. Spain's participation in many European conflicts, one of which in 1588 destroyed the "Invincible Armada". As a result, Spain lost its supremacy at sea. Spanish kings in the 16th century. managed to strengthen centralized power, limit the power of the Cortes, which were convened less and less often. At the same time, the Spanish Inquisition intensified, controlling all spheres of the social and spiritual life of Spanish society.
Late 16th century – 17th century were difficult for a state that had lost its status as a world power. The incomes of the kingdoms and revenues to the treasury were constantly increasing, but only due to revenues from the colonies. In general, Philip II had to declare the country bankrupt twice. The reign of his heirs - Philip III and Philip IV - did not change the situation, although they managed to sign a truce with Holland, France, England, and expel the Moriscos. Spain was also drawn into the Thirty Years' War, which depleted the kingdom's resources. After the defeat in the conflict, the colonies, as well as Catalonia and Portugal, began to rebel one by one.
The last ruler from the Habsburg dynasty who was on the Spanish throne was Charles II. His reign lasted until 1700, then the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne. Philip the Fifth during 1700-1746. kept Spain out of civil war, but lost many territories, including Sicily, Naples, Sardinia and other Italian provinces, the Netherlands and Gibraltar. Ferdinand the Sixth and Charles the Third tried to stop the collapse of the Spanish Empire, who carried out successful political and economic reforms and fought on the side of France against Britain. Since 1793, Spain fell into the sphere of influence of France.
19th century was associated with constant political changes in the history of Spain. The overthrow of Napoleon the First Bonaparte, attempts to restore the monarchy through the heirs of the Bourbon dynasty, the adoption of a constitution, the implementation of liberal reforms, the restoration of the absolute monarchy - these are the main features of the political and social development of Spain in the 19th century. The instability ended in 1868 when Spain became a hereditary monarchy. The restoration of representatives of the ruling dynasty took place several times, and ended with the minor Alphonse Twelfth ascending the throne in 1874. He was succeeded by Alphonse the Thirteenth, who ruled the country until 1931.

Features of development in the 20-21st centuries.

Spain in the 20th century. “threw” from side to side - from democracy to dictatorship and totalitarianism, then there was a return to democratic values, political and economic instability, and social crisis. In 1933, a coup d'etat took place, as a result of which the fascist party of F. Franco came to power. He and his associates used terrorist measures to suppress Spanish discontent and dissent. Franco fought for power in Spain with the Republicans for several years, which triggered the outbreak of the Civil War (1936-1939). The final victory was achieved by Franco, who established a dictatorship. In the early years, more than one million people became victims of his rule, who were sent to prisons and labor camps. 400 thousand people died during the three years of the Civil War, another 200 thousand were executed from 1939 to 1943.

Spain was unable to take the side of Italy and Germany in World War II because it was exhausted by internal confrontations. Franco provided assistance to his allies by sending a division to the Eastern Front. The cooling of relations between Franco and Hitler began in 1943, when it became clear that the Third Reich was losing the war. After World War II, Spain fell into international isolation and was not a member of either the UN or NATO. Diplomatic ties with Western countries began to be gradually restored only in 1953:

The country was accepted into the UN.
Agreements were signed with the United States, one of which was that American bases would be located on Spanish territory.
Adoption of a new constitution, Organic Law.

At the same time, the majority of Spaniards did not take part in the political and social life of the country. And the government did not try to correct the situation, as a result of which illegal trade unions began to emerge, strikes began, separatist movements intensified in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and the nationalist organization ETA arose.

The Franco regime was supported by the Catholic Church, with which the dictator concluded a concordat. The document was signed between Spain and the Vatican, and allowed the secular authorities to choose the highest hierarchy of the Catholic Church in Spain. This situation continued until 1960, when the church gradually began to separate from Franco's political regime.

In the 1960s Spain was establishing ties with Western Europe, which increased the flow of tourists to this country. At the same time, the migration of Spaniards to other European countries increased. The country's participation in military and economic organizations was blocked, so Spain did not immediately join the European Economic Community.

In 1975, Franco died, having announced several years earlier as his heir Prince Juan Carlos of Bourbon, who was the grandson of Alfonso XIII. Under him, reforms began to be carried out, the liberalization of the country's socio-political life began, and a new democratic constitution was adopted. In the early 1980s. Spain joined NATO and the EU.

The reforms made it possible to relieve tension in society and stabilize the economic situation. The number of tourists who, since the late 1980s. visited Madrid, Barcelona, Catalonia, Valencia, Aragon and other provinces of the country, increasing annually. At the same time, the government is constantly fighting the separatists - the Basque Country and Catalonia.

Catalonia problem

There are many contradictory phenomena and problems in the history of Spain, and one of them - Catalan - has a centuries-old history of confrontation for its independence. For centuries, Catalans have believed that they are a separate nation with their own culture, language, traditions and mentality.

The region now known as Catalonia began to be settled by the Greeks in 575 BC during the colonization of the sea coast. Here they founded a colony, calling it Empirion; the ports of Cartagena and Alicante appeared nearby, which are now the largest “sea” gates of Spain.

The capital of Catalonia, the city of Barcelona, was founded by a resident of Carthage, the commander Hamilcar, who arrived here in 237 BC. Most likely, Hamilcar had the nickname Barca, which means Lightning. The soldiers allegedly named the new settlement in his honor - Barsina. Barcelona, like Tarragona, became major cities of the Roman Empire, which captured the Pyrenees in 218-201. BC.

During the Great Migration of Peoples in the 5th century. Already in our era, the Romans were expelled from the peninsula by the Visigoths, who founded their kingdom of Gotalania here. Gradually the name transformed into Catalonia. Ancient Roman and ancient Greek historians wrote that they tried to call the Pyrenees Catalonia, but the Carthaginian word “i-spanim” was more sonorous. This is how the name Spain appeared, and only a separate region was called Catalonia.

The secession of Catalonia began at the end of the 8th century, when Emperor Charlemagne made his loyal subject Sunifred Count of Barcelona. His possessions included the following lands:

Bezier.
Carcassonne.
Catalonia.

Under Sunifred and his descendants, Catalonia began to develop its own language, which is actually a mixture of French and Spanish. In the 10th century Count Borrell II declared Catalonia independent. Supporters of Catalan nationalism and developers of the concept of separation from Spain call the reign of Borrell II a turning point in the struggle for independence. In the second half of the 12th century. The County of Barcelona became part of the Kingdom of Aragon, which was the result of a dynastic marriage between the rulers of two regions of Spain.

When Aragon united with Castile, the Catalans reacted ambiguously to this event. Some of them supported representatives of the Austrian dynasty for centuries, and some supported the heirs of the Bourbons. Catalans were considered second-class citizens in Spain. The population of the region declared the right to secession in the second half of the 19th century, when Spain adopted a new constitution. The idea of Catalan independence was either revived or lost against the background of other events, but continued to live on. In the 1930s General F. Franco came to power, under whom the idea of Catalan separatism began to flourish.

In October 1934, the Catalan parliament voted for independence and secession, but this did not happen. The Spanish government began to carry out mass arrests of activists, political leaders, and intellectuals. The actions of the Catalan parliament were declared treason. During the civil war, Catalan autonomy was abolished and the language was banned.

Autonomy was restored in 1979, when Spain returned to the path of democratic development. The Catalan language has received official status in the province. Local parties and activists have repeatedly sought to expand rights and freedoms. Only in 2006 did the government partially satisfy their demands:

The rights of local governments were expanded.
Catalonia independently began to manage its taxes and half of the taxes that went to the central government.

All this only catalyzed the desire of the population of Catalonia to separate from Spain. In this regard, an independence referendum was held in October 2017, in which more than 90% of voters said yes to secession. Now the issue of provincial independence is one of the most pressing in the internal political life of the country. The authorities - the government and the monarch - are thinking about what to do next, while the Catalans demand to immediately recognize the results of the referendum and begin the process of secession from Spain.

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After the end of the Reconquista in 1492. the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal, and Sardinia, Sicily, Balearic Islands, Kingdom of Naples and Navarre were united under the rule of the Spanish kings.

IN 1516 g. ascended the throne Charles I. Being the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella on his mother's side, he was the grandson of the Emperor on his father's side. Maximilian I of Habsburg. From his father and grandfather, Charles I received the Habsburg possessions in Germany, the Netherlands and lands in South America. In 1519, he was elected to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and became Emperor Charles V. Contemporaries often said that in his domain “the sun never sets.” At the same time, the Aragonese and Castilian kingdoms, connected only by a dynastic union, each had their own class-representative institutions - the Cortes, their own legislation and judicial system. Castilian troops could not enter Aragon's lands, and Aragon was not obliged to defend Castile's lands in the event of war.

Until 1564, there was no single political center; the royal court moved around the country, most often stopping in Valladolid. Only in 1605. became the official capital of Spain Madrid.

Reign of Charles V

Young King Charles I (V) (1516-1555) Before ascending the throne, he was raised in the Netherlands. His retinue and entourage consisted mainly of Flemings; the king himself spoke little Spanish. In the early years, Charles ruled Spain from the Netherlands. The election to the imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire, the journey to Germany and the costs of the coronation were to be paid by Spain.

From the first years of his reign, Charles V looked at Spain primarily as a source of financial and human resources for pursuing imperial policy in Europe. He systematically violated the customs and liberties of Spanish cities and the rights of the Cortes, which caused discontent among the burghers and artisans. In the first quarter of the 16th century. the activities of opposition forces concentrated around the issue of forced loans, which the king often resorted to from the first years of his reign.

IN 1518 to pay off their creditors, German bankers Fuggers Charles V was able, with great difficulty, to obtain a huge subsidy from the Castilian Cortes, but this money was quickly spent. In 1519, in order to receive a new loan, the king was forced to accept the conditions put forward by the Cortes, among which was the requirement that he not leave Spain, not appoint foreigners to government positions, and not delegate the collection of taxes to them. But immediately after receiving money, the king left Spain, appointing the Fleming Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht as governor.

Revolt of the urban communes of Castile (comuneros).

The king's violation of the signed agreement was a signal for the uprising of urban communes against royal power, called the revolt of the communes (1520-1522). After the king's departure, when the deputies of the Cortes, who had shown excessive compliance, returned to their cities, they were met with general indignation. One of the main demands of the rebel cities was to prohibit the import of woolen fabrics from the Netherlands into the country.

In the summer of 1520, the armed forces of the rebels, led by the nobleman Juan de Padilla, united within the framework of the Holy Junta. The cities refused to obey the governor and prohibited his armed forces from entering their territory. The cities demanded the return of the crown lands seized by the grandees to the treasury and their payment of church tithes. They hoped that these measures would improve the financial position of the state and lead to a weakening of the tax burden, which fell heavily on the tax-paying class.

In the spring and summer of 1520, almost the entire country came under the control of the Junta. The Cardinal Viceroy, in constant fear, wrote to Charles V that “there is not a single village in Castile that does not join the rebels.” Charles V ordered the demands of some cities to be met in order to split the movement.

In the fall of 1520, 15 cities withdrew from the uprising; their representatives, meeting in Seville, adopted a document on withdrawal from the struggle. In the autumn of the same year, the cardinal-vicar began open military action against the rebels.

As the movement deepened, its anti-feudal character began to clearly appear. The rebel cities were joined by Castilian peasants who suffered from the tyranny of the grandees on the captured domain lands. Peasants destroyed estates and destroyed castles and palaces of the nobility. In April 1521, the Junta declared its support for the peasant movement directed against the grandees as enemies of the kingdom.

After this, the nobles and nobility openly went over to the camp of the enemies of the movement. Only a small group of nobles remained in the Junta; the middle strata of the townspeople began to play the main role in it. Taking advantage of the enmity between the nobility and the cities, the Cardinal Viceroy's troops went on the offensive and defeated the troops of Juan de Padilla at the Battle of Villalare (1522). The leaders of the movement were captured and beheaded.

In October 1522, Charles V returned to the country at the head of a detachment of mercenaries, but by this time the movement had already been suppressed.

Economic development of Spain in the 16th century.

The most populous part of Spain was Castile, where 3/4 of the population of the Iberian Peninsula lived. The bulk of the Castilian peasants were personally free. They held the lands of spiritual and secular feudal lords in hereditary use, paying a monetary qualification for them.

The socio-economic system of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia differed sharply from the system of Castile. Here in the 16th century. The most brutal forms of feudal dependence were preserved. The feudal lords inherited the property of the peasants, interfered in their personal lives, could subject them to corporal punishment and even put them to death.

The Moriscos, descendants of the Moors who were forcibly converted to Christianity, were in a particularly difficult situation in Spain. They were subject to heavy taxes and were constantly under the supervision of the Inquisition. Contrary to this, the hardworking Moriscos have long grown such valuable crops as olives, rice, grapes, sugar cane, and mulberry trees. In the south, they created a perfect irrigation system, thanks to which the Moriscos received high yields of grain, vegetables and fruits.

For many centuries, transhumance sheep breeding was an important branch of agriculture in Castile. The largest part of the sheep flocks belonged to a privileged noble corporation - Location, which enjoyed special royal patronage.

Twice a year, in spring and autumn, thousands of sheep were driven from north to south of the peninsula along cañadas - wide roads laid through cultivated fields, vineyards, and olive groves. Moving across the country, tens of thousands of sheep caused enormous damage to agriculture. Under pain of severe punishment, peasants were forbidden to fence their fields from passing herds.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the place achieved confirmation of all the previous privileges of this corporation, which caused significant damage to agriculture.

The tax system in Spain also hampered the development of capitalist elements in the country's economy. The most hated tax was alcabala - a 10% tax on every trade transaction; in addition, there was also a huge number of permanent and emergency taxes, the size of which increased all the time during the 16th century, taking up to 50% of the income of the peasant and artisan. The difficult situation of the peasants was aggravated by all kinds of government duties (transportation of goods for the royal court and troops, soldiers' quarters, food supplies for the army, etc.).

Spain was the first country to experience the impact of the price revolution. This was a consequence of the large amount of gold and other jewelry coming to Spain from the colonies. During the 16th century, prices increased 3.5-4 times. In Spain it has become more profitable to sell than to buy. Already in the first quarter of the 16th century. There was an increase in prices for basic necessities, and above all for bread. However, the system of taxes (maximum prices for grain) established in 1503 artificially kept prices for bread low, while other products quickly became more expensive. The consequence of this was a reduction in grain crops and a sharp drop in grain production in the middle of the 16th century. Since the 30s, most regions of the country imported bread from abroad - from France and Sicily. Imported bread was not subject to the law on taxes and was sold at 2-2.5 times more expensive than grain produced by Spanish peasants.

The conquest of the colonies and the unprecedented expansion of colonial trade contributed to the rise of handicraft production in the cities of Spain and the emergence of individual elements of manufacturing production, especially in cloth making. In its main centers - Segovia, Toledo, Seville, Cuenca- manufactories arose.

Spanish wines have enjoyed great popularity in Europe since Arab times. silk fabrics, famous for their high quality, brightness and color stability. The main centers of silk production were Seville, Toledo, Cordoba, Granada and Valencia. Expensive silk fabrics were little consumed in Spain and were mainly exported, as were brocade, velvet, gloves, and hats made in the southern cities. At the same time, coarse, cheap woolen and linen fabrics were imported to Spain from the Netherlands and England.

The Toledo region was considered another old economic center of Spain. The city itself was famous for the production of cloth, silk fabrics, the production of weapons and leather processing.

In 1503, Seville's monopoly on trade with the colonies was established and the Seville Chamber of Commerce was created, which controlled the export of goods from Spain to the colonies and the import of cargo from the New World, mainly consisting of gold and silver bullion. All goods intended for export and import were carefully registered by officials and were subject to duties in favor of the treasury.

Wine and olive oil became the main Spanish exports to America. Investing money in colonial trade gave very great benefits (the profit here was much higher than in other industries). A significant part of merchants and artisans moved to Seville from other regions of Spain, primarily from the north. The population of Seville grew rapidly: from 1530 to 1594 it doubled. The number of banks and merchant companies increased. At the same time, this meant the actual deprivation of other areas of the opportunity to trade with the colonies, since due to the lack of water and convenient land routes, transporting goods to Seville from the north was very expensive. The monopoly of Seville provided the treasury with huge revenues, but it had a detrimental effect on the economic situation of other parts of the country. The role of the northern regions, which had convenient access to the Atlantic Ocean, was reduced only to the protection of flotillas heading to the colonies, which led their economy to decline at the end of the 16th century.

Despite the economic growth of the first half of the 16th century, Spain remained generally an agrarian country with an underdeveloped internal market; certain areas were locally closed economically.

Political system.

During the reign Charles V (1516-1555) and Philip II (1555-1598) There was a strengthening of central power, but the Spanish state was politically a motley conglomerate of disunited territories.

Already in the first quarter of the 16th century, the role of the Cortes was reduced exclusively to voting new taxes and loans to the king. Increasingly, only city representatives began to be invited to their meetings. Since 1538, the nobility and clergy were not officially represented in the Cortes. At the same time, in connection with the massive relocation of nobles to the cities, a fierce struggle broke out between the burghers and the nobility for participation in city government. As a result, the nobles secured the right to occupy half of all positions in municipal bodies. In some cities, for example in Madrid, Salamanca, Zamora, Seville, a nobleman had to be at the head of the city council; The city mounted militia was also formed from nobles. Increasingly, nobles acted as representatives of cities in the Cortes. True, the nobles often sold their municipal positions to wealthy townspeople, many of whom were not even residents of these places, or rented them out.

The further decline of the Cortes was accompanied in the middle of the 17th century. depriving them of the right to vote taxes, which was transferred to city councils, after which the Cortes ceased to be convened.

In the XVI - early XVII centuries. large cities largely retained their medieval appearance. These were urban communes, where the urban patriciate and nobles were in power. Many city residents who had fairly high incomes purchased “hidalgia” for money, which exempted them from paying taxes.

Spain's national liberation war against the Moors - the reconquista - ends by the end of the 15th century. In the 16th century, Spain became one of the most powerful countries of feudal Europe, the largest colonial power. The 16th century was marked in Spain by the development of cities, guild crafts, and the emergence of capitalist manufacturing. By the beginning of the 17th century, Spain was on the verge of economic and political disaster. This was explained by the reactionary nature of Spanish absolutism, which was not interested in strengthening the Spanish economy and had a narrow aristocratic character. The reactionary foreign policy of the Spanish kings completed the ruin of the country.

In agriculture, industry, and trade, the sprouts of progressive economic relations met severe resistance from the reactionary forces of feudal society.

The Spanish people were reduced to complete poverty by the end of the 16th century. Numerous popular uprisings that broke out in the 16th and 17th centuries undermined the Spanish state from within. The spirit of profit destroyed the illusion of patriarchal and earthly order.

In the second half of the 17th century, the last of the Habsburgs - the feeble-minded Charles II - was a toy in the hands of the court camarilla, whose outrages served as a reason for popular uprisings to break out. After his death in 1700. European countries began the War of the Spanish Succession.

Church and people

The Catholic Church, which strengthened its position during the Reconquista, is gaining exceptional influence in Spain. Thanks to the Inquisition, the church turned into the most indestructible weapon of absolutism.

Nowhere in Europe at that time was there such a sharp opposition as in Spain between the two poles - the ruling elite represented by the large feudal nobility and the oppressed broad peasant and plebeian masses. This was manifested in the conservative stability of reactionary class-noble and religious prejudices and ideas. Here, the latent influence of democratic tendencies was so great that the popular principle turned out to be expressed in Spanish culture of the 17th century. more clearly than in the culture of other countries.