Study of translation transformations when translating a literary text. Lexical transformations The difference between transcription and transliteration

/ Komissarov V.N. "Translation Theory (linguistic aspects)"

210. Transcription and transliteration are methods of translating a lexical unit of the original by recreating its form using the letters of the original language. When transcribing, the sound form of a foreign language word is reproduced, and when transliterating its graphic form (letter composition). The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription while preserving some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages ​​differ significantly from each other, the transmission of the form of a foreign language word in the target language is always somewhat conditional and approximate: absur dist - absurdist (author of a work of absurdity), kleptocracy - kleptocracy (thieves' elite), skateboarding - skateboarding (roller skating board). For each pair of languages, rules for transmitting the sound composition of a foreign language word are developed, cases of preservation of transliteration elements and traditional exceptions to the currently accepted rules are indicated. In English-Russian translations, the most frequently encountered transliteration elements during transcription are mainly the transliteration of some unpronounceable consonants and reduced vowels (Dorset ["dasit] - Dorset, Campbell ["kaerabalj - Campbell), the transfer of double consonants between vowels and at the end words after vowels (Bonners Ferry, boss) and preserving some of the spelling features of the word, which make it possible to bring the sound of the word in translation closer to already known examples (Hercules missile, deescalation, Columbia). Traditional exceptions concern mainly customary translations of the names of historical figures and some geographical names (Charles I - Charles I, William III - William III, Edinborough - Edinburgh).

Igor. Update: October 1, 2018.

Hello, dear readers of the blog site! I decided to devote this post to the topic of transliteration, which, in a nutshell, is the rules for writing text using signs of another language (say, in Russian in Latin).

I think almost all users have encountered this phenomenon, and many have used transliteration, conveying their thoughts in Russian, but writing them in English letters, simply not having a Russian-language keyboard layout in the visual display.

Such texts (notes or messages), written in Latin characters, can still be found on some forums. Moreover, their users write, mostly without following any rules that exist and which we will talk about below. The main goal of such communication is to convey information to an audience that would adequately perceive it.

Some used (and still use) transliteration from Russian into English when sending SMS from a mobile phone, if there is no corresponding language option. However, these are not the only examples of the use of translit. Today we’ll talk about this.

Rules of transliteration and its difference from transcription

To begin with, let’s define the basic concepts for a more precise understanding of the subject, and also understand the fundamental difference between such terms as “transcription” and “transliteration.”

Transcription is a broad concept that means the most accurate representation of the sounds of a particular language through a certain system of symbols.

Transliteration provides the display of letters of one script using characters of another script, without placing emphasis on pronunciation.

Words written using special characters are extremely useful for mastering correct pronunciation when learning foreign languages. Here are some examples of transcription of Russian words in Latin in IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) format:

Address - ˈadrʲɪs Alexey - ɐlʲɪksʲˈej Almanac - ɐlʲmɐnˈax Gogol - ɡˈoɡəlʲ Dmitry - dmʲˈitrʲɪj Evgeniy - jɪvɡʲˈenʲɪj Yekaterinburg - jɪkətʲɪrʲ ɪnbˈurk Mikhail - mʲɪxɐˈil Dictionary - slɐvˈarʲ Tatyana - tɐtʲjˈænə Julia - jˈʉlʲɪjə Yuri - jˈʉrʲɪj

Most languages ​​(including English and Russian) have their own rules of transcription, when each word has a corresponding phonetic analogue that describes its sound. Here are a couple of examples:

Smile - smile (Russian transcription) smile - (English transcription)

Moreover, letters and words in Cyrillic can be transcribed into English, and vice versa.

The task of transliteration, as we have already defined, is to simply display the symbols of one script using the signs of another. Then the Russian words given above as an example (including names) will be translated transliterated into the same English as follows:

Address - Addresses Alexey - Aleksej Almanac - Al"manah Gogol - Gogol" Dmitry - Dmitrij Evgeniy - Evgenij Ekaterinburg - Ekaterinburg Mikhail - Mihail Dictionary - Slovar" Tatyana - Tat"jana Julia - Julija Yuri - Jurij

I think now difference between transcription and transliteration in the general meaning of these terms is obvious. There are many transliteration standards, sometimes incompatible with each other. Historically, several state standards (GOST) were adopted, which, including Soviet times, regulated transliteration.

Today the international standard is in force ISO-9 regulating the general principles of translation from Russian to Latin. Its main advantage is that it eliminates ambiguity in interpretation.

In it, each letter of the Cyrillic alphabet corresponds to a specific letter of the Latin alphabet or its combination with a special symbol (diacrit). Diacritics- special superscript or subscript characters that are added to letters.

A striking example is the “"” sign present in some of the transliterated words presented above (say, Tat"jana), which denotes softening of consonants (analogous to the soft sign “ь” in the Russian alphabet). As a result of this correspondence, reverse transliteration is possible even if the language is not recognized.

Despite the existence of the international standard ISO-9, which very clearly reflects the principles of translating characters of the Russian alphabet into Latin ones, it is not the only one, since alternative basic rules are applied in various areas.

If you are intrigued by this topic and want to take a closer look at it, then you can find a list of all the main standards for transliterating Cyrillic languages ​​using the Latin alphabet on a special Wikipedia page.

Transliteration methods used in practice

After presenting the theoretical part, it’s time to dwell on the types of practical use of transliteration. Here they are:

1. Practical transcription- is based on a standard like ISO-9, which I mentioned above. It is necessary to maintain not only grammatical, but also phonetic correspondence between both languages. In other words, it is necessary to find a “golden mean” in the spelling and sound of a particular word based on both languages.

The advantage of this method is easier text entry. In this case, only Latin characters are used. True, slight difficulties may arise when reading some specific consonants that have the following correspondences: “zh-zh”, “ch-ch”, “sh-sh”, “shch-shch”.

It is also used when sending SMS, and also often in the addresses of Russian-language websites and when working with software that does not support the Cyrillic alphabet. Below is a table of the most commonly used rules for transliteration of the Russian alphabet in Latin:

Please note that some Russian letters correspond to several variants of Latin characters (v, d, e, e, zh, z, j, k, l, x, c, ch, sh, shch, ъ, ы, ь, е, yu, I). They are arranged in descending order of popularity of application.

2. Gamer language(alternative name “Volapuk encoding”) - Latin letters are used here along with numbers and punctuation marks. He received this name because such transliteration is popular among gamers (computer game players).

The fact is that in such games there are generally no options for using the Cyrillic alphabet in nicknames, so gamers create a set of English characters and numbers that look similar to Russian letters (for example, “Cuneiform” in the gamer version looks like “KJIuHonucb”).

This is even original for the formation of Russian nicknames, but for the purpose of sending SMS, and especially when communicating, this method is clearly not suitable. True, sometimes some webmasters use gamer translit for their website (for example, nouck.ru or kypc.ru).

3. Vulgar- the most popular transliteration option in communication between ordinary users. It is based on a mixture of transcription and gamer language. A compromise has been reached here, since this option is quite simple to enter and at the same time easy to read.

Let’s say it uses the number “4” to represent the letter “H”. Also, instead of “F” they put an asterisk “*”, instead of “W” - “W”, etc. In general, a regular translit allows almost any interpretation, the main thing is that the author feels comfortable writing the text, and it is easy for readers to perceive it correctly.

Transliteration of names, surnames and website addresses

And now we move on to the practical area where the relevant standards must be strictly adhered to. For example, very often you need to provide data (first name, last name, address) when registering on foreign sites, say, on the same Google Adsense () or payment system websites (for example, PayPal).

If you are registering from the territory of the Russian Federation, then strictly follow the rules applied when issuing foreign passports, otherwise difficulties may arise.

Therefore, the correct spelling of the Russian name, surname, address (as well as other necessary data) in English can significantly help you.

For webmasters, clear and consistent adherence to the rules of transliteration of Russian words is also of utmost importance. After all, many owners of web resources on the Russian Internet use translit both in page addresses and in the names of their sites.

Why is this necessary? The fact is that URLs () of web pages containing keywords have a positive effect on SEO promotion of the site. You say this is a small thing? But the successful promotion of any project consists of continuous nuances.

An indirect proof of this can be the fact that, for example, Yandex, when ranking (in how search engines rank sites), recently even highlighted keywords in URLs in bold in the search results:

Thus, it is very important to maintain the correct translit from Russian to English for the addresses of all pages of your site. For this purpose, it is worth taking the table provided above as a basis.

You should also keep in mind that when composing a URL, it is best to limit the character set as follows: use only numbers (0-9), uppercase (A-Z) and lowercase (a-z) letters, as well as dashes (“-”) and underscores ("_")

For those who have web resources, there is a simple extension (however, this plugin has not been updated for a long time, so for people like me there is a more modern analogue) that provides automatic transliteration of Russian letters in the page address, while creating CNCs (human-readable URLs) .

Regarding search engine optimization, I would like to dwell on one more nuance (I remind you that there are no trifles in promotion). Despite the fact that ISO-9 is currently the main international standard, transliteration in Yandex and Google has its own characteristics.

For example, in the generally accepted standard, the Russian letter “x” (ha) corresponds to the Latin “x” (ix). However, Yandex does not highlight keywords with this option in the URL in the search results (only those keywords where “x” is transliterated into “h” are highlighted in bold):

A similar situation is observed with Google, although there are some differences in the transliteration rules of the “empire of good” with the Russian search engine.

Since many webmasters and owners of commercial resources are a little more oriented towards Yandex, in the last chapter I will provide one of the online services that makes it possible to correctly translate into transliteration any set of letters that complies with the rules of the “Runet mirror”.

In general, you can always manually enter the required letter when compiling the URL of any web page. Using the automatic option represented by the same RusToLat, we lose some time on editing, since in the settings of this plugin it is possible to set only the ISO-9 standard as the most suitable one. And it contains exactly the correspondence “x” - “x”.

Of course, you can find a way out here too. Namely, slightly change the plugin file, where the correspondence between the Russian and Latin alphabets is defined. To do this, open it for editing (I recommend using the Notepad++ editor in such cases) and replace the necessary characters:

Just don't forget to make sure that RusToLat is configured correctly (the ISO 9-95 encoding must be set there):

Naturally, everyone decides for themselves whether to perform such an operation or not. By the way, I would be glad to receive any comments from you regarding this aspect. Is the game worth the candle?

In order to achieve active participation of your site in image search, you can use translit keywords in the very names of the image files. For these purposes, it is convenient to use the Punto Switcher program. After activating the software, simply select the name of the graphic file and press the Alt+Scroll Lock combination on the keyboard (default hotkeys in Switcher).

Online transliterators

1. First of all, I would like to immediately fulfill my promise and provide a service that takes into account the rules of Yandex (I suspect that it will also be suitable for the Google search engine). This Translit-online.ru, where there are several options to choose from. On the main tab you can translate online any text for reading up to 50,000 characters long:

Below are the settings for some characters unique to the Cyrillic alphabet (е, й, х, ц, щ, е), which cause some difficulties when converting them to the Latin alphabet. Since this is a translation mode for reading, you can adjust the match to your liking:

But you can use the following page of the online translator to translate the page addresses of your CNC website into translit:

There is also such an interesting tool as a virtual keyboard. It allows you to type text in Russian, even if you do not have a Russian-language layout. By switching it to the English layout, you can type using Latin characters, which are as consonant as possible with their Russian counterparts. However, you must first set the virtual keyboard to “RU” mode using the “Esc” button:

For example, to get the word “transliteration”, after the steps described above, you need to type in English “t-r-a-n-s-l-i-t-e-r-a-c-i”, and to display the letter “I” in the text field, you must first press Ctrl, and then “a”.

Among the useful features of this service is also the ability to obtain a variant of the first and last name for a foreign passport; this option is extremely suitable for registering on important foreign resources, as I mentioned above in the article. An online multilingual translator from Russian and vice versa is provided on a separate tab.

2. Another online translit translator is a well-known resource Translit.net(formerly Translit.ru), which has its advantages. There is also a virtual keyboard right on the main page, which allows you to transliterate text.

Transcription implies the maximum phonetic reconstruction of the original foreign language, using graphic means of the translating language. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages ​​differ from each other, due to the absence of letters in the target language that are similar to the sound in the foreign language, combinations of letters are used that give the desired sound.

Thus, the Russian “zh” is transmitted in English through the combination “zh”, “x” through “kh”, “ш” through “shch” and so on.

Sometimes whether or not to use transcription may depend on the reader. It is necessary to consider whether he is familiar with the realities of a foreign language. The translator must ensure that the text is understood by the reader. So, for example, in a translated article about football published in a youth magazine, the concept of “fan” (from the English “fan”) will not cause misunderstandings. But if the translation of this article is intended for publication in a magazine, the readers of which may include people of retirement age, then the translator should think about the appropriateness of the transcription and consider other translation techniques (for example, replacing it with the more neutral concept of “fan” ").

One of the important reasons for using transcription is brevity.

But as we have repeatedly said, you need to know when to stop everything. An abundance of transcription can lead to an overload of the text with realities, which may not bring the reader closer to the original, but distance him from it.

Also, when using transcription, you should always remember about homonymy, words that are similar in sound, since they can remind the reader of funny-sounding or obscene words in their native language. Often this factor forces the translator to abandon the use of transcription.

Transliteration involves writing a foreign word in such a way that the letters of the foreign language are replaced by the letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language.

The main method at the moment is considered to be a combination of transcription and transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages ​​differ significantly from each other, the transfer of the form of a word in the target language is always somewhat conditional and approximate.

Tracing . This is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed. Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., exact reproduction of it by means
the host language while maintaining the morphological structure and motivation. When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. The Russian noun “suicide” is a tracing paper of the Latin suicide (sui – `oneself, cide – `murder); The English noun self-service, borrowed into the Russian language by tracing, has the form `self-service`.
The so-called semi-calques are funny, when one of the roots of a two-root foreign word is traced, and the other is transcribed. According to the rules, a traffic light should have been called either phosphorus (transcription) or light-bearer (full tracing), and television should have been called either television (as in Polish) or far-sightedness (as in German - Fernsehen). It is interesting that in the word TV there was no tracing.

Concretization is called the transformation of the meaning of a word in a foreign language by a translating language from a broad one to a more concise one.

: Dinny waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant. Dinny waited in the corridor, which smelled of carbolic acid. Wasn't at the ceremony. He attended the ceremony.

Generalization. The opposite of concretization. Converting the meaning of words from narrow to broad.

Don't visit me almost every week-end. He comes to see me almost every week. Using a word with a more general meaning eliminates the need for the translator to clarify whether the author means Saturday or Sunday when talking about “weekend.”

Modulation or semantic development is the replacement of a word or phrase in a foreign language with a word from the target language, the meaning of which is logically derived from the meaning of the original unit. Quite often, the meanings of related words in the original and translation turn out to be connected by cause-and-effect relationships: I don't blame them. - I understand them. (The cause is replaced by the effect: I don't blame them because I understand them). He's dead now . - He died. (He died, therefore he is now dead.) Not always made you say everything twice. - He always asked again. (You were forced to repeat what you said because he asked you again.)

1. Rearrangements

Transposition is used when it is necessary to change words in places during translation. This technique can only be used with words that can be moved. This technique is often used due to the different structure of sentences in English and Russian. As a rule, in English, a sentence begins with a noun, followed by a verb, and the adverb often comes at the end.

The Russian system is different: usually at the beginning of the sentence there are minor members, then the verb and at the end the subject. The translator needs to take this into account. This phenomenon has a name, “communicative division of a sentence.”

Antonomic translation involves, in the process of translation, replacing the lexical unit of the original with the opposite one, while maintaining the essence of the content.

Don't stop moving! (English) - Keep moving!

We had no end of good time. - We had a great time.

But we must keep in mind that not every antonym with negation when translated can reflect the true essence of the original. It is impossible, for example, to paraphrase the sentences in this way: I opened the door (I did not close the door), he laughed (he did not cry). It should also be remembered that antonyms can replace each other only when included in a larger speech unit. The single word “danger” cannot be translated into “safety” or “darkness” into “light”.

Another trick is compensation. It is used to achieve translation equivalence. A technique is used when certain lexical elements do not have a corresponding equivalent in the target language. In this case, the translator can compensate for this with another word that is semantically appropriate.

This technique is considered one of the most difficult and requires great skill from the translator.

Holistic transformation. This technique implies a transformation of both the lexical unit and the entire sentence. An equivalent transformation of the phrase is carried out, while preserving the semantic idea.

Accepted options in English: Watch the doors, please. Keep clear of the doors.

However, compared to the method of semantic development, holistic transformation has greater autonomy. Its main feature is that the synthesis of meaning occurs without a direct connection with analysis, the semantic connection between elements may not be traced, the most important thing is the equivalence of the content plan: How do you do? - Hello!; Here you are! - Here!; Well done! - Bravo!; Help yourself - Help yourself!; Hear, hear - Correct!

Explication or descriptive translation. This is a transformation in which a word can be replaced by a phrase that gives a more detailed definition of the original in the target language. Using this technique, you can give a clearer explanation to a word for which there is no equivalent in the target language. conservationist - supporter of environmental protection; whistle-stop speech – speeches made by a candidate during an election campaign trip. But this technique has a drawback - it is voluminous and verbose.

Car owners from the midway towns ran a shuttle service for parents visiting the children injured in the accident. “Car owners from towns between these two points continually brought and dropped off parents who visited their children injured in the crash.

The cinematography carries commercial functions, and the title is advertising. Therefore, the name undergoes various transformations so that it becomes bright and attracts as much attention as possible from the domestic viewer. For example, if the film Hitch had been translated as simply “Hitch” rather than “The Hitch Rules”, it would not have been as promising for a potential viewer.

example

Alice promised to help

Olga Alexandrovna, I just can’t paraphrase this passage. I looked at a bunch of sites on the Internet, all in the same style, and didn’t find any simplified formulations. I really need your help!

Translation transcription is a formal phonemic reconstruction of the source lexical unit using phonemes of the target language, a phonetic imitation of the source word.

Transliteration is a formal letter-by-letter reconstruction of the source lexical unit using the alphabet of the target language, a letter imitation of the form of the source word.

There are many problems with the use of transcription when translating royal names - titles. For example, the English king James 1 Stewart was traditionally called James 1 Stewart, the form Jacob 1 is found, but there is no form James 1. There are discrepancies: Ivan the Terrible - Ivan the Terrible, and John the Terrible.

In its pure form, transliteration is rare and, as a rule, is associated with long-established forms of naming.

For example, Michigan - Michigan (and not Mishigan), Illinois - Illinois (and not Ilinoi).

In relation to a number of objects, traditional forms of translation have been established, which either partially coincide with the original naming: Moscow - Moscow, the Hague - The Hague, or may not coincide at all with the naming of the object in the source language: England - England, the English Channel - English Channel .

When transcribing geographical names, there is often a shift in stress due to the phonetic preferences of the translating language: `Florida - Florida, `Washington - Washington'ton.

Transcription is used when translating the names of companies, publishing houses, and car brands. e.g. Subaru - Subaru, Ford Mustang - Ford Mustang.

There is a rule according to which, if the name includes a significant word, a mixed translation is often used, i.e. a combination of transcription and semantic translation: Gulf of Mexico - Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean - the Pacific Ocean, Hilton Hotel - Hilton Hotel.

Quite complex problems arise when translating the names of educational institutions in the context of different educational traditions in different countries. Thus, in the American education system, the word school is widely applied to a number of educational institutions, completely different in level and type: high school - high school (approximately 10-11 grades), school of law - law school, graduate school - postgraduate school. In such cases, the translator usually relies on specific conditions when making a decision; as a result, however, the discrepancy in the translation of the names of educational institutions introduces some chaos into intercultural communication. Indeed, in Russian the word “institute” is used to designate a university, as well as a research or even administrative institution, while in English-speaking countries the word institute is used in the second meaning.

It is difficult to translate the names of the indigenous peoples of Siberia from Russian. There are correspondences between Buryats - buryat, chukchi - Chukchi, Khanty - khanty. However, a number of names require the translator to independently transcribe them.

For example, the Yukagirs live among the Evens, Chukchi, Yakuts and Russian old-timers (yukagiry, aeveny or evveng or heveny).

There are also discrepancies in the translation of such names of tribes in America as Flathead - flatheads, or flat-headed, Blackfoot - blackfoot, or black-footed.

When translating realities - transcription or standard transliteration (commentary or semantic translation in parallel).

The names of fantastic creatures are also transcribed:

e.g. Baba-Yaga - Baba Yaga, goblin - goblin.

However, some of the names containing semantic components that reflect the properties of the object are translated either by a mixed type or by tracing:

For example, Koshchey the Deathless (Immortal).

CONCLUSION: transcription/transliteration can be used as a component of mixed translation, in parallel with tracing, semantic translation or commentary. Semantic translation consists of the most complete transfer of the contextual meaning of the elements of the source text in units of the target language.

Semantic translation is performed to convey source texts of high scientific or socio-cultural significance, the detailed content of which is intended for a wide range of specialists.

CALQUETING is the reproduction not of the sound, but of the combinatorial composition of a word or phrase, when the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) or phrases (lexemes) are translated by the corresponding elements of the target language. (Often found when translating borrowings in cases where transliteration was for some reason unacceptable for aesthetic, semantic or other reasons). e.g. skinheads – skinheads (skinheads). Terms and widely used words and phrases are subject to tracing: Winter Palace - Winter Palace, White House - White House.

CONCLUSION: Tracing is used in cases where it is necessary to create a meaningful unit in the translated text and at the same time preserve elements of the form or function of the original unit.

TRANSLATION OF THE ARTICLE AND EXPRESSION OF THE CATEGORY OF DETERMINATION - UNCERTAINTY

The article is a striking example of the discrepancy between the grammatical systems of English and Russian. Such a phenomenon as the article is absent in the Russian language. As a rule, English articles are not translated into Russian, but there are some cases where the article plays an important role in the communication process and must be conveyed during translation.

The meaning of the article can be expressed in Russian using:

1) CASE:

Pour the water into the glass. – Pour water into a glass.

Pour some water into the glass. – Pour water into a glass.

2) WORD ORDER:

A woman came to me. - A woman came to me.

The woman came to me. - The woman came.

3) ONE, SOME, ANY (Article A);

4) THIS, THAT, MOST (Article THE).

A man is waiting for you. - A man is waiting for you.

I enjoyed the film. - I liked the movie.

1. Here is the article you want to read. - This is the article you want to read.

2. Any child can understand this. – A child can understand it.

3. She is a Mrs. Murray. - This is a certain Mrs. Murray.

The special semantic role of the English article can be compensated when translated into Russian due to pronouns:

They were powerful enough not to need a tsar, especiallу the tsar. – In this example, articles certainly play not so much a grammatical as a semantic role, and therefore are subject to functional compensation when translated into Russian: They were powerful enough not to need any kind of king, especially such a king.

TRANSLATION OF DEFINITIONS

Right definition. Left definition

1. The right definition comes after the noun (presents difficulties).

2. The left attribute comes before the noun.

Right definitions can be expressed:

1) Participle 2 – The fuel used was oil. – The fuel used was oil.

2) Infinitive - He was the first to come. - He was the first to arrive.

3) Passive Infinitive – The book to be translated should be taken from the library.

4) Noun with a preposition – in question, under discussion, under consideration/construction: The problem in question was dealt at the conference.

The problem in question was solved at the conference.

5) There are several adjectives that will be translated based on their location in the sentence:

proper pronunciation, the proper decision - the right decision

the decision proper - the decision itself, directly.

Present situation - current situation,

Students present – ​​students present.

CONCEPT OF CHAIN ​​AND TRANSLATION OF CHAIN

There is a big difference in the semantic structures of attributive groups in the Russian and English languages. To do this, the translator needs to do a deep analysis of the context. English speakers actively use attributive constructions with a large number of their components. Let's trace the formation of the attribute group:

EXAMPLE: The tax paid for the right to take part in the election is described as – the poll tax. The states where this tax is collected are – the poll tax states – and the governors of these states are the poll tax states governors. Now these governors may hold a conference which will be referred to as – the poll tax states governors conference.

There are also attributive groups in which an entire sentence can refer to the main noun and be its attribute:

For example: He was being the boss again, using the its-my-money-now-do-as-you`re-told voice.

Sometimes you even have to completely restructure an English sentence when translating it into Russian:

To watch it happen, all within two and a half hours, was a thrilling sight.- It was impossible not to admire, watching how all this happened over the course of just two and a half hours.

Definition: A chain of words are nouns, adjectives, numerals and participles coming after each other within one sentence. The chain never includes: verb, adverbs. Within the chain, the main word is the last word; all other words relate to it and are subordinate. An attributive group can be a noun and a phraseological phrase, a noun and pronouns, sometimes a whole subordinate clause.

For example: Federal Highway authorities - management of federal communication routes.

RULES for dividing long chains into subgroups:

1. Possessive endings signal the end of a subgroup.

2. Words in quotation marks are a separate subgroup.

3. Compound words usually signal the end of a subgroup.

4. Hyphenated words.

5. If a numeral agrees in number with the main noun, then it will relate to it, and if not, then it will form a subgroup with the one that follows it.

6. There are several noun suffixes that signal the end of a subgroup: laboratory, authority, education, driver (suffix of a figure), development, strength - less often.

FALSE FRIENDS OF THE TRANSLATOR

There are words in the source language and the target language that are more or less similar in form. Formal similarity is usually the result of two words having a common source of origin; they may be derived from Greek or Latin. Since such words can be found in many languages, they are classified as “international”. But, as is usually the case, not all international words have the same meanings in different languages. In many cases, the semantics of such words do not coincide, and they are classified as “pseudo-international” vocabulary. The formal similarity of such words gives reason to think that they are interchangeable, which is misleading and leads to many translation errors. For this reason, such words were called the translator’s false friends.

Translator's false friends: 1) common source; 2) borrowings with various stylistic shades.

Pseudo-international words can be divided into 2 groups:

1) words that are similar in form, but completely different in meaning. Here the translator has a very high chance of making a mistake if he does not consult a dictionary. Many mistakes are made when translating words such as “decade, complexion, lunatic, accurate, actual - valid, real.”

It would seem that they correspond to “decade, complexion, sleepwalker,” but they are pseudo-international and are not suitable for translation.

1) It lasted the whole decade. “This went on for a whole decade.

2) She has a very fine complexion. - She has a beautiful complexion.

3) Well, he must be a lunatic. - Yes, he must be crazy.

Secondly, there are many pseudo-international words that are not completely interchangeable, although they may coincide in form and partially in semantics:

Meeting, surprise. (Here it is important for the translator to pay attention to the context).

The second group of false friends of the translator includes: original - first, special - special, special; intelligence - mind, prospect - review, view, panorama, film - film, conductor - conductor, to construct - build, deputy - deputy, student - student, correspondence - correspondence, correspondence, analogue.

There are several factors, taking into account which you can choose the correct equivalent when translating the translator's false friends:

1. Semantic factor. Words borrowed into both languages ​​from the same source have undergone a certain development: for example, the English idiom can be translated as an idiom, but also develop such additional meaning as a dialect (a local variety of an idiom), an individual style. When we say Shakespeare's idiom, then we will translate it as “dialect, adverb or style.”

In other words, transcription is either transliteration (full or partial), the direct use of a given word denoting reality, or its root in writing in letters of one’s language or in combination with suffixes of one’s language.

Transliteration when translating into Russian is often used in cases where we are talking about the names of institutions and positions specific to a given country, i.e. about the sphere of socio-political life, about the names of objects and concepts of material life, about forms of addressing the interlocutor, etc.

The transliteration method of translation is widespread and leaves a significant mark both in Russian translated literature and in original works (fiction, journalistic, scientific). Evidence of this is, for example, words related to English public life, such as “peer”, “mayor”, “landlord”, “esquire”, or to Spanish words such as “hidalgo”, “torero”, “bullfight”, etc. .; words related to the life of a French city, such as “fiacre”, “concierge”; English addresses "miss", "sir" and many others like them.

There is no word that could not be translated into another language, at least descriptively, i.e. a common combination of words in a given language. But transliteration is necessary precisely when it is important to maintain the lexical brevity of the designation, corresponding to its familiarity in the original language, and at the same time emphasize the specificity of the named thing or concept, if there is no exact correspondence in the target language. When assessing the appropriateness of using transliteration, it is necessary to take into account exactly how important the transfer of this specificity is. If the latter is not required, then the use of transliteration turns into abuse of foreign borrowings, leading to obscuring the meaning and clogging the native language.

Particular attention should be paid to the translation problem of the so-called realia, the naming of national-cultural objects that are characteristic of the source culture and are relatively little known or not at all known to the translating culture. In conditions of large-scale intercultural communication, such names constitute a very significant group, and the most common way of transmitting them in another language is translation transcription or standard transliteration.

Transliteration and transcription are used to translate proper names, names of peoples and tribes, geographical names, names of business institutions, companies, firms, periodicals, names of sports teams, stable groups of rock musicians, cultural objects, etc. Most of these names are relatively easy to translate or, less commonly, transliterate:

Hollywood - Hollywood [Transl. 241]

Pencey - Pansy [Trans. 241]

Saxon Hall - Saxon Hall [Trans. 242]

Bank of London - Bank of London

Minnesota - Minnesota

Wall Street Journal – Wall Street Journal

Detroit Red Wings - Detroit Red Wings

Beatles - The Beatles, etc. [Kazakova, p. 67].

The names and titles of fantastic creatures mentioned in folklore and literary sources are also transcribed:

Baba Yaga

Hobbit - Hobbit

goblin - goblin etc. [Kazakova, p.75]

When it comes to common names (big cities, rivers, famous historical figures) or common names, the translator is guided by tradition - regardless of the possibility of getting closer to the original sound. Sometimes the traditional Russian spelling is quite close to the exact phonetic form of a foreign name, for example: “Schiller”, “Byron”, “Dante”, “Brandenburg”, etc.

Anthony Wayne Avenue - Anthony Wayne Street [Transl. 243]

Finally, a special type of linguistic units that are usually transcribed are terms. The source of transcriptions is usually Greek, Latin or English units, depending on which roots underlie the original term. Russian terms, marked by national flavor, also often become the object of transcription when translated into English:

chernozem – chernozem

Duma - Duma, etc. [Kazakova, p.75]