Sources on the history of Greece of the Hellenistic period. Written sources on the history of ancient Greece 1 sources on the history of ancient Greece

Plan: 1. The concept of “Antiquity” 1. The concept of “Antiquity” 2. Classification of sources for the study of the history of Ancient Greece 2. Classification of sources for the study of the history of Ancient Greece 3. Myth as one of the elements of the study of the history of Ancient Greece: 3. Myth as one of the elements of the study history of ancient Greece:

1. The concept of “Antiquity” The concept of antiquity. The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to refer to a special period in the development of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural-historical phenomena cannot be precisely defined, but they largely coincide with time. existence of the ancient states themselves: from the XI-IX centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and until the 5th centuries. AD - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians. The concept of antiquity. The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to refer to a special period in the development of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be precisely determined, but it largely coincides with time. existence of the ancient states themselves: from the XI-IX centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and until the 5th centuries. AD - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.

Classification of sources for studying the history of Ancient Greece; written sources for studying the history of Ancient Greece; written sources for studying the history of Ancient Greece; monuments of material culture; monuments of material culture; materials of ethnographic observations. materials of ethnographic observations.

Written sources: Cretan letter Cretan letter Homer “Iliad” and “Odysseus” Homer “Iliad” and “Odysseus” Poems of Hesiod and Greek lyricists (Archilochus, Theognis, Solon, Alcaeus, Sappho and others). Poems by Hesiod and Greek lyricists (Archilochus, Theognis, Solon, Alcaeus, Sappho and others). Historical works Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon. Historical works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon. Works of later writers, Hellenistic and Roman times: Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, Pausanias, Athenaeus, Aulus Helius and many others. Works of later writers, Hellenistic and Roman times: Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, Pausanias, Athenaeus, Aulus Helius and many others. Speeches of Greek orators, scientific and philosophical works, works of tragedians and comedians. Speeches of Greek orators, scientific and philosophical works, works of tragedians and comedians.

CREAN LETTER (Crito-Mycenaean letter) - ancient types of writing (3rd-2nd millennium BC), discovered on the island. Crete and mainland Greece. There are three stages of development: hieroglyphic, Linear A and Linear B (only B was deciphered; used for the archaic Greek language). On the basis of the Cretan letter, the Cypriot letter arose. CREAN LETTER (Crito-Mycenaean letter) - ancient types of writing (3rd-2nd millennium BC), discovered on the island. Crete and mainland Greece. There are three stages of development: hieroglyphic, Linear A and Linear B (only B was deciphered; used for the archaic Greek language). On the basis of the Cretan script, the Cypriot script arose. WRITINGCritomicenaean script Cretanlinear script Linear Cypriot script WRITINGCritomicenaean script Kritlinear script Linear Cypriot script

Monuments of material culture The material monuments that are discovered as a result of archaeological excavations are of great importance for the study of the history of Ancient Greece. Since the 30s of the 19th century, archaeological excavations have been carried out in Greece. From the very beginning, scientists from different countries (France, England, Germany, USA and others) took part in them. The largest archaeological excavations were carried out in Athens, Olympia, Delphi, Delos, and on the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey). Of great importance for the study of the history of Ancient Greece are the physical monuments that are discovered as a result of archaeological excavations. Since the 30s of the 19th century, archaeological excavations have been carried out in Greece. From the very beginning, scientists from different countries (France, England, Germany, USA and others) took part in them. The largest archaeological excavations were carried out in Athens, Olympia, Delphi, Delos, and on the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey).

Parthenon Parthenon, architects Ictinus, Callicrates, years BC, Athens Temple of Demeter Temple of Demeter, builders unknown, 6th century BC. Olympia

Erechtheion Erechtheion, builders unknown, years BC, Athens Temple of Nike Apteros Temple of Nike Apteros, architect Kallikrates, years BC, Athens

Olympus Olympus (O l u m p o z) is a mountain in Thessaly where the gods live. The name Olympus is of pre-Greek origin (a possible connection with the Indo-European root ulu / uelu, “to rotate”, i.e. an indication of the roundness of the peaks) and belongs to a number of mountains of Greece and Asia Minor. On Olympus are the palaces of Zeus and other gods, built and decorated by Hephaestus. The gates of Olympus are opened and closed by the Oras as they ride out in golden chariots. Olympus is thought of as a symbol of the supreme power of the new generation of Olympian gods who defeated the Titans. Olympus (O l u m p o z) is a mountain in Thessaly where the gods live. The name Olympus is of pre-Greek origin (a possible connection with the Indo-European root ulu / uelu, “to rotate”, i.e. an indication of the roundness of the peaks) and belongs to a number of mountains of Greece and Asia Minor. On Olympus are the palaces of Zeus and other gods, built and decorated by Hephaestus. The gates of Olympus are opened and closed by the Oras as they ride out in golden chariots. Olympus is thought of as a symbol of the supreme power of the new generation of Olympian gods who defeated the titans. Zeus Hephaestomere-fish of the Olympian titans Zeus Hephaestomere-fish of the Olympian titans

Modern researchers have at their disposal numerous sources of various categories. These are primarily written materials (historical works, works of fiction and scientific literature, journalism, speeches of speakers, legal documents, letters, business documents, and many others.

etc.), monuments of material culture, mainly obtained during archaeological excavations (city ruins, remains of fortifications, public buildings, residential buildings, tombs, temples, tools, weapons, everyday items, etc.), material from ethnographic observations (study of ancient customs, institutions, rituals), a large number of different inscriptions, coins. Information about the distant past can be gleaned by analyzing the structure of the vocabulary of the ancient Greek language and oral traditions (recorded folklore materials).

1. Sources on the history of Crete and Achaean Greece in the Pmillennium BC. e. The few sources of this time are divided into three main categories: written monuments written in syllabary B, data from archaeological excavations of cities and settlements, and information on the history of the 2nd millennium BC. e., preserved in the works of Greek authors of later times.

Tablets written in script B were found during excavations in CreteA. Evans in 1901, but only in 1953 did the English scientist M. Ventris decipher the incomprehensible language of the inscriptions. Currently, several thousand tablets written in letter B are known. They were found in the ruins of Knossos on Crete, during excavations in the cities of Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns, but most of all (over 90% of all texts) were discovered in the archives of Knossos and Pylos. The vast majority of tablets date from the 14th-12th centuries. BC e. The inscriptions are very brief and represent mainly business reporting documents. They contain information about the leasing of land, the number of heads of livestock, the distribution of food to workers and service personnel; often these are lists of slaves and slaves employed in certain services of the palace, lists of artisans and a list of raw materials with them; lists of soldiers and sailors subject to mobilization, as well as an inventory of confiscated property. The tablets provide information about the functioning of the palace economy, about the relationship between the palace and lower administrative units, about the management of the state as a whole, which makes it possible to present the main features of the management and economy of the Achaean kingdoms of the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e.

In addition to the tablets found in the palace archives, inscriptions consisting of abbreviations of individual words, painted or scratched on the walls of clay vessels, and individual letters on seals placed on clay plugs and tags have been preserved.

Archaeological excavations provide a wide variety of information about material culture. The most important finds were discovered during excavations of extensive palace complexes: in Knossos and Phaistos on the island. Crete, Mycenae and Pylos in the Peloponnese. Numerous rooms, a complex layout of the palaces, including luxurious apartments, reception halls, temple rooms, craft workshops, storerooms, a huge number of different everyday items and a variety of weapons give an idea of ​​the rich and intense life of these centers of the largest monarchies of the 2nd millennium BC.

Of great interest is the discovery of enlarged settlements at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in Lerna (in the northern Peloponnese) and in Rafina (in Attica), where a bronze foundry was discovered. Bo second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Around the palaces in Mycenae, Pylos, Athens, Thebes, settlements appeared in which artisans and merchants lived.

Examples of rural settlements where the bulk of the Achaean population lived are the settlements excavated at Koraku (near Corinth), at Zigouries (near Mycenae), and the necropolis of one of the rural settlements in Attica in Sparta. The remains of modest dwellings, complex public buildings, and megaron-type premises were found here. The impressive size of individual buildings, the finds of a large amount of ceramics, including painted ones, as well as bronze and gold items, indicate a process of property stratification among the rural population of the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e.

Some information about the history of the Achaean and Cretan kingdoms is contained in the late Greek tradition. In Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", compiled in the 9th-8th centuries. BC e., not only living memories of the recent past, in particular about the events of the Trojan War, have been preserved, but also entire songs and tales composed in the Achaean era. The poems correctly reflect the political situation in Greece on the eve of the Trojan War, in particular the predominance of Mycenae, the main allies and opponents of the Greeks, the very course of the Trojan War and its results. Homer’s poems convey many realities of the Achaean time: descriptions of a number of household items (for example, the Cup of Nestor), types of weapons, the design of war chariots, fighting techniques, etc.

In the works of Greek authors of the V-IV centuries. BC e. (Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle) ​​and subsequent centuries (Strabo, Plutarch, Pausanias), some vague memories of the glorious past of the Greeks, the power of the Cretan king Minos, the creation of a vast power, and the high culture of that time were preserved. Quite diverse, although very difficult to study, material about the history and culture, customs and religion of the Greeks of the 2nd millennium BC. e. contained in numerous legends and myths of the Greeks about gods and heroes: about the glorious Athenian hero Theseus, who liberated Athens from the cruel power of the Cretan king Minos, about the great Herayut, who served the cowardly king of Tiryns Eurystheus, about the voyage of the Greek heroes led by Jason on the ship " Argo" to the distant shores of Colchis, etc. A thorough critical study of the content of these legends and myths allows us to separate real facts from fiction and expand our knowledge about the history of Greece in the 2nd millennium BC. e.

A small amount of data, mainly about the foreign policy situation of the Cretan and Achaean kingdoms, is contained in ancient Eastern monuments. In particular, some Hittite inscriptions of the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. mention the alliance of the Hittites with the state of Ahhiyawa, located in the western part of Asia Minor. Some Egyptian things from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. (scarabs, amulets, beads, even a diorite figurine of an Egyptian with the inscription of his name User) was found in Crete. Crete (Keftiu) is mentioned in some inscriptions of Pharaoh Thutmose III as an equal ally of the powerful Egyptian kingdom.

2. Sources on the history of archaic and classical Greece. The total number and variety of sources for studying the history of Greece in the 8th-4th centuries. BC e. increases sharply. Written sources of various genres are presented with particular completeness.

The earliest written sources were the epic poems attributed to the blind storyteller Homer - the Iliad and the Odyssey. These works, considered the best examples epic genre world literature, were compiled on the basis of numerous tales, legends, songs, and oral folk traditions dating back to Achaean times. However, the processing and combination of these disparate parts into a single work of art occurred in the 9th-8th centuries. BC e. It is possible that this work could have belonged to some brilliant storyteller, known to us under the name of Homer. Poems were transmitted orally for a long time, but in the 7th-5th centuries. BC e. were written down, and the final editing and recording of the poems was carried out in Athens under the tyrant Pisistratus in the middle of the 6th century. BC e.

Each poem consists of 24 books. The plot of the Iliad is one of the episodes of the tenth year of the Trojan War, namely a quarrel in the Greek camp between the commander of the Greek army, King Agamemnon of Mycenae, and Achilles, the leader of one of the Thessalian tribes. Against this background, Homer gives a detailed description of the military actions of the Greeks and Trojans, the structure of the military camp and weapons, the control system, the appearance of cities, the religious views of the Greeks and Trojans, and everyday life.

The poem "Odyssey" tells about the adventures of the king of Ithaca, Odysseus, who was returning to his native Ithaca after the destruction of Troy. The gods subject Odysseus to numerous trials: he falls to the ferocious Cyclops, guides the ship past the monsters Scylla and Charybdis, escapes from the cannibals of the Laestrygonians, rejects the spell of the sorceress Kirka, who turns people into pigs, etc. Homer shows his hero in different situations of peaceful life, which allows him to characterize its most diverse aspects: economic activities, the life of the royal palace and estate, the relationship between those in power and the poor, customs, particulars of everyday life. However, in order to use the data from Homer’s poems to reconstruct the historical reality reflected in them, the most careful and painstaking analysis is required. After all, each of the poems is, first of all, a work of art in which poetic fiction and historical truth are mixed in the most bizarre way. Whose poems were created and edited over several centuries, and therefore they reflected different chronological layers: the life and customs of the Achaean kingdoms, social relations of the so-called Homeric time (XI-IX centuries BC) and, finally, the time of compilation of the poems (IX-VIII centuries BC).

Valuable information about agriculture, hard peasant labor and rural life can be obtained from the poem “Works and Days” by the Boeotian poet Hesiod (the turn of the 8th-7th centuries BC). He also owns another poem, “Theogony,” which describes in detail the religious views of the Greeks, the origin of the gods, their genealogy and relationships.

To study the socio-political struggle that unfolded in Greek society in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e., important data are given in the political elegies of Greek poets - Archilochus from Paros, Solon from Athens, Theognis from Megara. They realistically describe the plight of the poor, the acute hatred of the demos for the aristocracy, talk about expulsions and confiscations, and the miserable life of wanderers far from their hometown.

One of the most important sources is the writings of ancient Greek historians. Unlike poets, in whose works it is difficult to separate artistic fiction from reality, historians strive to give a true story and select real facts. The first Greek historians were the so-called logographers, of whom the most famous are Hecataeus from Miletus (540-478 BC) and Hellanicus from Mytilene (480-400 BC). Logographers described the ancient history of their native cities. Due to the lack of data, they turned to myths, trying to rationalistically interpret the information contained there. The critical analysis of the mythological tradition carried out by logographers was rather superficial, and therefore many of the facts they cited should not be trusted.

Logographers were not limited to just interpreting mythological tradition. In their works they included completely reliable information of a geographical and ethnographic nature, obtained by them during their travels to various Greek cities and countries of the Eastern Mediterranean. In the works of logographers, myth and reality differed little and this determined the limited significance of their works. The writings of the logographers survive only in small fragments.

The first actual historical research was the work of Herodotus of Halicarnassus (485-425 BC), who was called in ancient times “the father of history.” Herodotus was born into a wealthy family, received a good education, took part in the political struggle in his city, and was expelled by his victorious opponents. While in exile, Herodotus traveled a lot, visited almost all countries

The Eastern Mediterranean, including Babylonia and Egypt, he was also in Magna Graecia and the Black Sea region, for example, he visited Olbia, where he studied the history and life of the Scythian tribes surrounding it. During his mature years, Herodotus lived in Athens, was a supporter of Athenian democracy, and was friends with its leader Pericles. Herodotus witnessed a brilliant era of Greek history, an era of rapid economic development and cultural flourishing that came after the victory over the huge Persian power. Herodotus sought to understand, using concrete material, why small and weak Greece was able to defeat the huge and powerful Persian power and why Athens acquired paramount importance in Greece itself. According to Herodotus, this was not an accident. Herodotus's work is dedicated to the history of the Greco-Persian wars and consists of 9 books, which in the 3rd century. BC e. were named after 9 muses. Actually, the last five books are devoted to the history of the wars themselves (the presentation is brought up to 479 BC), and the first four books describe the history of individual countries, peoples, cities of Asia Minor, Babylonia, Media, Egypt, Scythian tribes, Greek cities of the Balkan Greece.

Herodotus pays attention to the selection and critical analysis of the collected information: he travels around the places and cities about which he writes, asks knowledgeable people, uses existing records and archives, he knows well the authors who preceded him, in particular logographers. Herodotus's presentation of events is strictly factual, although he sometimes resorts to mythological and dubious information, trying to explain them rationally. Modern archaeological data confirm the vast majority of Herodotus' information. Huge factual material on the history of the entire Eastern Mediterranean, an attempt at its critical analysis, a thoughtful author's concept, respect for the cultural achievements of all peoples (and not just the Greeks), high literary merits made the work of Herodotus an outstanding work in Greek and world historiography, a source of valuable information on history Middle East and Greece VII - early V centuries. BC e.

Another outstanding work of Greek historical thought was the work of the Athenian historian Thucydides, son of Olor (about 460-400 BC), dedicated to the events of the Peloponnesian War (431 - 404 BC).

Thucydides received an excellent education, held responsible positions in Athens, including the highest military position of strategist, i.e. knew well the mechanism of political events of his time. Expelled from Athens for unsuccessful conduct of the war in 424 BC. e., Thucydides settled in Thrace and devoted the last years of his life to working on the History. He had enough funds and free time to collect and critically process enormous factual material on the history of the Peloponnesian War. If Herodotus sometimes still used some legendary information in his history, then Thucydides strictly selects and carefully checks the facts, discarding all doubtful information. The critical method of working with sources became an outstanding achievement of ancient historiography.

Thucydides' work consists of 8 books, they set out the events of the Peloponnesian War from 431 to 411 BC. e. (the essay remained unfinished). However, Thucydides does not limit himself to a careful and detailed description of military actions. He also gives a description of the internal life of the warring parties, including the relationships between different groups of the population and their clashes, and changes in the political system.

Thucydides became one of the first Greek historians who saw in social struggle an important factor in the development of Greek city-states. Thucydides also showed with extraordinary force what innumerable disasters war brings with it. With his “History,” he seemed to call on the Greeks to peaceful unification, to abandon such a destructive weapon as wars like the Peloponnesian.

A diverse literary legacy was left behind by Thucydides' younger contemporary, historian and publicist Xenophon from Athens (430-355 BC). Xenophon served as a mercenary for the Persian prince Cyrus, fought in the army of the Spartans, including against his own city, was expelled from Athens and even sentenced to death, and lived for a long time in the Peloponnese. At the end of his life, he received an amnesty and was invited to Athens, but did not take advantage of this invitation.

An experienced politician and military man who has seen a lot in his lifetime, Xenophon left behind many different works. In his “Greek History” he continued the work of Thucydides from the events of 411 BC. e. and brought him to the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC. e. However, unlike Thucydides, Xenophon did not conduct such a thorough analysis of his material; there are many omissions, omissions, and inaccuracies in his work. The value of Xenophon's historical work is that he wrote about his time, he himself was a participant in many events and knew the facts first hand, although Xenophon lacks the critical sense of Thucydides, and in his work he tries in every possible way to praise Sparta and its policies.

Xenophon also wrote other works: several compositions on economic topics(treatises “Economics”, “On Income”), a journalistic treatise “On the State System of the Lacedaemonians”, “Cyropedia” (“Education of Cyrus”), Xenophon develops conservative views, idealizes the Spartan oligarchy, and in “Education of Cyrus” even tries to justify fruitfulness monarchical ideas through the image of an ideal ruler, as shown by the founder of the Persian state, Cyrus. Very valuable information about the life and everyday life of the eastern regions of Asia Minor, about the organization of the mercenary army, is contained in Xenophon’s work “Anabasis” (literally “Ascent”), which tells about the retreat of the Greek mercenary contingent, in which Xenophon himself was, from Northern Babylonia to the southern coast Black Sea. The treatise “Memoirs” has also been preserved, in which Xenophon sets out the content of the conversations of the philosopher Socrates with his students.

Xenophon's works, written on various topics, contain the most varied and valuable information about many aspects of the life of Greek society at the end of the 5th - first half of the 4th century. BC e. From other Greek historians of the 4th century. BC e. Ephora and Theopompus should be named, but their works have survived only in small fragments.

One of the earliest examples of political journalism with a fierce denunciation of their political opponents - the Athenian democrats and the entire state system of Athenian democracy - is a treatise by an unknown Athenian oligarch from the mid-20s of the 4th century. BC e., which is conventionally called the pseudo-Xenophonian Athenian polity (the treatise was found among the works of Xenophon, but does not belong to him).

A lot of information of a diverse nature is contained in the numerous speeches of Athenian orators of the 4th century that have survived to our time. BC e. -Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes, Aeschines, Hyperides, etc. The earliest of these speeches by Lysias date back to the end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th century. BC e., the latest belong to Hyperides and Dinarchus (20s of the 4th century BC). Speakers made speeches on various topics: political accusations or defense, analysis of civil lawsuits, cases of bribery and embezzlement, and bribery. The speaker in his speeches accused someone or led a defense and, depending on this task, selected some materials and omitted others. Speeches are very biased sources in which the true state of affairs is subjected to deliberate distortion, but the speeches also contain a lot of material of a very different nature: speakers often refer to articles of laws, legal decisions, quote articles of international treaties, mention inheritances and property, the situation in society of their clients and a lot of other information. The value of speeches lies in the fact that they convey the true atmosphere of immediate historical reality and are a living document of the era.

B V-IV centuries BC e. In Greece, various works of a scientific and philosophical nature were published, which reflected the multifaceted life of Greek city-states. The famous Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle wrote works of the most diverse content, which reflected both the dominant political ideas, worldview concepts, scientific ideas, and many other information about their time.

Among the works of Plato (427-348 BC), the most important are his extensive treatises “The State” and “Laws”, written in the last period of his life. In them, Plato, starting from the analysis of socio-political relations of the mid-4th century. BC e., offers his own version of the reconstruction of Greek society on new, fair, in his opinion, principles.

The creativity of the greatest Greek thinker Aristotle (384 -322) is striking in its diversity. He owns treatises on logic and ethics, rhetoric and poetics, meteorology and astronomy, zoology and physics, which are substantive sources. However, the most valuable works on the history of Greek society in the 6th century. BC e. are his works on the essence and forms of the state - “Politics”, in which he summarized the gigantic material of the political history of 158 different Greek city policies, and a special treatise on the state structure of Athens, one of the largest Greek cities with developed forms government controlled, "The Athenian Polity". A thorough critical analysis of the vast amount of factual material makes the works of Aristotle a most valuable historical source.

Historical reality V-IV centuries. BC e. received a unique reflection in works of fiction, in tragedies and comedies that are staged in theaters. The great Greek tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (5th century BC) took plots for their tragedies from mythological tales, but put into them the ideas and ideas of their time, which makes them interesting sources. Rich information about the internal and external situation of Athens during the Peloponnesian War and at the beginning of the 6th century. BC e. give numerous comedies (11 comedies have survived) of Aristophanes (445-c. 385 BC). Depicting Athenian life in a comic sense, Aristophanes touches on issues of war and peace, the well-being of the rich and the poverty of the poor, embezzlement of officials, incompetent commanders, and the plight of the allies. Aristophanes' data shows Athenian life as if from the other side and serves as a good addition to Thucydides' information about Greek society during the Peloponnesian War.

Greek history of archaic and classical times became the object of study by a number of historians and writers of Hellenistic and Roman times. Of course, when studying events of the distant past, historians depended on the sources at their disposal, on the political trends of their time, and therefore the reliability of the information they provided varied greatly. The most valuable are the works of Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) “Historical Library”, the surviving parts of which set out Greek history from 481 (preparation of Xerxes’ campaign against Greece) to 302 BC. e. (preparation for the Battle of Ipsus), numerous works by Plutarch (1st century AD), a native of the Boeotian city of Xeponea, especially biographies of famous political figures of Greece (Theseus, Lycurgus, Solon, Themistocles, Pericles, Alcibiades, Cimon, Nikias and etc.), the work of Pausanias (2nd century AD) “Description of Hellas”.

In the complex of historical sources on the history of Ancient Greece, epigraphic sources occupy an equally important place. These are inscriptions on stone (stone slabs, walls of buildings, steles, statues, etc.), ceramics, and metal plates. The inscriptions were different - from a few letters to hundreds of lines. However, there are few large inscriptions (several dozen lines); the bulk of the epigraphic material contains text of several lines.

The Greeks made inscriptions quite often and for various reasons: treaties with other states, articles of laws, financial and other reports, records of expenses, sales of property, mortgages, lease agreements, dedications to the gods, construction inscriptions, listing the merits of the deceased and much more. The very nature of the Greek inscriptions, therefore, suggests an unusually wide range of information, knowledge of which allows us to learn about aspects of life about which all other sources are silent. The inscriptions, as a rule, are contemporary with the events mentioned in them and state reliable facts, since they were exhibited for public viewing.

The information contained in the inscriptions, in addition, makes it possible to verify the data contained in the works of ancient Greek historians. For example, the lists of phoros received from the Athenian allies that have reached us confirm the well-known position of Thucydides and other Greek authors about the brutal exploitation of the allies by Athens. Large inscription about the conclusion of the Second Athenian Maritime League in 378 BC. e. confirms a profound change in the nature of relations between Athens and its allies in the 4th century. BC e.

The significance of the inscriptions as a historical source also lies in the fact that they were found not only in Athens, but also in many other cities of Greece, about which the authors do not provide any information. Currently, over 200 thousand inscriptions from all corners of the Greek world have been discovered. They are collected, processed and published in the form of multi-volume collections. The most complete collections of Greek inscriptions are as follows: “Corpus of Greek Inscriptions”, published by A. Böck and his students in 1825-1877. (vol. I-IV); “Inscriptions of Greece”, 15 volumes have been published since 1878. Inscriptions of historical content were collected by the English epigraphist M. Todd (“Collection of Greek Historical Inscriptions,” 1946-1948. T. I-II).

Some of the oldest Greek inscriptions are friendly treaties between the Peloponnesian cities of Elis and Heraea and between the inhabitants of two small cities in Elis, the Anetians and the Metapians (6th century BC).

Inscriptions of a legislative nature are of great interest to the historian. So, the inscription 409-408. BC e. from Athens contained the text of the ancient Athenian legislation of Draco, dating back to the end of the 7th century. BC e. On the walls of one of the public buildings in the Cretan city of Gortyn, a text of laws was discovered, which has been preserved almost entirely and is one of the longest Greek inscriptions (the so-called “Gortyn Truth”). An example of lengthy inscriptions regulating the relations of the colonists again

withdrawn colonies, can serve as the so-called stele of the founders of the Greek colony of Cyrene about their relationship with the metropolis of Thera, inscriptions about the division of lands and the allocation of them to colonists in two Locridian policies (late 6th - early 5th century BC).

There are many lengthy inscriptions regulating relations between Athens and its allies, for example, the resolution of the Athenian National Assembly on the status of the city of Erythra in the union (60s of the 5th century BC) and the city of Chalkis (445 BC) . The inscriptions about the legally established contributions of various cities of the 1st Athenian Maritime League from 454 to 425 BC are very informative. e. By the end of the 4th century. BC e. refers to a very important inscription from Chersonese (modern Sevastopol), the so-called Chersonese oath about the state structure of Chersonese.

Thanks to the successes of numismatics, the importance of coins as a historical source is currently increasing. Found in very large quantities (several thousand coins are found every year), they represent mass material that can be subjected to statistical processing. Studying the weight of coins, the symbols and signs on them, inscriptions, the composition of coin hoards, the distribution of coins allows us to obtain information of a very diverse nature (about monetary circulation, commodity production, trade and political relations of cities, religious views, cultural events, etc. ). The most complete publications of available coin collections are the catalogs of the British Museum, as well as a summary of all Greek coin hoards, which was undertaken by the American Numismatic Society in 1973.

The enormous material from archaeological excavations, which is growing year by year, is the most important source of knowledge about the most diverse aspects of the life of Greek society. Hundreds of archaeological expeditions work annually on the territory of Greece, other countries of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea region, carrying out large-scale work. The archaeological material is very diverse: entire cities have been discovered (excavations of Olynthos, Chersonese Tauride, Corinth), pan-Greek sanctuaries (temple complexes in honor of Apollo in Delphi and Delos), the famous religious and sports complex in Olympia (during excavations in 1876-1881, 130 sculptures, 1000 inscriptions, 6000 coins, several thousand bronze objects, not counting the foundations of many buildings).

Interesting data were obtained from the study of individual complexes, for example, during excavations of the potters' quarter in Athens and the Athenian central square - the agora, the study of the Athenian Acropolis, the theater in Epidaurus, the necropolis in Tanagra and other similar complexes. Hundreds of thousands of things for various purposes were discovered here - tools, weapons, everyday items.

Constant archaeological research is carried out in the Greek cities of the Northern Black Sea region, in the cities of Olbia (including Berezan), Chersonese Tauride, Panticapaeum, Phanagoria and many others.

3. Sources on the history of Greece of the Hellenistic period. The number of sources dating to this time increases compared to the previous period, and new categories of sources appear, for example, documents written on papyri that were discovered during excavations in Egypt.

Of the historical works that provide a coherent account of the events of Hellenistic history with a specific author's concept, with verification of facts, as far as it was possible at that time, the works of Polybius and Diodorus are of greatest importance. Polybius (200-118 BC) is one of the outstanding Greek historians. In his youth he was active

political activities in the Achaean League, after the defeat of Macedonia at Pydna in 168 BC. e. he was transferred to Rome as a hostage and lived there until his death. In Rome, Polybius became close to a number of major political figures, in particular with Scipio Aemilianus, and was aware of all state affairs of the Roman Republic, i.e. the entire Mediterranean. Polybius traveled a lot. He was in Egypt, Asia Minor, Roman Africa, Spain, and traveled around the entire Atlantic coast of Africa and Spain. Polybius was a well-informed historian, had access to state archives, met with many eyewitnesses of historical events. His work details the history of the Greek and Roman world from 220 to 146 BC. e., contains valuable information about state finance, military affairs, socio-political clashes, and the structure of many states. The author developed a well-thought-out theory in his work historical development in the form of repeating cycles in which there is a natural and logical degeneration of the main state forms (monarchy into aristocracy, aristocracy into democracy).

In the “Historical Library” of Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), consisting of 40 books, books I - V, XVIII-XX are fully preserved, in which, in addition to the history of classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC .) the struggle of the Diadochi, the history of the reign of the tyrant Agathocles in Sicily and other events of early Hellenistic history (before 30 BC) are described in detail. Diodorus used reliable sources, and his factual material is of great value. Along with military-political events, Diodorus also covers the economic situation of the warring parties, for example Egypt and Rhodes, and briefly reports on social clashes.

The richest information of the most varied content is given in Strabo’s “Geography” (64/63 BC - 23/24).

n. e.). Strabo's work is not so much geography in the generally accepted sense as an encyclopedic guide to the practical needs of public administration. Therefore, Strabo most carefully describes not only the geographical location, climate, Natural resources, but also the peculiarities of the economic life of each region, the state structure, the most significant political events, and cultural attractions. Most of Strabo's voluminous work (12 books out of 17) is devoted to a description of the Greek world. In Strabo's books there is quite a lot of information relating to archaic and classical times, but the most information is given precisely on the Hellenistic period of Greek history.

The works of Plutarch, especially his biographies of the largest Greek and Roman political figures of the 3rd-1st centuries, are of great value for early Hellenistic history. BC e. In total, Plutarch describes the biographies of 9 prominent Greeks, including Alexander and Pyrrhus. Plutarch gives a biography of both Hellenistic kings and political figures of various Greek city states. Biographies of Plutarch are compiled on the basis of numerous, carefully selected sources, many of which have not reached our time, and contain a wealth of material on the political history, religion and culture of the early Hellenistic era. In general, the biographies of Hellenistic figures were written by Plutarch with greater care and accuracy than the biographies of the Greeks of the archaic and classical periods.

Unique in its wealth of material for reconstructing the cultural history of Greece of all eras, including archaic, classical and Hellenistic, is the work of Pausanias (2nd century AD) “Description of Hellas.” Pausanias's work consists of 10 books, each of which is dedicated to the culture of the most historically rich regions of Balkan Greece. Pausanias describes in detail temples, sanctuaries, architectural complexes, remains of buildings, statues, paintings, and includes in these descriptions legends and myths associated with certain monuments. The accuracy of his data is confirmed by archaeological excavations. The historical information he provides about the monuments he describes is also important (biographies of the people to whom the statues were erected, the historical circumstances of their installation).

Hellenistic history was the object of constant attention of historians of the Roman period, with particular interest being aroused by the history of the reign of Philip II and his illustrious son Alexander the Great. The most famous are “The History of Philip” by Pompey Trogus (end of the 1st century BC) in 44 books (the work was preserved in an abbreviation by Justin, author of the 2nd-3rd centuries AD), “The History of Alexander the Great” by Curtius Rufus (1st century . AD), “Anabasis of Alexander” by Flavius ​​Arrian (2nd century AD). These works describe in detail the preparation, course and results of the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the countries and regions through which he passed, and his policy towards the conquered peoples. In the work of Pompey Trogus, in addition to the characteristics of the reigns of Philip and Alexander, a coherent history of most of the Hellenistic kingdoms of the 3rd-1st centuries is given. BC e., and the latest source research confirms the accuracy of the facts he cites.

Appian, Roman historian of the 1st century. n. e., wrote the history of the Seleucid state, Macedonia of the Pontic kingdom. The story focuses mainly on the events of late Hellenistic history of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., conquest Hellenistic states Rome, with primary attention paid to the description of military-political history.

Valuable sources on various aspects of the life of Hellenistic societies are works of scientific and fiction literature. These are, first of all, treatises on economics, in particular the treatise attributed to Aristotle (it is called the pseudo-Aristotelian “Economics”, end of the 6th century BC), and the treatise “Economics” belonging to Philodemus (1st century BC) . The works of Aristotle's student Theophrastus (370-288 BC) are of great interest. The treatise “On Plants” provides a detailed description of various plants, including cultivated ones: grains, grapevines, oilseeds and fruit trees. The treatise “Characters” is an interesting study of socio-psychological types of people and their behavior depending on their lifestyle, social status and degree of prosperity (distrustful, talkative, arrogant, arrogant person, etc.).

From works of fiction as a content source Everyday life and life of the late IV-III centuries. BC e. important are the everyday comedies of the Athenian playwright Menander (342-292 BC), a collection of short poems by Theocritus (3rd century BC), dedicated to the glorification of a simple, quiet life, far from the worries of the world, called “Idylls” .

There are numerous epigraphic, numismatic, and archaeological sources on the history of Hellenism. Tens of thousands of various inscriptions have been found from almost all areas of the Greek world with the most varied content - from legislative documents to student exercises. In addition to general collections of inscriptions arranged by region, such as “Inscriptions of Greece,” individual categories of inscriptions are published in the form of separate volumes. Thus, collections of legal inscriptions were published under the editorship of Darest, Osullier and Reynak (in 1891-1904), texts of treaties of various states edited by G. Schmitt (in 1969), in addition to the already mentioned collection of inscriptions of historical content edited by Tod , also a collection of historical inscriptions edited by Moretti (1967-1975) and a number of other publications. Collections of inscriptions from some regions have been published, for example, a collection of Greek and Latin inscriptions from the Northern Black Sea region, prepared by B.B. Latyshev in 1885-1916 rr., vol. I, 11, IV. Numismatic material is constantly being replenished, numbering up to several hundred thousand different coins. Hundreds of archaeological expeditions from many countries around the world are conducting intensive and fruitful excavations of various centers of Hellenistic societies.

Different categories of sources complement each other. For example, the history of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom is largely known on the basis of numismatic materials and data from archaeological excavations. The discovery of such interesting and rich cities as Dura-Europos on the Euphrates and Ai-Khanum in Northern Afghanistan (the ancient name of this city is unknown) has expanded our information on the history of urban planning, military fortification, urban life and economy, social and political relations, culture Ce - the Leucid state, although there is practically no evidence of these cities in literary sources.

A new category of sources for the study of Hellenistic history, especially the Egyptian Ptolemaic kingdom, are numerous texts on papyri. To date, over 250 thousand different papyrus finds from

Egypt, and their processing is carried out by a special scientific discipline - papyrology. Among the papyrological documents, entire historical and artistic works were discovered, for example, Aristotle’s treatise “The Athenian Polity”; a historical work describing Greek history of the first half of the 4th century. BC e. (the so-called Oxyrhynchian historian), many comedies of Menander, texts of Homer, etc. The contents of this huge collection of papyri are extremely diverse: royal orders, laws, literary works, accounts, economic contracts, marriage contracts, correspondence, student exercises, petitions, religious texts, resolutions of various assemblies, etc. The papyri characterize the internal life of Ptolemaic Egypt with such completeness that we do not have for any Hellenistic society. Currently, Egyptian papyri have been collected and published in multi-volume series. The largest are multi-volume collections of papyri from Tebtyunis, Oxyrhynchus, Ghibelen, the publication of Zeno’s archive and many others.

In general, numerous and varied sources on the history of various periods of Greek history make it possible to show the main directions of development of ancient Greek society - from the initial stages of the formation of a class slave society and state to the conquest of Greek city-states and Hellenistic states by Rome.

The history of Ancient Greece studies the process of emergence, development, functioning of the ancient Greek civilization in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, which has a special socio-economic structure, developed political institutions, rich culture. However, the birth of ancient Greek civilization took place on the Balkan Peninsula and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

Geographical limits

Geographically, Ancient Greece is a combination of its three constituent parts: the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula (from Mount Olympus in the north to Cape Tenar in the south), numerous islands of the Aegean Sea, which are “closed” in the southern part by the island of Crete, and a narrow coastal strip in the western part of Malaya Asia. During the era of the Great Greek colonization (VIII - VI centuries BC), the Greeks settled on vast areas of the coast of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. In the west, numerous Greek colonies appeared in southern Italy, on the island of Sicily, on the western coast of the Adriatic, in southern Gaul (modern France) and in northeastern Iberia (modern Spain). In the northeast direction, Greek colonization was first aimed at developing the Thracian coast and the shores of the Hellespont Strait, connecting the Black and Mediterranean seas. The most famous colony in the area was Byzantium, which became Constantinople in the 4th century AD, and Istanbul in the 15th century. Through the straits, the Greeks entered the Black Sea and founded dozens of new cities on its coast, most of which still exist. To the south, the Greeks managed to gain a foothold in the Cyrenaica region, on the Libyan coast west of Egypt. As a result of the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the Greeks penetrated far to the East, right up to the western territories Ancient India. All these territories became the site of the development of Greek civilization and are the object of study within the framework of the history of Ancient Greece.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Greece

The history of Ancient Greece is usually divided into several stages and periods. The first stage (III-II millennium BC) is called Crete-Mycenaean. Since at this time there were two main centers of civilization, Crete and Balkan Greece, there is a periodization for each of these centers: early, middle and late periods are distinguished. Then follows the polis stage, during which the formation of the actual model of society, which is usually called ancient, takes place. The first period of this stage (XI - IX centuries BC) is called the period of the Dark Ages or the Homeric period. This is followed by the archaic period (VIII - VI centuries BC), during which the structure-forming element of ancient Greek civilization - the polis - is formed. The classical period (5th - end of 4th centuries BC) is the heyday of all the constituent parts of ancient Greek civilization and the time of crisis of the polis model of development of the Greek polis. Then begins the 300-year era of Hellenism (end of the 4th - end of the 1st centuries BC), which originates from the campaigns of Alexander the Great and finds its end in the collapse of the world of Hellenistic states, the subordination of the western territories to Rome and the entry of the eastern territories into the Parthian kingdom.

Ethnic history of Ancient Greece

The ethnic history of Ancient Greece is quite complex. Until the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. the main population of Balkan Greece were Pelasgians, Leleges, and Carians; Crete was inhabited by the Minoans until the second half of the 2nd millennium. Greek tribes (Achaeans) invaded the territory of Balkan Greece at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The ancient peoples were partially forced out of this territory and partially assimilated. In the second half of the 15th century. BC e. after the death of the Cretan state, the Achaeans also landed on this island. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. New Greek tribes - the Dorians - invaded Greece. From the beginning of the 1st millennium, the Greeks, while remaining a single people, were divided into four main groups using their own dialect: Achaeans, Dorians, Ionians, Aeolians. The dialectal features of these groups persisted until the Hellenistic era. Active contacts of the Greeks with other peoples, primarily with the peoples of the ancient eastern states, settlement during colonization in the vast areas of the Mediterranean and Black Sea region and close relations with local tribes (Thracians, Scythians, Gauls, Iberians and others) led to the fact that the concept of Hellenes was associated more with belonging to Greek culture than with ethnic origin. In connection with the occurrence of the policy, civil society the status of a citizen of a particular Greek state comes to the fore.

The history of Ancient Greece has an extensive source base. These are, first of all, written sources. From the Cretan-Mycenaean era, tablets written in syllabic letters A (in Crete) and B (in Balkan Greece) have been preserved. Syllabary A has not yet been deciphered, but syllabic B was deciphered in 1953 by the English scientist M. Ventris. These plates are business reporting documents. These documents, together with archaeological data, are the object of study of a special direction in the history of Ancient Greece - Mycenology. An important, but very complex source is Homer’s poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. A special group of philologists and historians is also studying them. In the 19th century, the so-called “Homeric question” was one of the central problems of classical studies. Modern researchers are engaged in such issues as the specifics of reflecting real life in such a genre as the heroic epic, the correlation of literary text and archaeological material. For the archaic era, important sources are the poems of Hesiod and the Greek lyricists (Archilochus, Theognis, Solon, Alcaeus, Sappho and others). Modern scientists, with the help of their works, try to solve specific issues social psychology archaic period. History emerges as a science in Greece. The historical works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, which have come down to us in full, and fragments of the works of other historians provide a holistic, although sometimes subjective, picture of the events that took place in the archaic and mainly classical periods. The works of late writers of Hellenistic and Roman times are of great importance: Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, Pausanias, Athenaeus, Aulus Helius and many others. They brought to us the ancient tradition, most of which was lost. Naturally, clarifying the problem of the reliability of the works of ancient authors is one of the tasks of specialists in the history of Ancient Greece. Written sources also include the speeches of Greek orators, scientific and philosophical works, and the works of tragedians and comedians.

A special discipline is Greek epigraphy, which deals with all issues related to inscriptions on solid materials (stone, metal, ceramics) that have survived to this day and were found, as a rule, as a result of excavations. These inscriptions are dedicated to various aspects of the social, religious and private life of the Greeks. Working with this category of sources requires special professional training. The promise of this discipline lies in the fact that in our time, as a result of the work of archaeologists, there is a constant replenishment of this category of sources, although not as intensively as in the 19th century. By the beginning of the 21st century, about 100 thousand Greek inscriptions were known, and modern computer technologies provide rapid processing of epigraphic material. Another specialized discipline is ancient numismatics, which deals with numerous Greek and Roman coins. At an early stage, numismatists were mainly concerned with the problems of systematization and classification of numismatic material, the use of coins to illustrate political events, and the study of certain aspects of Greek religion. Now, coins and storage complexes make it possible to solve important problems of the Greek economy, identify the specifics of monetary circulation in different regions and in different periods, and study the financial and monetary policies of the Greek states. Papyrology is also a special discipline. She studies papyri found in Egypt and created in the Hellenistic and Roman times. Although these papyri are dominated by documentary material from these two periods, works from earlier times are found among the texts found. Thus, thanks to the discovery of papyrus at the end of the 19th century, Aristotle’s work “The Athenian Polity” became known. The work of epigraphists, numismatists and papyrologists is increasingly becoming international, and many projects are carried out by groups of scientists from various countries.

Of great importance for the study of the history of Ancient Greece are the physical monuments that are discovered as a result of archaeological excavations. Since the 30s of the 19th century, archaeological excavations have been carried out in Greece. From the very beginning, scientists from different countries (France, England, Germany, USA and others) took part in them. The largest archaeological excavations were carried out in Athens, Olympia, Delphi, Delos, and on the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey). The remains of remarkable architectural monuments were uncovered, numerous household items and monuments of art were found, the finds of Greek ceramics were especially significant in quantitative terms. Excavations were carried out in almost all places where the Greeks lived: in Southern Italy and Sicily, Southern France, and the Black Sea region. In the Northern Black Sea region, which was part of the Russian state, domestic archaeologists conducted excavations. As a result of G. Schliemann's excavations in Mycenae in the 70s of the 19th century, Mycenaean Greece was discovered. A. Evans' excavations at Knossos on Crete in 1900 led to the discovery of the Minoan civilization. Excavations actively continued throughout the 20th century. Particularly significant were the excavations of the Greek scientist S. Marinatos on the island of Thera, which discovered the remains of the oldest city in Europe, which died as a result of a volcanic eruption 3.5 thousand years ago. Modern methods archaeological research, new advanced technology makes it possible to obtain much more scientific information during excavations than before.

The main stages of studying Ancient Greece

The cultural and historical heritage of Ancient Greece has never been forgotten. Greek culture became important integral part Mediterranean culture that originated in the Roman Empire. The ancient heritage and written tradition were preserved in the Byzantine state. In Western Europe, interest in ancient Greek culture and history arose in the 15th century during the Renaissance. However, the real scientific study of Ancient Greece begins at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century. The works of I. Winckelmann and F. Wolf aroused interest in Greek history in society and among specialists. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the most influential was the German school of classical studies. The works of A. Böck laid the foundation for the study economic life Greeks He also initiated the scientific publication of Greek inscriptions. I. Droyzen was the first to systematize the complex historical material of late Greek history and was the first to introduce the concept of the “Hellenistic era.” E. Curtius conducted the classical excavations of Olympia and created one of the best general works on the history of Greece. The works of Ed. were of great importance for understanding theoretical problems. Meyer, K. Bucher, J. Beloch, R. Poehlmann. Among French historians, it should be noted A. Wallon, who wrote a general work on slavery in antiquity, and F. de Coulanges, who formulated the idea of ​​the polis as a civil community. Founder scientific school studying the history of Ancient Greece in the Russian state, M.S. became a professor at St. Petersburg and Moscow universities. Kutorga. He was mainly concerned with the history of the Athenian state; his works were published in Western Europe. F.F. Sokolov initiated the study of epigraphic sources and trained a whole generation of Russian scientists. Among the pre-revolutionary specialists in antiquity, we can note V.V. Latysheva, M.I. Rostovtseva, M.M. Khvostova, V.P. Buzeskula, S.A. Zhebeleva, F.F. Zelinsky. Of great importance were the translations into Russian of the main works of Greek authors carried out by F.G. Mishchenko. Russian scientists were especially active in studying the Greek states in the Northern Black Sea region. During the period between the two World Wars, multi-volume generalizing works on world history were published in the West, among which the “Cambridge Ancient History” should be noted; several volumes in it were devoted to Ancient Greece. At the same time, a school of Soviet historians was emerging in the USSR, which was characterized by work primarily on socio-economic issues. Works by V.S. appeared Sergeeva, A.I. Tyumeneva, S.I. Kovaleva, S.Ya. Lurie. A new stage in the development of ancient studies began in the second half of the 20th century. After M. Ventris deciphered syllabic writing A, a special direction arose that studied the history of Greece in the 2nd millennium BC. e. - Mycenology. In Western historiography, we should highlight the works of the English scientist M. Finley, who in his numerous works opposed the modernization of ancient history, especially in the field of economics. This direction found its expression in the works of E. Will, C. Starr and some scientists. A group of specialists led by J. Vogt dealt with the problems of ancient slavery in Germany. The works of K. Mosse, R. Meiggs, J. Davis, M. Hansen and many others were devoted to the study of the history of the Athenian state and democracy. The current period is characterized by a policy of cooperation between the work of Western scientists, holding international conferences on various issues, and publishing numerous thematic collections. A special place in European classical studies is occupied by a scientific center in Denmark (headed by M. Hansen), which deals with one of the central problems of Greek history - the study of all aspects of the polis. Most areas in the study of the history of Ancient Greece are represented in our country. The works of Yu.V. were devoted to the Minoan civilization. Andreeva. T.V. Blavatsky studied the history of Achaean Greece. The problems of the policy and its formation are reflected in the works of G.A. Koshelenko, E.D. Frolova, A.I. Zaitseva, V.P. Yaylenko. The works of K.K. are devoted to various aspects of the history of the Athenian state. Zelina, V.M. Strogetsky, S.G. Karpyuk, I.E. Surikov; public and political thought ancient Greeks - works by A.K. Berger, A.I. Dovatura, E.D. Frolova. Various aspects of the crisis of the Greek polis are reflected in the studies of L.M. Gluskina, L.P. Marinovich, V.I. Isaeva. The domestic school of classical studies continued to remain the world's leading school in the study of the history of the Greek city-states of the Northern Black Sea region. Over the past two decades, domestic antiquity has suffered significant losses, and excavation activities have sharply decreased. However, at the same time, cooperation with Western colleagues intensified, and domestic scientists began to take greater part in international projects.

And D.P. Kallistova. M., 1956.

Ancient civilizations. Ed. G.M. Bongard-Levina. M., 1989.

Reader on the history of Ancient Greece. Ed. D.P. Kallistova. M., 1964.

Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Sources on the history of Ancient Greece have a number of features, which directly affects the ability to comprehensively and fully restore historical realities. The main problem of classical studies is the scarcity of the source base. Many stages of ancient Greek history, spanning several centuries, are poorly reflected in written monuments, which provide basic information about the life of society in the past. In fact, not a single era of ancient Greek history has complete and comprehensive coverage in the sources. In addition, in many sources that have reached us, information on a number of issues is presented in a very complex or veiled form, this causes an ambiguous and often controversial assessment of the objective realities and subjective phenomena in the life of the society of Ancient Greece.

Material sources- Systematic archaeological research carried out both on the Balkan Peninsula (in Athens, Olympia, Delphi) and the islands of Rhodes and Delos, and on the Asia Minor coast of the Aegean Sea (in Miletus, Pergamon), gave historians a huge number of diverse sources. As a result of archaeological research, a wide variety of and sometimes unique sources fell into the hands of antiquists, revealing many previously unknown or unfamiliar things in the history of Ancient Greece. The enormous material from archaeological excavations, which is growing year by year, is the most important source of knowledge about the most diverse aspects of the life of Greek society. The archaeological material is very diverse: entire cities have been discovered (excavations of Olynthos, Chersonese Tauride, Corinth), pan-Greek sanctuaries (temple complexes in honor of Apollo in Delphi and Delos), the famous religious and sports complex in Olympia. Interesting data were obtained during excavations of the potters' quarter in Athens and the Athenian central square - the agora, the study of the Athenian Acropolis, the theater in Epidaurus, the necropolis in Tanagra and other similar complexes. Hundreds of thousands of things for various purposes were discovered here - tools, weapons, everyday items.

Epigraphic sources i.e. inscriptions made on a hard surface: stone, ceramics, metal. Greek society was educated, and therefore quite a variety of inscriptions have reached us. These are state decrees, articles of agreements, construction inscriptions, inscriptions on the pedestals of statues, dedicatory inscriptions to the gods, gravestone inscriptions, lists of officials, various business documents (invoices, lease and mortgage agreements, acts of purchase and sale, etc.) , inscriptions during voting in the national assembly, etc. (over 200 thousand inscriptions have already been found). But the main thing is that the inscriptions were made in most cases by ordinary citizens and express their worldview. Thus, there are many lengthy inscriptions regulating relations between Athens and its allies. The inscriptions about the legally established contributions of various cities of the First Athenian Maritime League from 454 to 425 BC are very informative. e. By the end of the 4th century. BC e. refers to a very important inscription from Chersonese, the so-called Chersonese oath about the state structure of Chersonese.

The study of coins, the symbols and signs on them, inscriptions, the composition of coin hoards allows one to obtain information about monetary circulation, commodity production, trade and political relations of cities, religious views, cultural events, etc. But archaeological finds alone cannot provide a complete understanding of the historical processes of social development.

Written sources- Some of the most important sources (works of ancient Greek historians) Unlike poets, historians strive to give a true story, to select actual facts. The first Greek historians were the so-called logographers, of whom the most famous Hecataeus of Miletus And Hellanicus of Mytilene. Logographers described the ancient history of their native cities. In their works they included completely reliable information of a geographical and ethnographic nature, obtained during their travels to various Greek cities and countries of the Eastern Mediterranean. The first actual historical research was the work Herodotus of Halicarnassus, called in ancient times the “father of history.” In his work, which is commonly called “History,” Herodotus described the course of the war between the Greeks and Persians. This is genuine treatise. To reveal the cause of the war, Herodotus turns to the background of events. He talks about the history of the ancient Eastern countries and peoples that became part of the Persian state, and then about the history of the Greek city-states, and only after that begins to describe military actions. And although the degree of reliability of the information collected by the historian varies, most of the information from the “History” is confirmed by other sources, and primarily by archaeological discoveries. Thucydides decided to describe the history of the Peloponnesian War. To find historical truth, Thucydides conducts a strict critical selection of historical sources, using only those that contain reliable information. This approach to facts allows him to find objective causes of events and the reasons that caused them, which helps to identify patterns of historical events. For him, the direct connection between successes in military operations and the stability of the internal political situation in the state is clear. Thucydides played a decisive role in establishing scientific knowledge about the past. He developed a critical method for analyzing historical sources and was the first to identify patterns of historical development. His work is a most valuable historical source, which covers the events described as objectively as possible. Xenophon of Athens- a supporter of the Spartan government system, was critical of Athenian democracy. This explains a certain bias in the presentation of the material. His "Greek History", describing events from 411 to 362 BC. e., remains the most important source for the study of the complex era of intense struggle between the policies and the crisis of the classical Greek polis. In the essay “On the State System of the Lacedaemonians,” he idealizes the Spartan order, and in the “Cyropedia,” dedicated to the education of the founder of the Persian state, Cyrus the Elder, he is sympathetic to the idea of ​​​​a monarchical structure of the state. Of great interest from the point of view of the development of philosophical thought and the characteristics of Athenian life are Xenophon’s treatises “Memories of Socrates”, “Economics” (or “Domostroy”), “On Income”. In general, Xenophon’s numerous treatises contain diverse and valuable, but not always objective information about the most diverse aspects of the life of Greek society of his time. An irreplaceable historical source is philosophical and rhetorical works. An outstanding philosopher was Plato. His treatises “State” and “Laws” are of great interest to historians, where the author, in accordance with his socio-political views, proposes ways for a fair reorganization of society and gives a “recipe” for an ideal state structure. Disciple of Plato Aristotle tried to explore the history and political structure of over 150 states. Of his works, only “The Athenian Polity” has survived, where the history and government structure of the Athenian polis is systematically described.

Sources of the Hellenistic era. In the Hellenistic era, narrative sources (i.e. narrative) acquired new features. During this period, the Greek historian Polybius(c. 201 - c. 120 BC) the first “General History” was written. The 40 books (the first five books have been completely preserved) of the General History describe historical events in the Mediterranean from 220 to 146 BC. e. Carefully selecting facts, Polybius strove for historical truth in order to show the pattern of Rome gaining worldwide dominance. Based on the study of historical processes, he created an original theory of historical development, in which there is a pattern of degeneration of the main forms of the state - from tsarist power to democracy. Another major historian of this period was Diodorus Siculus(c. 90--21 BC). His “Historical Library” (out of 40 books, books 1-5 and 11-20 have reached us, and only fragments of the rest) described in detail the history of the Mediterranean states, including the history of classical Greece. Diodorus pays special attention to the economic development of the Hellenistic states and the socio-political struggle between their rulers. Essays contain important information Plutarch(c. 45 - c. 127), primarily biographies of the largest Greek and Roman politicians and Hellenistic kings, as well as various information from the socio-political and cultural life of ancient society. The facts used to highlight the activities of outstanding personalities of the Hellenistic period are more reliable compared to data from earlier eras. Interesting information, the authenticity of which is confirmed by archaeological excavations, was left by a Greek historian Pausanias(II century) in the ten-volume “Description of Hellas”. This work, based on the author’s observations and other sources, contains a detailed description of architectural monuments (temples, theaters, public buildings), works of sculpture and painting. The Hellenistic era is associated with the rapid development of book culture. Treatises on economics are of great interest to historians: pseudo-Aristotle’s “Economics” (late 4th century BC) and “Economics” by the Epicurean philosopher Philodema(1st century BC). “Geography” contains reliable and valuable information Strabo. The writer traveled a lot and supplemented his observations with information gleaned from other scientists. Strabo talks in detail about the geographical location of countries and regions, climate, the presence of minerals, and the peculiarities of the economic activities of peoples. A huge number of inscriptions have reached us, which contain a wide variety of information on almost all spheres of life of Hellenistic society. Of great interest are the economic documents of the temple of Apollo on the island of Delos, the decrees of rulers and manumisia - acts of manumission of slaves. During the Hellenistic era, texts appeared on papyri (more than 250 thousand of them), created mainly in Ptolemaic Egypt. They contain a wide variety of information: royal decrees, economic documents, marriage contracts, religious texts, etc. Thanks to the papyri, the multifaceted life of Egypt is better known than the life of other Hellenistic states. Modern historians have numerous and varied sources that allow them to fully explore all aspects of the life of ancient Greek society.

Every historical science studies its subject by examining historical facts. Fact is the starting point of scientific research that seeks to restore the historical realities of the past. Historical facts are preserved for us by historical sources, which scientists use to reconstruct the past. The historical source is all the monuments of the past, that is, all the surviving evidence reflecting the past life and activities of a person. A historical source is inevitably secondary to the fact it testifies to. In particular, the volume of information and the objectivity of a written source are always influenced by both the material in which it is recorded and the position and personal attitude towards the events of its compiler. This often leads to distortion of information, to the fact that many surrounding circumstances hide the historical truth, and this does not allow direct use of information gleaned from a historical source, without critical selection.

Historical sources differ in the content of evidence of the past and the nature of the information:

1) material sources are various monuments of material culture (remains of buildings, tools and weapons, household items, coins, etc.);

2) written sources are all kinds of works, including literary works of the era under study, inscriptions of various contents that have reached us;

3) linguistic sources are data from the ancient Greek language (vocabulary, grammatical structure, onomastics, toponymy, idioms, etc.); their dialects and Koine (common Greek language) tell a lot about the people;

4) folklore sources are monuments of oral folk art (stories, songs, fables, proverbs, etc.), which have come down to us thanks to the fact that they were subsequently written down;

5) ethnographic sources are customs, rituals, beliefs, etc., which were preserved in the form of remnants in later eras.

However, sources on the history of Ancient Greece have a number of features, which directly affects the ability to comprehensively and fully restore historical realities. The main problem of ancient studies is the scarcity of the source base (compared to materials on later historical periods). It should also be noted that the relatively small role in the study ancient world ethnographic sources, since none of the modern researchers could directly observe ancient society. However, ethnographic data can be used as comparative historical material when studying the origin of myths, rituals, customs, etc.

In addition, the relatively limited amount of evidence of the past is unevenly presented both across different eras and regions, and across types of sources. This fully applies to the most important written sources for a historian. Many stages of ancient Greek history, spanning several centuries, are poorly reflected in written monuments, which provide basic information about the life of society in the past. In fact, not a single era of ancient Greek history has complete and comprehensive coverage in

sources, and for certain very long periods in the hands of historians there is very meager and fragmentary evidence.

Heinrich Schliemann In addition, many sources that have reached us contain information on a number of issues

presented in a very complex or veiled form. Therefore, the analysis of the source and the interpretation of ancient history on their basis inevitably causes an ambiguous and often controversial assessment of the objective realities and subjective phenomena in the life of the society of Ancient Greece.

REAL SOURCES

Archaeological discoveries of the 19th century played a huge role in the development of classical studies.

XX centuries German archaeologist G. Schliemann (1822-1890) in the second half of the 19th century. discovered the ruins of the legendary Troy, and then the majestic ruins of Mycenae and Tiryns (fortress walls, ruins of palaces, tombs). The richest material about previously unknown pages of the past, which were considered artistic fiction, fell into the hands of historians. So it was opened mycenaean culture, predating the culture of the Homeric era. These sensational finds expanded and enriched the understanding of the most ancient period of history and stimulated further archaeological research.

The largest archaeological discoveries were made in Crete. The Englishman A. Evans (1851-1941) excavated the palace of the legendary ruler of Crete, King Minos, in Knossos. Scientists have discovered other ancient settlements on Crete and neighboring islands. These discoveries showed the world a unique Minoan culture first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e., an earlier culture than the Mycenaean one.

Systematic archaeological research, carried out both on the Balkan Peninsula (in Athens, Olympia, Delphi) and the islands of Rhodes and Delos, and on the Asia Minor coast of the Aegean Sea (in Miletus, Pergamon), gave historians a huge number of diverse sources. All leading European countries and the United States founded archaeological schools in Greece. They turned into centers of ancient studies, in which they not only improved methods of excavation and processing of archaeological material, but also developed new approaches to the study of the stories of Ancient Greece.

Russian scientists did not stand aside either. After the establishment of the Imperial Archaeological Commission in Russia in 1859, a systematic study of Greek-Scythian antiquities in the Northern Black Sea region began. Archaeologists began excavating burial mounds and Greek colonies. (Olvia, Chersonese, Panticapaeum, Tanais, etc.). A number of sensational discoveries were made that adorned the exhibitions of the Hermitage and other major Russian museums. Later, when the research was headed by the Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, they were joined by scientists and students from the country's leading historical universities.

Arthur Evans

As a result of almost a century and a half of archaeological research, the most diverse and sometimes unique sources fell into the hands of antiquists, revealing many previously unknown or unfamiliar things in the history of Ancient Greece. But archaeological finds alone (remains of fortresses, palaces, temples, works of art, ceramics and utensils, necropolises, tools and weapons) cannot provide a complete picture of the historical processes of the development of society. Material evidence of the past can be interpreted in different ways. Therefore, without supporting archaeological material with data from other sources, many aspects of ancient history threaten to remain blank spots in our knowledge of the past.