Journalism of the 1840s. Lecture content General characteristics of the period. The emergence of a new literary movement - the “natural school”. The role of fiction in the social life of Russia, the importance of literary criticism. Trade magazines in the 1840s. Journalism of the Slavophiles in the 40s. “Sinbirsk collection” by D.A. Valuev and “Collection of historical and statistical information about Russia and the peoples of the same faith and tribe” (1845). Magazine "Moskvityanin", its historical concept. Article by S.P. Shevyrev "A look at the modern direction of Russian literature." “Young editorial staff” of “Moskvityanin” (1850s), participation in the magazine A.N. Ostrovsky. Journalism of the period of the “dark seven years” (): the creation of press committees, reprisals against Petrashevites, Herzen’s emigration, Belinsky’s death. Censorship persecution of periodicals. The politics of magazines during the period of the “dark seven years”.

Journalism of the 1840s. Basic literature: textbooks and teaching aids Esin B.I. History of Russian journalism (). M., Esin B.I. History of Russian journalism of the 19th century. M., History of Russian journalism of the 18th-19th centuries. / Ed. prof. A.V. Zapadova. 3rd ed. M., History of Russian journalism of the 18th-19th centuries: Textbook / Ed. L.P. Thunderous. St. Petersburg, Essays on the history of Russian journalism and criticism: In 2 volumes. T.1. L., 1950.

Journalism of the 1840s. Additional literature Annenkov P.V. Literary Memoirs. M., Berezina V.G. Russian journalism of the second quarter of the 19th century (1840s). L., Voroshilov V.V. History of journalism in Russia. St. Petersburg, Esin B.I., Kuznetsov N.V. Three centuries of Moscow journalism. M., Ivlev D.D. History of Russian journalism of the 18th – early 20th centuries. M., Kuleshov V.I. Slavophiles and Russian literature. M., Lemke M. Nikolaev gendarmes and literature of the years. St. Petersburg, Lemke M. Essays on the history of Russian censorship and journalism of the 19th century (“The Age of Censorship Terror”). St. Petersburg, Panaev I.I. Literary Memoirs. M., Pirozhkova T.F. Slavophile journalism. M., Chicherin B.N. Moscow in the forties. M., 1929.

Journalism of the 1840s. Texts Aksakov K.S., Aksakov I.S. Literary criticism. M., Kireevsky I.V. Criticism and aesthetics. M., 1979.

Journalism of the 1840s. General characteristics of the period The ideological struggle between Westerners and Slavophiles Westerners: A.I. Herzen N.P. Ogarev V.G. Belinsky T.N. Granovsky V.P. Botkin E.F. Korsh and others. Slavophiles: A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, D.A. Valuev, Yu. F. Samarin, A.I. Koshelev and others.

Slavophiles Slavophilism is one of the directions of Russian social and philosophical thought of the 19th century. The identity of Russia lies in the absence of class struggle in the Russian land community and artels, in Orthodoxy. Negative attitude towards the revolution. Monarchism. Religious and philosophical concepts opposing the ideas of materialism. They opposed Russia’s assimilation of the forms and methods of Western European political life and order.

Westerners are representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought of the 1920s. In the 19th century they advocated the abolition of serfdom and recognized the need for Russia to develop along the Western European path.

Historical views of the Slavophiles Idealization of pre-Petrine Rus' Rapprochement with the people Study of the history of the peasantry in Russia Collecting and preserving monuments of Russian culture and language: a collection of folk songs by P. V. Kireevsky, Dahl’s dictionary of the living Great Russian language, etc.

In the 1840s, a sharp ideological struggle was waged in the literary salons of Moscow: A. A. and A. P. Elagin, D. N. and E. A. Sverbeev, N. F. and K. K. Pavlov. Avdotya Petrovna Elagina, niece and friend of V.A. Zhukovsky, mother of I.V. and P.P. Kireevskikh; one of the most educated women of her time, the owner of the famous literary salon “Literary salons and circles. The first half of the 19th century" (edited by N.L. Brodsky). Publishing house "Agraf", 2001. Aronson M. Literary circles and salons. Publishing house "Agraf", 2001.

“Natural school” The term was first used by Bulgarin (“Northern Bee”) as a contemptuous nickname addressed to the literary youth of the 1840s. Rethought by Belinsky: “natural” is “a truthful image of reality.” Writers of the “natural school”: I.S. Turgenev A.I. Herzen N.A. Nekrasov F.M. Dostoevsky I.A. Goncharov M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin

Distinctive features of the “natural school”: deep interest in the life of the common people; a new hero – a native of the “lower classes” of the people; criticism of serfdom; depiction of the social vices of the city; the contradictions of poverty and wealth; the predominance of prose genres: novel, story, “physiological essay”

Publications in the spirit of the official ideology “Moskvitian” “Northern Bee” “Son of the Fatherland” Literary disputes of the 1840s. Dispute about Lermontov Controversy around “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol Disputes around the “natural school” “Mayak” “Library for reading” Organs of the democratic direction “Notes of the Fatherland” under Belinsky Contemporary” Nekrasova and Panaeva

1840s: “the magazine period of Russian literature” Publishing becomes a profitable business The duties of the editor are separated from the functions of the publisher High fees are used to attract the right writers The number of professional journalists and writers increases: work in publications becomes the only means of subsistence. Thick monthly magazines are the dominant type of publication and the ideological centers of the country's life.

“Son of the Fatherland” () change of editors. Involving Polevoy in editing the magazine: defense of the official ideology, lack of understanding of new literary trends, defense of the aesthetic principles of romanticism as a consequence - lack of reader interest and a drop in circulation.

"Russian Messenger" () Publishers - N.I. Grech, N.A. Polevoy, N.V. Puppeteer criticizes leading writers and supports the “original Russian worldview.” Circulation – 500 copies, irregular publication.

“Library for Reading” () drop in circulation from 5 to 3 thousand copies Brambeus’ wit lost to Belinsky and Herzen’s rejection of the “natural school”, incorrect assessment of advanced literary phenomena

Magazine "Moskvityanin" () Publishers: Mikhail Petrovich Pogodin Stepan Petrovich Shevyrev

Two periods in the existence of the magazine 1) : the direction and composition of the closest employees remained almost unchanged 2) : the so-called “young editorial staff” began to play a leading role in the magazine, and the appearance of “Moskvityanin” changed

The main sections of “The Moskvitian” “Spiritual eloquence” “Fine literature” “Sciences” “Materials for Russian history and the history of Russian literature” “Criticism and bibliography” “Slavic news” “Mixture (Moscow Chronicle, Internal news, Fashions, etc.)” .

Stepan Petrovich Shevyrev () Russian literary critic, literary historian, poet, leading critic of the “Moscow Observer” since 1837 - professor at Moscow University S, together with M. P. Pogodin, headed the “Moskvityanin”

“Moskvityanin” was published as best he could, by himself! He's already used to it! - he gets ready, he wanders to the printing house, he crawls to the bookbinder, and then he crawls into the shop! The reader waits and waits for him, scolds him, and goes home! And the most respected publisher, However, my good friend, No matter how he gave it out, out of your hands! Dmitriev

“Young Editorial Board” of “Moskvityanin” () “Young Editorial Board”: A.N. Ostrovsky A.F. Pisemsky A. Grigoriev L. A. Mei E. N. Edelson T. Filippov and others “Old edition”: M. P. Pogodin, S. P. Shevyrev, K.S. Aksakov, P.A. Vyazemsky, F.N. Glinka, I.I. Davydov, V.I. Dahl, M.A. Dmitriev, A.A. Fet, N.M. Languages.

“Old trash and old rags cut off all the shoots of life in the Moskvityanin of the 50s. You might write an article about modern literature - well, let's say, at least about lyric poets - and suddenly, to amazement and horror, you see that in it, along with the names of Pushkin, Lermontov, Koltsov, Khomyakov, Ogarev, Fet, Polonsky, Mey in the neighborhood the names of Countess Rostopchina, Mrs. Carolina Pavlova, Mr. M. Dmitriev, Mr. Fedorov... and oh the horror! - Avdotya Glinka! You see and don’t believe your eyes! It seems that I even read the last proofreading and layout - suddenly, as if by the wave of a magic wand, the named guests appeared in print!” A. Grigoriev “The Gloomy Seven Years” (1848 - 1855) in the history of Russia Police measures intensified, the provinces were flooded with troops. The number of students at universities was reduced and philosophy was banned. Inspection of the contents of magazines, establishment of the Buturlinsky Committee.

“Buturlinsky Committee”, or “Committee of April 2” Standing Committee on Press Affairs with exclusive powers: the orders of the committee were considered the personal orders of Nicholas I. The committee was secret. He did not replace, but controlled the censorship department.

Repressions against writers and journalists Saltykov-Shchedrin - exiled to Vyatka for the story “A Confused Affair” In 1849 - reprisal against the Petrashevites was organized, the rite of civil execution of Dostoevsky Slavophile Samarin was exiled to the Simbirsk province Police surveillance was established over Ostrovsky Ogarev, Satin Za were arrested Gogol's obituary was sent to his estate Turgenev

Journalism of the period of the “dark seven years” A number of magazines have been discontinued Magazines have lost the rigor of their direction Fundamental polemics have ceased Significant events are not covered The idea of ​​“art for art’s sake” is being discussed The following appear in large numbers: historical and literary works, feuilletons, scientific publications.

Edited by prof. A.V. Zapadova. Third, revised edition

PUBLISHING HOUSE “HIGH SCHOOL”, MOSCOW – 1973

Introduction

Part I. The emergence of the Russian periodical press and its development in the 18th century – beginning of the 19th century

"Vedomosti"

“St. Petersburg Gazette” and “Notes” to them

"Monthly Essays"

Lomonosov and scientific journalism

"The Busy Bee" and "Idle Time"

Journalism of Moscow University

St. Petersburg magazines of 1769

"Drone"

"Painter"

"Interlocutor for lovers of the Russian word"

Journals of N. I. Novikov of the 1770s–1780s

"Friend of Honest People"

Journalism by A. N. Radishchev

Journals of I. A. Krylov

"Moscow Magazine"

"St. Petersburg Magazine"

Journalism 1800 – 1810s

"Bulletin of Europe"

Journals of Karamzinists

Publications associated with the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts

Reactionary journalism

Patriotic War of 1812 and Russian journalism

Part II. Journalism of the noble period of the liberation movement in Russia

Journalism of the Decembrist movement

"Son of the Fatherland"

“Competitor of education and charity” and “Nevsky Spectator”

Almanacs of the Decembrists “Polar Star”, “Mnemosyne” and “Russian Antiquity”

Unfulfilled plans of the Decembrists

Russian journalism in the second half of the 1820s and in the 1830s

Publications by F. V. Bulgarin and N. I. Grech and the magazine “Library for Reading”

Journalistic activity of A. S. Pushkin

"Moscow Telegraph"

"Athenaeus", "Moskovsky Vestnik" and "European"

"Telescope" and "Rumor". N. I. Nadezhdin – publisher and critic

Journalistic activity of V. G. Belinsky in the 1830s

Part III. Journalism during the transition from the nobility to the common period of the liberation movement in Russia

Journalism in the forties

"Domestic Notes"

"Contemporary"

"Finnish Herald"

Journals of the "triumvirate"

"Repertoire and Pantheon"

"Moskvitian"

Slavophile publications

Russian press during the “dark seven years” (1848–1855)

Journal and publishing activities of A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogareva. "Polar Star" and "Bell"

Part IV. Journalism of the raznochinsky period of the liberation movement in Russia

Journalism in the sixties

"Contemporary". Journalistic activity of N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubova

Organ of revolutionary democracy

The peasant question in Sovremennik

Sovremennik in the fight against liberal-monarchist journalism

"Contemporary" about the peasant reform of 1861

"Whistle"

The problem of the people and revolution in Sovremennik

Journalistic skills of Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov

"Contemporary" during the decline of the revolutionary movement

Nekrasov – editor

"Russian word". Journalism by D. I. Pisarev

Satirical journalism of the sixties

"Alarm"

Journalism of the seventies and eighties

"Domestic Notes"

Journalistic and journalistic activities of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin

Magazine "Delo"

Newspaper "Week"

Illegal revolutionary journalism of the 1870s

"Russian wealth". Journalism by V. G. Korolenko

"Bulletin of Europe"

"Russian Thought". Journalism N.V. Shelgunova

"Northern Herald"

Newspapers from the 1870s–1880s

Journalistic and journalistic activities of A. P. Chekhov

The emergence of the first workers' newspapers in Russia

The beginning of the journalistic activity of A. M. Gorky

Introduction *

The history of Russian journalism, as a subject of scientific research and an academic discipline, studies Russian periodicals from the time of its emergence at the beginning of the 18th century to the mid-nineties of the 19th century. and is based on the periodization established by V.I. Lenin.

“The history of the workers’ press in Russia,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “is inextricably linked with the history of the democratic and socialist movement. Therefore, only by knowing the main stages of the liberation movement can one really achieve an understanding of why the preparation and emergence of the workers’ press went this way and not any other way.

The liberation movement in Russia went through three main stages, corresponding to the three main classes of Russian society, which left their stamp on the movement: 1) the period of the nobility, from approximately 1825 to 1861; 2) raznochinsky, or bourgeois-democratic, from approximately 1861 to 1895; 3) proletarian, from 1895 to the present” 1.

The course on the history of Russian journalism examines the patterns and facts of the development of periodicals during the noble and raznochinsky, or bourgeois-democratic, stages of the liberation movement in Russia. The initial sections of the course are devoted to the topics of the emergence of the Russian press and its development in the 18th – early 19th centuries, i.e. throughout the one hundred and twenty year journey traveled by journalism in Russia before the advent of the noble stage of the liberation movement.

The press of the proletarian period, starting from 1895, according to the division accepted in Soviet science, is studied in the course on the history of the party-Soviet press and represents an independent discipline in university teaching.

Called to life at the initiative of the government, with the aim of organizing public opinion in the desired spirit, the Russian periodical press at the beginning of the second half of the 18th century. ceases to be a monopoly of power. Magazines appear, published by individual writers and friendly associations; Views in opposition to government policies begin to penetrate the pages of the press. Of course, censorship conditions kept journalists within the strict framework of feudal-serf ideology; truly free speech began to be heard for the first time only in Herzen’s uncensored “Bell,” published in London; but even being under the constant control of the monarchy, the figures of Russian progressive journalism were able to develop before their readers the ideas that inspired them, albeit in a somewhat muted form.

In Russia, where the forms of autocratic tyranny were particularly crude and cruel, where police measures suppressed any attempts at civil unification, it was journalism and literature, due to the historical conditions of development, that were destined to become tribunes of public opinion. In Russian magazines and books, voices of protest were heard against the despotic oppression of the autocracy, in defense of the masses and their interests. All progressive politicians and writers of Russia in the 18th – 19th centuries. - Lomonosov, Fonvizin, Novikov, Radishchev, Krylov, Pushkin, Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Gleb Uspensky, Gorky - actively participated in the Russian press.

The new stage in the development of the press, associated with the proletarian period of the social movement in Russia, is illuminated by the great name of V. I. Lenin. Lenin was the organizer of the Bolshevik press, the first editor of a number of leading party publications, and a militant publicist. The entire history of the workers' press in Russia is connected with the names of Lenin and his comrades, who led the struggle of the masses for a socialist society.

The study of the history of Russian journalism can and is fruitfully conducted by Soviet science from the only correct and methodologically sound position of the doctrine of two cultures put forward by Lenin.

“In every national culture,” says Lenin, “there are, at least not developed, elements of a democratic and socialist culture, for in every nation there is a working and exploited mass, whose living conditions inevitably give rise to a democratic and socialist ideology. But in every nation there is also a bourgeois culture (and in the majority also Black Hundred and clerical) - and not only in the form of “elements”, but in the form of the dominant culture. Therefore, “national culture” in general is the culture of landowners, priests, and bourgeoisie” 2.

The formation and development of the Russian democratic and workers' press took place in a continuous bitter struggle with the reactionary press, with monarchist, noble-bourgeois publications, of which there were always many in tsarist Russia. In polemics with “Northern Bee”, “Moskvityanin”, “Moskovskie Vedomosti” by Katkov and many similar defenders of Orthodoxy and the monarchy, the ideological weapons of revolutionary democratic publicists were forged, their literary skills were strengthened, and their influence and popularity among readers increased. The leading press guided public opinion, which the guardians of the tsarist system could not help but notice. For example, members of a special commission to revise existing regulations on censorship and the press, established in 1869, wrote in one of the documents: “Our press has more than anywhere else influence on the opinions of a certain circle of people who draw thoughts and beliefs from magazines.” and even reason based on the latest article they read in a magazine. The mood of different circles of society, this or that trend of youth is in undoubted connection with one or another organ of the modern press” 3.

Over the many years of its existence, Russian journalism has contained enormous ideological wealth in its columns and pages; it reflects the history of the class struggle in its literary and journalistic coverage. Studying the history of journalism makes a lot of sense when preparing a specialist of any humanitarian profile - a journalist, literary critic, historian, economist, lawyer, philosopher.

Nevertheless, the old, pre-revolutionary Russian science did not leave the beaten path in this area, with the exception of the classic works of N. G. Chernyshevsky (“Essays on the Gogol period of Russian literature”) and N. A. Dobrolyubov (“Interlocutor of lovers of the Russian word,” “Russian satire in the age of Catherine"); the history of journalism as a subject of special study was not particularly emphasized and received only partial coverage in works written on related topics.

Among the questions that occupied authors who wrote about the press before 1917, censorship persecution of the Russian press should be placed in one of the first places. These questions were analyzed in detail in the book by Al. Kotovich “Spiritual censorship in Russia. 1799-1855." (St. Petersburg, 1909); they were also staged in the work of Vl. Rosenberg and V. Yakushkin “Russian press and censorship in the past and present” (Moscow, 1905). Making public the facts of censorship repressions by the tsarist government was one of the ways to fight for freedom of the press. In this regard, we should mention the book by A. M. Skabichevsky “Essays on the History of Russian Censorship” (St. Petersburg, 1892), in which information about the censorship ordeals of the Russian press was collected from printed sources, without involving archives. A litany of bureaucratic quibbles with magazines and newspapers and a collection of anecdotes about stupid, ignorant censors were presented by the author in a smart and entertaining, but often inaccurate, manner. Responding in print to fair indications regarding the many errors of his “Essays,” Skabichevsky wrote: “I am not at all a man of science... I am simply a modest hard-working journalist, forced to work recklessly for the sake of my daily bread” (“News”, 1903 , March 25, No. 83).

Archival materials on the history of the Russian press were first systematically presented in the works of M. K. Lemke (“Essays on the history of Russian censorship and journalism,” St. Petersburg, 1904; “The Age of Censorship Reforms,” St. Petersburg, 1904; “Nikolaev gendarmes and literature 1826 -1855", St. Petersburg, 1909). The author managed to gain access to the archive of the former Third Department of his own imperial chancellery and to censorship affairs during the reign of Nicholas I and gleaned abundant materials there. The books of M. K. Lemke, despite the author’s particular mistakes, introduced a huge number of documented facts into scientific circulation and revealed the content of a number of significant episodes in the history of Russian journalism. However, M. K. Lemke limited his role as a researcher only to collecting materials and did not begin to generalize them. The descriptive nature of his books is obvious, but the author cannot be denied the ability to recreate vivid, albeit incomplete, characteristics of many journalists of the 19th century. – Polevoy, Bulgarin, Nadezhdin, Nekrasov and others.

Questions of the history of Russian journalism occupied a prominent place in works devoted to related areas of social sciences. Thus, they were touched upon in the work of I. I. Ivanov, “The History of Russian Criticism” (vol. 1–4, St. Petersburg, 1898-1900), since the literary activity of Russian critics was closely connected with periodicals. But, naturally, the author was interested primarily in the literary and critical positions of various magazines, and not in their activities as press organs. Brief “essays on the history of Russian journalism” are contained in the multi-volume publication “The History of Russian Literature of the 19th Century,” published under the editorship of D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky (St. Petersburg, 1908-1910). Essay on journalism of the first half of the 19th century. belongs to the pen of I. I. Zamotin, about journalism of the second half of the century - to V. E. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. Relying on the fact that the literary activities of writers and critics associated with journalism were examined in the chapters devoted to them, the authors of these reviews limited themselves to only brief information about the magazines published at one time or another and outlined the contours of the controversy between them. The small volume of essays determined the fluency and conciseness of their presentation and a purely auxiliary role in the study of the history of the Russian press.

The history of Russian journalism as a science developed only in Soviet times and, through the works of Soviet scientists, turned into one of the important socio-historical disciplines and became the subject of study in universities and party schools of the Soviet Union. During this time, monographs have appeared and continue to be published on individual periods in the history of the Russian press, the most important publications, their leaders and authors, articles and reports on these topics are constantly published, and researchers are being trained.

In the works of Soviet scientists, the boundaries of the object of research are gradually established, because the field of the history of journalism, if desired, can be understood very broadly. It is known that most of the most important works of fiction and journalism were published in magazines and newspapers and only then published as a separate publication. From this point of view, the history of journalism includes the history of literature, criticism, philosophy, aesthetics, political economy, jurisprudence, etc. But with this consideration, it loses its distinctive properties, the boundaries separating the history of journalism from related disciplines are erased, and it ceases to be an independent science.

At the same time, the study of the history of journalism can be fruitfully conducted only on the basis of characteristics of the social, philosophical, literary movement of each era, in close connection with the history of social thought, criticism, journalism, aesthetics and literature. Experience shows that authors do not always know how to do this, but at the same time confirms the advisability of this particular path. For example, the development of Belinsky’s literary and aesthetic views is considered by historians of Russian literature, the development of his socio-political and philosophical views - by historians of Russian philosophy, etc. The study of Belinsky’s journal activities as a publicist and editor of periodicals should be carried out by historians of Russian journalism, who are obliged to take into account in their research, what has been done in the field of mastering Belinsky’s creative heritage by representatives of all related sciences.

The history of Russian journalism as a subject of study and teaching thus primarily includes the following problems:

– Issues of development of periodicals in Russia.

– Study of the socio-political direction of magazines and newspapers as exponents of the ideology and practice of certain social groups, their relationships and polemics between them.

– Development of magazines and newspapers as special types of printed products.

– Organization and composition of publications.

– Study and assessment of the activities of the most prominent editors, publishers and employees of periodicals, analysis of their literary and journalistic skills.

– Distribution of the press and taking into account the reaction of the reading masses to the speeches of magazines and newspapers.

– Study of the activities of censorship and other types of influence of the government and its bodies on the press.

Some of these elements of the study of press organs are descriptive in nature, however, of significant interest for characterizing the publication (for example, information about its organization and distribution), while others require from the researcher great and varied erudition, excellent orientation in the socio-literary struggle of a given era , the ability to analyze literary and journalistic works, remaining within the framework of their subject and not going into the sphere of purely philological observations.

But one way or another, only the implementation of the tasks outlined above or those close in nature can help the researcher present the press organ in its independent form and in connection with other publications as part of the literary and social process.

One of the first works of a generalizing type was the book of prof., published in 1927. V. E. Evgenieva-Maksimova “Essays on the history of socialist journalism in Russia.” This book was the first attempt at a systematic review of the history of a number of the most prominent progressive magazines of the 19th century. and was written on the basis of not only printed, but also numerous archival materials, to attract which the author did a lot of research work. The “Essays” examine “glimpses of socialist thought in journalism of the 1840s”, the state of the press in the “dark seven years” of 1848–1855, and cover in detail the magazines “Sovremennik” and “Otechestvennye zapiski” of the 70–80s. The last chapter is devoted to Marxist journalism of the 90s, in it a significant place is devoted to the analysis of the magazines “New Word” and “Nachalo”. Research devoted to certain little-studied magazines “Vek”, “Women’s Messenger”, “Bibliographer” and the newspapers “Essays”, “People’s Chronicle” were collected in the book “Russian Journalism. I. The sixties” (“Academia”, 1930).

In 1929, Gosizdat undertook the publication of multi-volume “Essays on the History of Russian Criticism” edited by A.V. Lunacharsky and Val. Polyansky. The purpose of these “Essays” was “to make the first attempt at a Marxist linkage of literary-critical thought with the era to which its individual stages belong” (vol. 1, p. 3). The book was an attempt to create a Marxist history of Russian literary criticism; a number of prominent literary scholars took part in it. The second volume came out of print in 1931, and the publication stopped there.

The compilers of the “Essays” did not limit themselves only to the analysis of the literary and aesthetic positions of critics; they inevitably had to touch upon issues of journalism. The book shows the literary and polemical struggle between the magazines, and reproduces individual episodes of their history, but, of course, these issues are in the background and are touched upon incidentally. The appearance of “Essays on the History of Russian Criticism,” which, moreover, was not completed by publication, did not resolve the issue of compiling a coherent unified course on the history of Russian journalism, the need for which was felt more and more acutely every year.

This task was undertaken by the staff of the Department of History of Russian Literature at Leningrad University. By 1941, the first volume of essays on the history of Russian journalism and criticism, compiled under the editorship of G. A. Gukovsky, V. E. Evgeniev-Maksimov, N. K. Piksanov and I., was prepared and submitted to the Educational and Pedagogical Publishing House. G. Yampolsky. The volume covered the period of the history of Russian journalism from its inception to the 40s of the 19th century. At the same time, preparation was underway for the second volume, which included materials on journalism and criticism of the 50s–90s of the 19th century.

The events of the Great Patriotic War delayed the publication of this work for a long time. Only in 1950, the text of the first volume, re-checked and edited by the editorial board consisting of V. E. Evgeniev-Maksimov, N. I. Mordovchenko and I. G. Yampolsky, was published by the Leningrad State University Publishing House. Despite the unevenness of individual chapters and the inaccuracies made by the authors, this book is a valuable guide to the history of Russian journalism.

A break of fifteen years separated the second volume of “Essays on the History of Russian Journalism and Criticism” from the first. This book, prepared by a team of teachers from the Faculty of Journalism of Leningrad University with the involvement of non-member specialists, was published by the Leningrad State University Publishing House in 1965 and covers the history of the Russian press of the second half of the 19th century. The volume is divided into two parts: “The Sixties” and “The Seventies – Nineties.” Essays on the most important publications of the era are preceded by review chapters containing characteristics of periods, typological assessment of publications, etc. The general editorship of the second volume of this large work belongs to V. G. Berezina, N. P. Emelyanov, N. I. Sokolov, N. I. Totubalin .

The Department of Journalism of the Higher Party School under the CPSU Central Committee in 1948 published transcripts of lectures on the history of Russian journalism given by V.D. Kuzmina, B.D. Datsyuk, B.P. Kozmin and D.I. Zaslavsky. For a number of years these lectures have been a necessary aid for students in preparing for exams on the history of Russian journalism, although their quality is uneven.

Also related to the program of the university course on the history of Russian journalism are the books published in recent years by A. V. Zapadov “Russian Journalism of the 18th Century” (Moscow, 1964), V. G. Berezina “Russian Journalism of the First Quarter of the 19th Century” and “Russian Journalism of the Second quarter of the 19th century (1826–1839)” (L., 1965), V. A. Alekseeva “History of Russian journalism (1860–1880s)” (L., 1963), B. I. Esina “Russian journalism of the 70–80s XIX century." (M., 1963).

These are textbooks on the history of Russian journalism of a general type. As for works on individual magazines, Sovremennik has been subjected to scientific study more than other publications. Yu.A. Masanov compiled a chronological index of anonymous and pseudonymous texts published in the magazine, with disclosure of authorship (Literary Heritage, vol. 53–54, 1949), V. E. Bograd published an index of the contents of Sovremennik for 1847–1866. (M.–L., 1959). The fruit of twenty years of work by V.E. Evgeniev-Maksimov had three books dedicated to this press organ: Sovremennik in the 40s and 50s. From Belinsky to Chernyshevsky" with the appendix of an article by D. Maksimov "Sovremennik" Pushkin" (L., 1934), "Sovremennik" under Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov" (L., 1936) and "The last years of "Sovremennik" (L., 1939) . Soviet science has accumulated and interpreted in a new way a number of facts about the activities of Russian revolutionary democrats, and therefore the trilogy of V. E. Evgeniev-Maksimov in some of its sections seems outdated, but as a repository of materials on the history of Sovremennik, it retains its significance.

The magazine “Russian Word” and the journalistic activities of D.I. Pisarev were carefully studied by L.E. Varustin, S.S. Konkin, F.F. Kuznetsov, the magazine “Domestic Notes” are dedicated to the book by V. I. Kuleshov “Domestic Notes” and literature of the 40s of the 19th century” (M., 1958) and M. V. Teplinsky “Domestic Notes”. 1868–1884" (Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 1966). A worthy crown of I. G. Yampolsky’s long-term research was his work “Satirical Journalism of the 1860s. Journal of revolutionary satire “Iskra” (1859–1873)” (M., 1964). An example of the study of newspaper periodicals is the work of P. S. Reifman “Democratic newspaper “Modern Word”, etc. Bibliography of books and articles on the history of Russian journalism for 1945–1960. compiled by E.P. Prokhorov 4, and the reader can glean from it more detailed information about the studies mentioned here and about many other studies on the history of the Russian press.

In order to carry out a broad and systematic study of Russian journalism, it was necessary, first of all, to take into account the material to be studied, to obtain a description of all periodical publications published in Russia and in Russian abroad. Through the work of Russian bibliographers, individual parts of this grandiose review were completed, but a lot of work still remains to be done to complete it.

Registration of Russian periodicals was carried out throughout the 19th century. many bibliographers. V. S. Sopikov, V. G. Anastasevich, N. A. Polevoy, I. P. Bystrov, A. N. Neustroev, V. I. Sreznevsky 5 took part in it at various times, but this registration was completed in capital the work of N. M. Lisovsky “Russian periodicals 1703–1900,” published in four editions since 1895 and published in full in 1915. For a quarter of a century, Lisovsky worked on compiling a list of Russian periodicals and included 2394 in it titles that originated before 1895, and 489 titles that continued to be published from 1895 to 1900.

Thus, a very important initial stage of work on compiling a bibliography of Russian periodicals of the 18th–19th centuries was completed. It became known when, where, what magazines and newspapers were published, what supplements they were supplied with, who their editors and publishers were. However, this minimum of information, naturally, could not give any idea about the face of each publication. The next step should be a description of magazines and newspapers of the 19th century. - a task that Lisovsky did not set for himself and, having only his own resources, could not solve, of course.

Periodicals of the 18th century. was described by A. N. Neustroev in his “Historical Research on Russian Timely Publications and Collections for 1703–1802.” (St. Petersburg, 1875), later supplemented by an “Index” to these publications and to the “Historical Research” about them (St. Petersburg, 1898) 6.

In the descriptions of magazines and newspapers, Neustroev, in addition to information about the imprint, included his notes about each publication, in which he covered the conditions of its origin, the composition of the authors, and also completely reprinted the prefaces to the publications and their tables of contents. Thanks to this, Neustroev’s work represents a detailed historical overview of Russian journalism in the 18th century. It turned out to be possible to carry out this work primarily because the material was essentially small in volume - Neustroev needed to describe only 133 publications published in the 18th century.

For periodicals of the 19th century, compiling such a detailed description was extremely difficult due to the increased number of publications and the significant volume of many of them. One or two workers were unable to do this kind of work. An attempt to begin a description of 19th century periodicals. made in 1914 by a group of Moscow bibliographers and literary scholars under the leadership of A.E. Gruzinsky. Having decided at first to describe all the magazines, the group soon saw the impossibility of this task and began to work only on historical and literary magazines, but soon abandoned this work. In 1917, the private Petrograd Historical and Literary Circle took the initiative to organize a collective work that continued the book by A. N. Neustroev. Several young scientists, later prominent Soviet literary critics and historians - S. D. Balukhaty, V. V. Bush, L. K. Ilyinsky, V. E. Evgeniev-Maksimov, V. S. Spiridonov, A. G. Fomin, A. A. Shilov and others tried to begin describing magazines and almanacs of the 19th century, but the matter stopped at the first steps. In subsequent years, this work was to some extent carried out by L. K. Ilyinsky in connection with the course on the history of Russian journalism, which he taught at Leningrad University (he compiled “Lists of timely publications for 1917” and the same “Lists” for 1918, published in 1922), and A.G. Fomin, who lectured at the Higher Courses of Library Science in Leningrad. In 1925, these efforts of individual researchers were united in a group for the study of Russian journalism, created at one of the scientific institutions of Leningrad under the leadership of V.S. Spiridonov, but this time the matter was limited to drawing up instructions for describing magazines and reports on methodology and technology bibliography. Thus, despite several attempts, the description of Russian periodicals of the 19th century. has not yet been implemented. This task continues to remain unfulfilled.

Selective annotated bibliography of Russian newspapers, magazines and almanacs of the 18th–19th centuries. contained in the reference book “Russian periodicals. 1702–1894" (M., 1959), prepared by a group of bibliographers edited by A. G. Dementyev, A. V. Zapadov and M. S. Cherepakhov. The book includes about one and a half thousand annotations, covering a fairly wide range of publications, and can help one navigate the two-hundred-year heritage of Russian periodicals.

Magazine "Epoch"

Monthly literary and political magazine.

Time and place of release: St. Petersburg, st. M. Meshchanskaya (now Kaznacheyskaya St., 1 and 7), January 1864 - February 1865

Chief editors: M.M. Dostoevsky, F.M. Dostoevsky.

Leading employees:

Averkiev Dmitry Vasilievich

Grigoriev Apollo Alexandrovich

Dostoevsky Mikhail Mikhailovich

Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich

Krestovsky Vsevolod Vladimirovich

Leskov Nikolay Semenovich

Maikov Apollon Nikolaevich

Polonsky Yakov Petrovich

Poretsky A.U. - official editor since June 1864

Strakhov Nikolay Nikolaevich - leading publicist

Structure: there was no strict sequence of headings in the magazine, but there were constant topics assigned to certain authors. This is the topic of religion, the topic of attitudes towards children and about children, the section “Our household affairs” - about the state of affairs in the provinces, “Notes of a chronicler”, the constant author of which was N.N. Fears, etc. Each article is signed, i.e. the author of the literary work is indicated.

History of the development of the magazine

The magazine "Epoch" was an ideological continuation of the magazine "Time", published by the same editors: M.M. and F.M. Dostoevsky.

"Time" was one of the most prominent periodicals of the 1860s. The official editor of the magazine was M.M. Dostoevsky. Many actual editorial functions were taken over by F.M. Dostoevsky. The core of the editorial circle of Vremya included, in addition to the Dostoevsky brothers, Apollo Aleksandrovich Grigoriev and Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov. Since January 1861, "Time" competed with the most popular periodicals: "Notes of the Fatherland" and "Russian Word" (about 4,000 subscribers), "Sovremennik" N.A. Nekrasov (7,000 subscribers) and “Russian Bulletin” M.N. Katkova (5,700 subscribers). Both “Time” and “Epoch” reflected the point of view of pochvennichestvo - a specific modification of the ideas of Slavophilism.

Pochvenism is a movement of Russian social thought in the 60s. 19th century Soil scientists claimed to create an “organic” worldview, highlighting the importance of artistic creativity in understanding the phenomena of life and downplaying the role of science; adhered to the idea of ​​“national soil” as the basis for the social and spiritual development of Russia, while noting the gap between the educated part of Russian society and the national “soil” and proving the need to overcome it on the basis of the spiritual unity of classes as the only possible way to preserve the country’s identity and the special path of its development ; tried to substantiate the idea of ​​a special mission of the Russian people, called upon, in their opinion, to save humanity. They were critical of revolutionary democrats, Westerners and Slavophiles for their desire to approach life and its phenomena from the standpoint of an artificially created theory. The historiosophical concept of pochvenism was built on the opposition of East and West as civilizations alien to each other, each of which develops from principles opposing one another. Accepting “European culture,” they simultaneously denounced the “rotten West” - its bourgeoisness and lack of spirituality, rejected revolutionary, socialist ideas and materialism, contrasting them with Christian ideals. Pochvennichestvo opposed the feudal nobility and bureaucracy, called for “the merging of education and its representatives with the people” and saw this as the key to progress in Russia. The soil workers spoke out for the development of industry, trade, and freedom of the individual and press.

So F. Dostoevsky believed that the great future of Russia, which can benefit all humanity, is possible only with the unification of all classes led by the monarch and the Orthodox Church. He believed that the path of Western Europe taken after the French Revolution of 1789 was disastrous for Russia. Dostoevsky confirmed this opinion after his trips abroad in 1862 - 1863 and 1867 - 1871.

In London in 1862, he met with Herzen, whose criticism of the Western “philistine” ideal in the work “From the Other Shore” was positively assessed by Dostoevsky and turned out to be consonant with his ideas. Using the same term as Herzen - “Russian socialism”, Fyodor Mikhailovich filled it, however, with a different content. “The socialism of the Russian people lies not in communism, not in mechanical forms: they believe that they will be saved only, in the end, by worldwide unity in the name of Christ. This is our Russian socialism.” Socialism of the atheistic type, which denies Christian values, according to Dostoevsky, is not fundamentally different from bourgeoisism and therefore cannot replace it.

In their journals, the Dostoevsky brothers made an attempt to outline the contours of a “general idea”, tried to find a platform that would reconcile Westerners and Slavophiles, “civilization” and the people’s beginnings. Skeptical about the revolutionary ways of transforming Russia and Europe, Dostoevsky expressed these doubts in works of art, articles in Vremya, and in sharp polemics with publications in Sovremennik. The essence of Dostoevsky's objections is the possibility, after the reform, of a rapprochement between the government and the intelligentsia and the people, their peaceful cooperation. Dostoevsky continues this polemic in the story “Notes from the Underground” (“Epoch”, 1864) - a philosophical and artistic prelude to the writer’s “ideological” novels.

The magazine “Time” existed until 1863, and then was banned after the appearance of an article by N.N. Strakhov's "Fatal Question", which contained a commentary by the Pochvenniks on the Polish uprising, misinterpreted by the authorities as anti-government.

After the closure of Vremya, the editors did not give up attempts to revive the magazine. Permission to continue publishing M.M. Dostoevsky achieved by January 1864 with the condition of changing the name.

Now it was the Epoch magazine. The art department of the magazine was determined by the works of F.M. Dostoevsky. “Notes from the House of the Dead”, “Notes from the Underground”, “Crocodile”, as well as “Winter Notes on Summer Impressions” were published here. The literary program of "Time" was formed by the works of N.A. Nekrasov, Y. Polonsky, A.A. Grigorieva, A.N. Ostrovsky, Ap. Maykova, N.S. Leskov, translations from Edgar Allan Poe, Victor Hugo, as well as a wide range of works by little-known and emerging authors. The first issue opened with a fantasy story by I.S. Turgenev "Ghosts". The critical department of the magazine became the sphere for formulating its “new word” in literature - the “Russian direction,” as the editors called it. The circle of employees has changed greatly compared to the previous magazine: in June 1864 M.M. died. Dostoevsky, in September of the same year - another prominent employee of Vremya - Ap. Grigoriev. The editors failed to attract other famous writers to permanent cooperation.

Dostoevsky's intensive activity combined editorial work on "other people's" manuscripts with the publication of his own articles, polemical notes, notes, and most importantly works of art. After the death of his brother, the worries of maintaining the journal, burdened by a large debt and delayed by 3 months, fell on the shoulders of F.M. Dostoevsky (A.U. Poretsky was officially approved as editor), which could not but reduce the writer’s authorial participation in the new magazine.

The journal intensified the tendencies that brought the Pochvenniks closer to the Slavophiles: an exaggerated assessment of the community and zemstvo, a negative attitude towards Catholicism and Jesuitism. At the same time, unlike the Slavophiles, the Epoch recognized the importance of technological progress and the role of the intelligentsia in public education. M.E. pointed out the inconsistency of the magazine’s political program, the vagueness of the concepts “soil” and “Russian idea,” and the conciliatory tendencies that led “Epoch” into the camp of “Moscow” journalism (Slavophiles and “Russian Messenger”). Saltykov-Shchedrin, M.A. Antonovich (“Contemporary”) and D.I. Pisarev (“Russian Word”). Direct polemics between magazines reached particular intensity in Dostoevsky’s article “Mr. Shchedrin or the split in the nihilists.” If “Vremya” polemicized not only with “Sovremennik” and “Russian Word”, but also with the Slavophile “Day” and Katkov’s “Russian Messenger,” then in “Epoch” the direction of the magazine was determined by the fight against revolutionary democratic ideology. The editors of the magazine considered philosophical materialism and the ideas of socialism to be the product of Western philosophical thought and unacceptable for Russia, which was declared a country of the class world.

The aesthetic position of the “Epoch” is characterized by the affirmation of the specificity of art as a phenomenon that is synthetic in nature (in contrast to the analytical principle in science), which was expressed in the so-called “organic criticism” of Grigoriev. Hence the struggle of the critical department of the magazine against the “utilitarian” approach to art, to which high moral and artistic demands were made. But hence the accusations of the Sovremennik writers that, allegedly not knowing the life of the people, they distorted the essence of the Russian national character and deliberately sacrificed artistry for the sake of an accusatory idea. The Epoch considered A.S. to be the ideal exponent of Russian national identity. Pushkin and highly appreciated the work of A.N. Ostrovsky, interpreting him in the spirit of pochvennichestvo.

The magazine began to appear more regularly, but the uncertainty of its ideological and political position, problems with censorship, the mood of the audience, the weakness of the literary and artistic department, financial and organizational difficulties caused a sharp drop in subscriptions to 1,300 copies, did not cover the editorial expenses and did not allow this magazine to repeat its success." Time". In March 1865, the editors stopped publishing the magazine.

We will look at one of the last issues of the magazine, made two months before the magazine closed. This is issue No. 1 for 1865. It did not differ from the other issues of last year in terms of the basic concept of the magazine and continued the development of the ideas of the soil scientists. The authors of the issue were: N.I. Soloviev, O.A. Filippov, V.I. Kalatuzov, M.I. Vladislavlev, N.N. Strakh.

ST. PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY

HISTORY OF RUSSIAN JOURNALISM

18th-19th centuries

Edited by prof. L. 77. Gromovoy

Admitted

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions,

students in the direction 520600 “Journalism”,

and specialties 021400 “Journalism”,

350400 “Public Relations”

PUBLISHING HOUSE

ST. PETERSBURG UNIVERSITY 2003

R e d o l l e g n : Dr. Philol. Sci. L. P. Gromova (Ed.), Dr. Phys. Sciences M. M. Kovaleva, Doctor of Philology. Sciences A. I. Stanko

Reviewers: Dr. Philol. Sciences V. D. Takazov (S.-Pegerb. State University), Doctor of Philology. Sciences L. A. Root (Kazan, State University), Department of History of Journalism Rostov, State University university

Printed by decree

Editorial and Publishing Council

St. Petersburg State University

Committee for Press and Public Relations of the Administration of St. Petersburg

ISBN 5-288-03048-0

INTRODUCTION

Russian journalism has gone through three centuries in its development. Originating as a phenomenon of political life in the form of government Gazette, throughout the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries. it was part of the literary process, fulfilling an educational, educational and political role in society.

Due to the absence of other institutions of social life in Russia, journalism in the form of literary polemics, criticism and journalism already in the middle of the 19th century. turned into a public platform capable of influencing not only literary, but also political opinions.

Gradually separating from literature and acquiring its own developmental features, in the second half of the 19th century. journalism becomes an independent social and literary activity related to the formation of public opinion. At the same time, the formation of journalism as a profession takes place, awareness of its role in the life of society, which is caused by the professionalization of journalistic work and the commercial approach to organizing the magazine business. The attitude towards journalism as a commodity, which first appeared in the 15th century. in the publishing activities of N. I. Novikov, was established in the 1830s in the journalistic practice of F. V. Bulgarin, O. I. Senkovsky and became a necessary condition for successful publishing activities in subsequent decades. The commercialization of journalism has given rise to controversy about the incompatibility of “trade” relations with the high literary and moral standards of journalism, and the need to develop ethical standards in journalism. The growth of the mass “average” reader in the second half of the 19th century. stimulated the typological development of the “big” and “small” press, its focus on the needs of the reader, and the study of the readership.

The emergence of periodicals, bearing the features of mass culture, throughout the 19th century. was accompanied by the preservation of the tradition of publishing “thick” social and literary magazines, which sought to develop the literary and aesthetic tastes of the reader, discuss significant problems of culture, history and public life, and socially and spiritually educate their contemporaries.

The uniqueness of the formation of journalism in different historical periods is associated with the nature of government and, accordingly, the attitude of the authorities towards the press, which was manifested in censorship-non-policy. At the same time, however, the restriction of the practical freedom of journalists in Russia stimulated the growth of spiritual freedom. This was reflected in the development of a conventional “Aesopian” language, a system of allegorical speech that established a special, trusting connection between publications and readers. In addition, the strengthening of censorship oppression caused the emergence of uncensored press both in Russia and abroad. Publications published in the mid-19th century. abroad in the Free Russian Printing House of A.I. Herzen, marked the beginning of the creation of a system of independent Russian press in emigration. Emigrant journalism, developing in the traditions of the Russian press, experiencing the influence of European journalism, reflected new typological features that manifested themselves in the genre originality, structure, design, and readership of the publication.

The first two centuries of the development of Russian periodicals laid the foundation for a system of publications in the provinces, which by the end of the 19th century was represented by official and private publications varied in typology and direction.

Throughout the entire period of the existence of the domestic press, attempts were made to comprehend, systematize, and recreate its history. M.V. Lomonosov,

A. S. Pushkin, N. A. Polevoy, V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, A. I. Herzen, N. A. Nekrasov, M. N. Katkov and many others writers, editors, publishers who created the periodical press in Russia, participated in it and tried to determine its place and role in the life of society. Collection and description of periodicals, which during the 19th century. conducted by bibliographers

V. S. Sopikov, V. G. Anastasevich, A. N. Neustroev and others, ended with the publication of the fundamental work of N. M. Lisovsky “Bibliography of Russian periodicals. 1703-1900" (Pg., 1915). A significant place in pre-revolutionary studies on the history of literature and journalism belongs to censorship, about which A. M. Skabichevsky, K. K. Arsenyev, A. Kotovich, M. K. Lemks, V. Rosenberg and V. Yakushkin wrote.

The study of the history of domestic journalism in Soviet times has become systematic. Along with studies devoted to individual publications and personalities, general works by V. E. Evgeniev-Maksimov, P. N. Berkov, A. V. Zapadov, V. G. Berezina, B. I. Esin appear. “Essays on the history of Russian journalism and criticism” published at Leningrad University in two volumes (L., 1950; 1965) laid the fundamental basis for the development of a university course on the history of Russian journalism, which became an integral part of professional journalistic education.

The first textbook “History of Russian journalism XV11I-X1X centuries”, prepared in the early 1960s by V. G. Berezina, A. G. Dementiev, B. I. Esin, A. V. Zaiadov and N. M. Sikorsky (under edited by Prof. A. V. Zapadov), went through three editions (the last, third, was published in 1973) and still remains the only textbook that most fully represents the history of the Russian press of this period. However, it is largely outdated in methodological terms, which is reflected in the one-sided approach to covering the history of domestic journalism from the point of view of Lenin’s periodization of the liberation movement in Russia. The predominant attention to the revolutionary-democratic press affected the incompleteness and bias of the coverage of liberal and conservative publications that are of significant professional interest.

The need to create a new textbook is due to the demands of the time. The changed socio-political and economic conditions of the development of our country predetermined new methodological and methodological approaches in the study of national history, including the past of the Russian press. When creating this textbook, the authors relied on the research of their predecessors, which remain authoritative sources for the study of Russian journalism, retaining significant historical and scientific value. At the same time, the authors sought to avoid a dogmatic approach, ideological predetermination and didactic edification in assessing the phenomena of the past, tried to show the content and character of Russian journalism at different stages of development in all the diversity of its manifestations: liberal, democratic and conservative; Westernizing and Slavophile; Russian and emigrant; metropolitan and provincial.

The textbook, in chronological order, reveals the process of formation of the domestic periodical press from its origins to the creation of a developed printing system at the end of the 19th century; introduces the most influential publications, outstanding publishers, journalists; filling in the missing links, shows the uniqueness of the formation of the journalistic profession in Russia; examines the evolution of the Russian press in the context and inextricable links with European journalism.

The textbook was prepared at the Department of History of Journalism of St. Petersburg State University with the participation of historians of domestic journalism from the Ural, Rostov State Universities and IRLI (Pushkin House).

St. Petersburg State University: L. P. Gromova, Dr. Philol. sciences, prof.: Introduction; part I, chapter 1; part. Ill, ch.9, § 1-3, 5-8, 11-13,15-16; D. A. Badayayan: part II, ch. 8, § 5; Part Ill, Ch. 9, § 9.14; G. V. Zhirkov, Ph.D. Sciences, prof.: Part III, Ch. 10, § 1-5, 10; O. V. Slyadneva, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor: Part I, Ch. 2; E. S. Comma, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences: Part Ill, Ch. 10, §6-8.

IRLI (11\ 111KINSKY House): Yu. V. Stenpik, Dr. Philol. Sciences: Part I, Ch. 3-5; B.V. Melgunov, Doctor of Philology. Sciences: Part Ill, Ch. 9, § 4.

Rostov State University: A. I. Stachko, a.-r. sciences, prof.: part II, ch. 6, 7; Part Ill, Ch. 10, § 9.

Ural State University: M. M. Kovaleva, Doctor of Philology. sciences, prof.: part II, ch. 8, § 1-4.6;L. M. Iakushim, Ph.D. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor: Part III, Ch. 9, § 10.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russian journalism entered into public use and determined the place of journalism in the development of social thought. A close connection between literature and journalism was established. The priority of the magazine over other types of periodicals - newspapers and almanacs - was established. Newspapers were of an official departmental nature, there were few of them, and they did not play a noticeable role in the formation of public opinion.

Under Paul I, the government tried in every possible way to subordinate the press to its interests. In the fight against manifestations of free-thinking, things reached the point of absurdity. Words that were reminiscent of popular indignation and the French Revolution were removed from the journalism of those years. In large cities, official government censorship was established for the first time, which was carried out by deanery councils.

Newspapers were of an official departmental nature, there were few of them, and they did not play a noticeable role in the formation of public opinion

With the coming to power of Alexander I, the position of the press softened somewhat. By decree of 1802, preliminary censorship was formally abolished. However, a departure from the liberal course soon began. In 1804, the Censorship Charter was adopted - the first set of rules on censorship in Russia, which was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education.

Oppositional sentiments found outlets in the organization of literary societies and their publication of liberal educational magazines and almanacs. This, in particular, was the “Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Science and Arts” created in 1801 in St. Petersburg, which included more than 20 young translators, writers, and scientists. Their publications "Scroll of the Muses", "Periodicals", "Journal of Russian Literature" played a significant role in the development of advanced Russian social thought and journalism. The opportunity to discuss socio-political issues in print contributed to the formation of such types of journal journalism as political review and journalistic essay.

Magazines and almanacs of the early 19th century. were published by private individuals in small editions and were short-lived. This was explained by the strictness of censorship, the small number of subscribers, and the lack of publishing experience. Journalists were not paid for their work, and this prevented the transformation of amateur journalism into a profession. Against this background, the liberal-conservative magazine N.M. turned out to be a rare long-liver. Karamzin's "Bulletin of Europe", published from 1802 to 1830. Karamzin became the first paid editor in the history of Russian journalism.

The magazine consisted of two departments: “Literature and Mixture” and “Politics”. The first contained original and translated works in poetry and prose. In the second section, which the editor made the leader, there are articles and notes of a political nature concerning Europe and Russia. The magazine was an extraordinary success for its time. His numbers, as noted by V.G. Belinsky, composed “smartly, deftly and talentedly,” “read out to shreds.”

Belinsky differentiated the concepts of “newspaper” and “magazine”, put forward its direction as the main condition for success for each magazine and proclaimed criticism to be the leading department of a periodical.

An important fact of improving the structure of the Russian press at the beginning of the 19th century. was the emergence of industry periodicals. Then specialized publications emerged: music, theater, children's, women's and others. Official newspaper periodicals were represented by those published from the end of the 18th century. "St. Petersburg Gazette" and "Moscow Gazette". In 1809, they were supplemented by the departmental "Northern Post" - the organ of the postal department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, on the title of which the word "newspaper" first appeared. In 1811, the first Russian provincial newspaper, Kazan News, began to be published at Kazan University.

Newspaper printing was of an official nature. With a certain breadth of information (politics, culture), noted the famous domestic researcher P.N. Berkov, the government, through the publishers in his service, by publishing “precisely this information and precisely in this light, as it were, ordered society to engage in discussion... only of these events and only in the direction indicated... So limited in the interests of the nobility Russian journalism had a character for quite a long time." Therefore, in newspapers of the first quarter of the 19th century. there was no criticism of the authorities. Publishing private newspapers was unprofitable. And only a few brought income. For example, “Northern Bee” by F.V. Bulgarin, whose task was to “calm the minds,” was profitable, but, as history has shown, its publishers worked closely with the Third Department and received money from it for “faithful service.”

The Patriotic War of 1812 contributed to the growth of national self-awareness. The sharp reduction in the total number of periodicals was compensated by the appearance of the long-lived magazine “Son of the Fatherland” (1812-1852) by N.I. Buckwheat. Reports from the theater of war appeared in the magazine for the first time.

The journalistic activities of the Decembrists spanned almost 10 years. They managed to implement their literary and political program in the most vivid form in the almanac called “The Polar Star” (1823-1825). The main advantage of almanacs was that their creation did not require censorship permission. The publishers of "Polar Star" were A.A. Bestuzhev and K.F. Ryleev. Political ideas were carried out by the authors exclusively through literary materials. The great success of the almanac among readers marked the beginning of the so-called “almanac period,” as he called the 1820-1830s. V.G. Belinsky.

After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, Nicholas I and his ministers intensified surveillance of journalism. The new censorship charter of 1826, nicknamed “cast iron” by contemporaries, and the charter that replaced it in 1828 limited the rights of journalists. The circular of 1836 established a ban on the creation of new periodicals. This measure forced many Russian journalists to subsequently repurchase or rent failing newspapers and magazines. The position of the government press has strengthened. Since 1838, official statements began to be published in 42 provinces of Russia according to the program approved by the government.

F.V. Bulgarin, N.I. Grech and O.I. Senkovsky in the 1830s. formed a conservative triumvirate in journalism. Their publications - the newspaper "Northern Bee", the magazines "Son of the Fatherland" (after 1825) and "Library for Reading" - competed fiercely with the publications of A.S. Pushkina, N.A. Polevoy, N.I. Nadezhdin and V.G. Belinsky. "Northern Bee", the only private newspaper, was awarded the privilege of publishing political information and secured a wide circle of readers. The newspaper brought significant income from commercial advertisements, which only it was allowed to print. This newspaper was accused of being tabloid, reactionary, and attacks on progressive writers and poets. Nevertheless, "Northern Bee" was a European type of publication, a news newspaper (a rare phenomenon in Russia at that time), and not a newspaper of opinions (the usual type of publication).

At the end of the 1820s. The center of Russian journalism moved to Moscow. There, on the eve of the Decembrist uprising, N.A.’s Moscow Telegraph began publishing. Polevoy. This magazine, as Belinsky put it, absorbed “the entire mental movement of the country,” represented a new and very significant phenomenon in Russian journalism. From him, N.G. believed. Chernyshevsky, the “tangible” influence of literature on society began. In the history of the Russian press, this magazine remained as an anti-noble organ, an exponent of the bourgeois-democratic direction of Russian social thought. Being himself from a merchant family, Polevoy believed that the merchants should acquire knowledge and take a place in the state next to the nobles. Feeling that the time for a purely literary magazine was passing, he made his publication an encyclopedic one. Polevoy walked ahead of the mass reader and cultivated his taste. Shackled by censorship, he could not introduce a political department into the magazine. But, noted A.I. Herzen, with amazing dexterity, took advantage of every opportunity to give scientific and literary materials a political edge. The success of the Moscow Telegraph was such that the first issues of the magazine had to be republished with a “second stamp” - an exceptional fact in the history of Russian journalism. However, the growing criticism of the nobility displeased the authorities. In 1834, having found fault with a critical review of the loyal play by N.V. Puppeteer "The Hand of the Almighty Saved the Fatherland", the authorities closed the magazine.

Among the publications that were persecuted was A.A. Literaturnaya Gazeta. Delvig, where A.S. took part as a critic, reviewer and editor. Pushkin. He was the first and only journalist at that time to show the political face of F.V. in the censored press. Bulgarin as an agent of the Third Section. Pushkin believed that journalism controls public opinion, and did not recognize the monopoly right of “indicators of public opinion” for official newspapers and magazines. The poet continued his satirical speeches against Bulgarin in the magazine N.I. Nadezhda "Telescope".

This encyclopedic publication appeared in Moscow in 1831. Nadezhdin invited Belinsky, who became the central figure of Russian journalism in the 1830s-1840s, to collaborate in the magazine. While working at Telescope, the critic began to develop the principles of journalism in Russia. In the article “Nothing about Nothing” Belinsky distinguished between the concepts of “newspaper” and “magazine”, put forward its direction as the main condition for success for each magazine and proclaimed criticism to be the leading department of a periodical, since literature is accessible to a wide readership and through criticism. The successful publication of "Telescope" ended in 1836. The magazine was closed by the government for the appearance on its pages of "Philosophical Letter" by P.Ya. Chaadaeva.

In the same 1836, Pushkin won the right to publish his own magazine Sovremennik, which continued the traditions of Polar Star. In an effort to attract the best literary and scientific forces to the magazine and in every possible way promoting the professionalization of writing, Pushkin paid employees a high royalty for that time. Sovremennik was a success, but Pushkin failed to make it a mass publication. The journal's wide distribution was hampered by its almanac form, infrequent periodicity, and the absence of a political section. The poet's tragic death in 1837 prevented the implementation of his magazine plans.

In the 1840s The role and importance of the press in the social and cultural life of Russia has increased significantly. This period became the era of struggle between Westerners and Slavophiles. Each movement sought to publish its own printed organs. The periodicals of supporters of the theory of “official nationality” took a protective position. These were the newspaper "Northern Bee", the magazine "Russian Messenger". The Slavophiles, united by the idea of ​​a special path for the development of Russia based on Orthodoxy and communalism, were not journalists by vocation (except for I.S. Aksakov and I.V. Kireevsky), which did not allow them to organize their own influential magazine. They announced themselves in the magazine of supporters of the official nationality "Moscow Observer".

The “Westerners,” who considered Russia and Europe to be a single cultural and historical whole, advocated the establishment of democratic freedoms. Deprived of the opportunity to found a new press, they used existing magazines. Rented A.A. Kraevsky's "Notes of the Fatherland", in which Belinsky headed the department of criticism and bibliography, became the mouthpiece of the struggle against serfdom. Since that time, St. Petersburg journalism has again acquired leadership in the Russian periodical press.

In 1846, due to disagreements with Kraevsky, Belinsky, N.A. Nekrasov and A.I. Herzen left the magazine. Then N.A. Nekrasov with I.I. Panaev acquired Pushkin's Sovremennik. The ideological leader of the magazine was Belinsky, whose death in 1848 became an irreparable loss for the publication. No one could replace the emigrated Herzen in the magazine.

During the period of the “dark seven years” (1848-1855), Russian journalism developed under conditions of strict censorship control. The Standing Committee on Press Affairs, whose task was to control the work of censorship, was headed by Major General D.P. Buturlin, who even found “dangerous expressions” in the akathists to the Mother of God. “It was necessary to weigh every word, even speaking about grass sowing or horse breeding,” wrote the famous Russian writer M.I. Longinov, “because in everything there was assumed... a secret goal.”

Convinced that there is no real freedom of printed speech in his homeland, and trying to openly raise the question of the abolition of serfdom, A.I. Herzen decided in 1847 to leave Russia. A supporter of Russian utopian socialism, he considered revolutionary propaganda to be the main task of his journalistic and publishing activities. Having founded the Free Russian Printing House in London, Herzen in 1855 began publishing the almanac “Polar Star,” which was supposed to promote “the spread of a free way of thinking in Russia.” In 1857, the first revolutionary newspaper “Bell” was added to the almanac, which Herzen began publishing together with N.P. Ogarev. The newspaper responded to the need that had awakened in broad layers of Russian society for a free, uncensored organ of anti-serfdom and democracy. The free press and the Bell had an exceptional influence on Russian society and on the development of Russian journalism, especially the uncensored press.

A new period in the history of Russian journalism began after Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War and the death of Emperor Nicholas I. According to the “Temporary Rules on the Press” of 1865, almost all metropolitan daily newspapers were exempt from preliminary censorship. They were given the opportunity to discuss issues of foreign and domestic policy, and it became easier to obtain the right to establish new newspapers and magazines.

With the arrival of N.G. to the Sovremennik magazine. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov, this publication turned from a literary one into a socio-political one. The magazine became a center for promoting the ideas of the democratic revolution and played a huge role in the history of Russian journalism.

The peasant reform of 1861 contributed to the development of market relations and the growth of cities and industry. The periodical press was transformed from an attribute of the wealthy strata of society into the press of the literate. A new mass reader appeared - merchants, artisans, officials. The role of the newspaper has increased as a press organ that is more responsive and accessible to a wide range of readers. A new type of newspaper appeared - a mass one (Narodny Leaflet and others). The dissemination of information became a profitable commercial enterprise. People who had nothing in common with literature flocked to newspapers and magazines: merchants, bankers. In 1862, all newspapers were allowed to print advertisements, which allowed many of them to significantly improve their financial situation. Russian (1866), International (1872) and Northern (1882) telegraph agencies appeared, which supplied provincial and metropolitan newspapers with information. All agencies were private and owned by A.A. Kraevsky, A.S. Suvorin, O.K. Notovich and K.V. Trubnikov.

Great Russian writers acted as editors and active contributors to these publications. They substantiated the educational role of journalism, considering it an effective means of cultural and moral improvement of society. F.M. Dostoevsky wrote that “the word is the same activity,” Chernyshevsky recognized the paramount importance of journalism in influencing public consciousness. In the 1880s journalism was replenished with new forces in the person of such outstanding writers as A.P. Chekhov, V.G. Korolenko and others. In the 1890s began the journalistic activity of A.M. Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the appearance of the first workers' newspapers in Russia. In the 1870s The populists tried to publish them, trying to find assistants among the workers to prepare the peasant revolution. But soon the workers created their own press, independent of the populist organizations. The circulation of the first issue of Rabochaya Zarya, printed in the winter of 1880, was almost completely confiscated, but a start had been made. Soon another newspaper of the Russian Social Democratic Party, Rabochiy, appeared. But the absence of a mass revolutionary labor movement in the country made these publications short-lived.

The dissemination of information became a profitable commercial enterprise. People who have nothing to do with literature flocked to newspapers and magazines: merchants, bankers

By the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, a branched structure of the official and pro-government press developed, the core of which was the regional, provincial press and a large group of departmental, specialized publications. Along with this, private journalism, controlled by financial and industrial capital, actively developed, which soon began to dominate in quantitative terms. In terms of efficiency and volume of information, newspapers are far ahead of thick magazines. Most publications saw their main task as being the promoters of a certain policy, and sometimes even the organizers of public opinion in favor of national autonomy and independence. The leading newspapers were “Novoe Vremya”, “Russian Courier”, “Russian Word”, “Russia”. The cheap mass press served the interests of the lower classes (Petersburgskaya Gazeta, Moskovsky Leaflet). The illiterate part of the population was supplied with leaflets with popular prints and edifying texts, which were sold at bazaars and fairs.

Personal advertisements and advertising became commonplace in newspapers and brought them significant income. Methods of winning and expanding the readership were formed, methods of presenting information, printing design, distribution system, and genre palette were improved. Newspaper circulations grew, reaching hundreds of thousands of copies. Major publications were published not only in the morning, but also in the evening. The legal and illegal press in Russia represented a wide range of political views and reflected a complex and contradictory picture of social life at the turn of the century.