How natural complexes change. Natural components as parts of natural territorial complexes (NTC) - landscapes Natural complex of the earth

The concept of a natural complex. The main object of study of modern physical geography is geographic envelope our planet as a complex material system. It is heterogeneous in both vertical and horizontal directions. In the horizontal, i.e. spatially, the geographic envelope is divided into separate natural complexes (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes).

A natural complex is a territory that is homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition of specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a uniform soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis (a combination of microorganisms and characteristic animals). In a natural complex, the interaction and metabolism between its components are also of the same type. The interaction of components ultimately leads to the formation of specific natural complexes.

The level of interaction of components within a natural complex is determined primarily by the amount and rhythms of solar energy (solar radiation). Knowing the quantitative expression of the energy potential of a natural complex and its rhythm, modern geographers can determine its annual productivity natural resources and optimal timing of their renewal. This allows us to objectively predict the use of natural resources of natural-territorial complexes (NTC) in the interests of human economic activity.

Currently, most of the natural complexes of the Earth have been changed to one degree or another by man, or even re-created by him on a natural basis. For example, oases in the desert, reservoirs, agricultural plantations. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic. According to their purpose, anthropogenic complexes can be industrial, agricultural, urban, etc. According to the degree of change by human economic activity - in comparison with the original natural state, they are divided into slightly changed, changed and strongly changed.

The smallest natural complexes (terrains, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, individual hills, their slopes; or a low-lying river valley and its individual sections: bed, floodplain, above-floodplain terraces. It is interesting that the smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. However, even natural complexes of significant size retain the homogeneity of natural components and basic physical-geographical processes. Thus, the nature of Australia is not at all similar to the nature of North America, the Amazonian lowland is noticeably different from the Andes adjacent to the west, an experienced geographer-researcher will not confuse the Karakum (temperate zone deserts) with the Sahara (tropical deserts), etc.

Thus, the entire geographical envelope of our planet consists of a complex mosaic of natural complexes of different ranks. Natural complexes formed on land are now called natural-territorial complexes (NTC); formed in the ocean and other body of water (lake, river) - natural aquatic (NAC); natural-anthropogenic landscapes (NAL) are created by human economic activity on a natural basis.

Geographical envelope - the largest natural complex

Geographic shell - a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, which includes the upper part in vertical section earth's crust(lithosphere), lower atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the entire biosphere of our planet. What unites, at first glance, the heterogeneous components of the natural environment into a single material system? It is within the geographic envelope that a continuous exchange of matter and energy occurs, a complex interaction between the indicated component shells of the Earth.

The boundaries of the geographical envelope are still not clearly defined. Scientists usually take the ozone screen in the atmosphere as its upper limit, beyond which life on our planet does not extend. The lower boundary is most often drawn in the lithosphere at depths of no more than 1000 m. This is the upper part of the earth’s crust, which was formed under the strong combined influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and living organisms. The entire thickness of the waters of the World Ocean is inhabited, therefore, if we talk about the lower boundary of the geographical envelope in the ocean, then it should be drawn along the ocean floor. In general, the geographic shell of our planet has a total thickness of about 30 km.

As we can see, the geographical envelope coincides in volume and territorially with the distribution of living organisms on Earth. However, there is still no single point of view regarding the relationship between the biosphere and the geographical envelope. Some scientists believe that the concepts of “geographical envelope” and “biosphere” are very close, even identical, and these terms are synonyms. Other researchers consider the biosphere only as a certain stage in the development of the geographic envelope. In this case, three stages are distinguished in the history of the development of the geographical shell: prebiogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic (modern - site). The biosphere, according to this point of view, corresponds to the biogenic stage of the development of our planet. According to others, the terms “geographical envelope” and “biosphere” are not identical, since they reflect different qualitative essences. The concept of “biosphere” focuses on the active and determining role of living matter in the development of the geographical envelope.

Which point of view should you prefer? It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It is distinguished primarily by the great variety of material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through general (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To understand the patterns of development of this unified system is one of the most important tasks of modern geographical science.

Thus, the integrity of the geographical envelope is the most important pattern, on the knowledge of which the theory and practice of modern environmental management is based. Taking this pattern into account makes it possible to foresee possible changes in the nature of the Earth (a change in one of the components of the geographic envelope will necessarily cause a change in the others); give a geographical forecast of the possible results of human impact on nature; carry out a geographical examination of various projects related to the economic use of certain territories.

The geographic envelope is also characterized by another characteristic pattern - the rhythm of development, i.e. recurrence of certain phenomena over time. In the nature of the Earth, rhythms of different durations have been identified - daily and annual, intra-century and super-secular rhythms. The daily rhythm, as is known, is determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The daily rhythm is manifested in changes in temperature, air pressure and humidity, cloudiness, and wind strength; in the phenomena of ebb and flow in the seas and oceans, the circulation of breezes, the processes of photosynthesis in plants, the daily biorhythms of animals and humans.

The annual rhythm is the result of the movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. These are the change of seasons, changes in the intensity of soil formation and destruction of rocks, seasonal features in the development of vegetation and human economic activity. It is interesting that different landscapes of the planet have different daily and annual rhythms. Thus, the annual rhythm is best expressed in temperate latitudes and very weakly in the equatorial zone.

Of great practical interest is the study of longer rhythms: 11-12 years, 22-23 years, 80-90 years, 1850 years and longer, but, unfortunately, they are still less studied than the daily and annual rhythms.

Natural areas of the globe

The great Russian scientist V. Dokuchaev, at the end of the century before last, substantiated the planetary law of geographic zoning - a natural change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amounts of precipitation. Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, the law of geographic zonation is subject to weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes; zonal climate, surface waters of land and ocean, soil cover, vegetation and fauna.

The largest zonal divisions of the geographic envelope are geographic zones. They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with climatic zones. Geographic zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in the general characteristics of atmospheric circulation. On land the following geographical zones are distinguished:

- equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres;
- subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere;
- subantarctic and antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere.

Belts with similar names have been identified in the World Ocean.

The zonality in the ocean is reflected in changes from the equator to the poles in the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, etc.), as well as in changes in the composition of flora and fauna.

Within geographic zones, natural zones are distinguished based on the ratio of heat and moisture. The names of the zones are given according to the type of vegetation that predominates in them. For example, in the subarctic zone these are tundra and forest-tundra zones; in the temperate zone - forest zones (taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests), zones of forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

It should be borne in mind that due to the heterogeneity of the relief and the earth's surface, the proximity and distance from the ocean (and, consequently, the heterogeneity of moisture - site), the natural zones of various regions of the continents do not always have a latitudinal extent. Sometimes they have an almost meridional direction, for example, on the Atlantic coast of North America, the Pacific coast of Eurasia, and other places. The natural zones that stretch latitudinally across the entire continent are also heterogeneous. They are usually divided into three segments, corresponding to the central inland and two oceanic sectors. Latitudinal, or horizontal, zoning is best expressed on large plains, such as the East European or West Siberian plains.

In the mountainous regions of the Earth, latitudinal zonality gives way to altitudinal zonality of landscapes to a natural change of natural components and natural complexes with an ascent into the mountains from their foothills to the peaks. It is caused by climate change with altitude: a decrease in temperature by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m of rise and an increase in precipitation up to a certain altitude (up to 2-3 km). The change of belts in the mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. However, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitude zones depends on the height of the mountains and their features geographical location. The higher the mountains and the closer they are located to the equator, the richer their range (set) of altitude zones.

The range of altitude zones in the mountains is also determined by the location of the mountain system relative to the ocean. In the mountains located near the ocean, a set of forest belts predominates; Inland (arid) sectors of continents are characterized by treeless high-altitude zones.

Studying the contents of the paragraph provides the opportunity to:

Ø deepen understanding of the essence of the concept of “components of nature” and the relationships between them;

Ø study the structure, basic properties of the PTC and landscape

Natural component- this is an integral material part of nature, representing one of the spheres of the geographical shell of the Earth (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, etc.). Natural components on the Earth's surface are presented rocks, air, surface And groundwater, soils, vegetation And fauna. Climate (long-term weather regime) and relief are not components of nature, since they are not material bodies, but reflect the properties of air masses and earth's surface.

There are three groups of natural components: lithogenic, hydroclimatogenic and biogenic (Fig.).

All components of nature are closely interconnected and a change in one leads to a change in the others.

The closest interaction of components is characteristic of the near-surface (soil) and the nearest above-surface layer of the Earth, since it is here that all spheres of the Earth’s geographic shell (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, etc.) come into contact. For example, the climatic features of the territory are influenced by the relief. Climate and topography influence the formation of water, soil, vegetation and wildlife. In turn, the flora and fauna are united by a system of interaction with each other and influence other components of nature. The relationships between the components of nature must be taken into account when organizing economic activities. For example, drainage leads to a decrease in groundwater in an area, and this affects soil, vegetation and wildlife, etc.

Natural components, closely interacting with each other in a certain territory, form complexes called natural-territorial complexes. Under natural-territorial complex(PTK) is understood as a relatively homogeneous area of the earth's surface, which is distinguished by a peculiar combination of natural components. Based on the size of the territory, PTCs are divided into three levels: planetary, regional and local

The largest - planetary or global level of PTC is represented on the planet by a geographical envelope.

PTC at the regional level: continents, natural zones, physical-geographical countries, are structural parts of the geographical shell. Local level PTCs are represented by landscapes (facies, tracts).

The boundaries of the PTC, as a rule, are not clearly identified and the transition from one complex to another occurs gradually. On maps, the boundaries of natural complexes are drawn with lines, which are a symbol. Each natural complex has its own structure. PTC structure is a combination of natural components that form PTC.

Properties of PTC. The main property of PTC of different ranks should be considered its integrity. Integrity means a close relationship between the components of the PTC.

Another important property of the natural complex is sustainability, which consists in the ability of the PTC to return to its original state when exposed to external forces (deforestation, land reclamation, etc.).

The sustainability of natural complexes is of great importance due to the increasing human impact on nature. Crisis phenomena in nature occur when the stability and ability of the PTC to self-healing is disrupted. Sustainability is ensured by a variety of relationships between the components of the natural complex. The more complex the PTC, the more stable it is, i.e. has more opportunities for self-healing and counteraction to human economic activities.

PTCs are constantly evolving, i.e. have the following property: variability. This can be seen in the example of local complexes, when lakes become overgrown, ravines appear, forests become swamped, etc. It is believed that under natural conditions the evolution of natural complexes occurs in the direction of increasing their stability. In this regard, the main problem with anthropogenic impact on nature is not to reduce the natural stability of natural-territorial complexes.

The concept of landscape. Landscape structure . With the development of geography, the idea of PTK changed. Based on the doctrine of natural-territorial complexes, a new direction has been formed - landscape science, the object of study of which is the landscape (from the German land - earth, schaft - a suffix expressing interconnection).

The landscape is a homogeneous natural formation within a natural area and reflects its main features. Landscape can be taken as the basic unit in physical-geographical zoning. To form ideas about the territory, it is enough to study it within the landscape. Each landscape is part of larger territorial geographic units.

Landscape is a relatively homogeneous area of the geographic envelope, distinguished by the natural combination of its components and the nature of the relationships between them.

The landscape includes not only natural components, but also small PTC - facies and tracts that make up its morphological structure.

The simplest (elementary) complex is the facies that is characterized by the greatest homogeneity of natural components. An example could be a section of a small river valley, a hollow, a small depression, etc., which have homogeneous geological deposits and soils, the same microclimate, water regime and composition of the biocenosis.

Facies are combined into tracts. A tract is a system of facies associated with a separate large landform or watershed on a homogeneous substrate and the general direction of physiographic processes. Examples of tracts include PTK within a ravine or hill. A larger unit of the landscape is the terrain, which is a combination of tracts that are regularly repeated within the landscape. The identification of areas is determined primarily by the peculiarities of the geological structure and relief.

Anthropogenic landscapes. As a result of transformative human activity, transformed - anthropogenic - landscapes appear in place of natural landscapes.

In landscape science, depending on the degree of anthropogenic impact, there are primary natural landscapes, which are formed by the action of only natural factors; natural-anthropogenic landscapes, which are formed by the action of both natural and anthropogenic factors, and anthropogenic landscapes, whose existence is supported only by human activity. The degree of their change depends on the intensity economic use. The greatest changes occur in the industrial, transport and agricultural use of landscapes.

Under anthropogenic landscape is understood as a geographical landscape transformed by human activity and differing in structure and properties from natural ones. Since human activities that cause the formation of anthropogenic landscapes can be purposeful and unpurposeful (unintentional), different anthropogenic landscapes are formed. There are slightly modified, modified and highly modified landscapes.

Purposeful impact on landscapes leads to their transformation and the formation of landscapes with given parameters and functions. Agricultural, industrial, recreational, urbanized and others are formed, which are sometimes called cultivated or cultural. Under cultural landscape is understood as a territory in which, as a result of human activity, the landscape has acquired new properties compared to its previous state (Fig...).

Landscapes, over time, are characterized by changes in qualitative and quantitative parameters. Such transformations are called - landscape development. Factors causing landscape development processes are divided into internal and external. As a result of development, some landscapes can transform and disappear, while others, on the contrary, can be formed. The task of rational environmental management is to prevent unwanted destruction (degradation) of landscapes, i.e. manage landscape development.

Questions and tasks

1. What are PTCs and what natural components do they contain?

2. What does the concept of “hardware and hardware stability” mean and what factors ensure it?

3. As a result of what economic activity can the interconnections of the PTC be destroyed?.. Give examples.

Definition 1

Natural complex - a set of natural objects, phenomena or properties that form one whole.

This term was proposed by N.A. Solntsev. The concept of a natural complex is the predecessor of the concept of a natural system.

If we consider it more broadly, the concept of a natural complex has three interpretations:

any interconnected natural phenomena
regular spatial combinations of soils, vegetation and landscapes

The largest natural complex is the geographic envelope of the Earth, which includes part of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. In general, a very large number of natural complexes of various scales and levels can be identified. Seas, continents, lakes, mountain systems, and rivers are separate natural complexes. Natural complexes of the smallest scale are ravines, clearings, and ponds.

The concept of a natural complex is broader than a landscape or a natural-territorial complex, due to the fact that it does not contain restrictions on territory or completeness of coverage. However, very often the concept of a natural complex is considered as a synonym for a natural-territorial complex.

Definition 2

Natural-territorial complex (NTC) - a natural combination of geographical components or complexes of lower rank, which are in complex interaction and form a single inextricable system different levels from geographic shell to facies.

The individual components and the PTC exchange energy and matter.

Note 1

As a rule, PTC is understood as a landscape that has not experienced (or is not experiencing) intense anthropogenic impact. However, now that human activities have a significant impact on the planet, it is customary to highlight special type PTC – anthropogenic landscapes.

Anthropogenic landscapes are divided according to the degree of change into:

Slightly modified (hunting grounds);
Changed (small settlements, arable lands);
Heavily modified (mining, cities, logging areas);
Improved (green zone around cities, forest clearing)

Formation of natural complexes

The reason for the formation of natural-territorial complexes are natural components, which, according to the characteristics of their action, are divided into zonal and azonal.

Zonal are called the factors of formation of PTC, determined by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the Sun. The effect of zonal factors varies depending on the latitude of the area, because As we move from the equator to the poles, the heating of the Earth's surface by the sun's rays increases. In connection with zonal factors, zonal natural-territorial complexes, such as geographical zones or natural zones, have been formed.

The effect of zonal factors is most clearly expressed in flat areas, where they extend in the sublatitudinal direction. In the mountains, the effect of zonal factors is compensated by altitudinal zonation.

Azonal are called the factors of formation of PTC, determined by the processes that occur in the bowels of the Earth. The result of such processes is the geological structure and relief. Azonal factors form azonal PTCs, called physiographic countries.

Example 1

Azonal natural-territorial complexes are, for example, the Cordillera, the Himalayas, the Alps, the East European Plain, the Amazon Lowland, Southern China, the Urals, and the Mesopotamian Plain.

Our planet is a product of the simultaneous influence of zonal and azonal factors. Moreover, azonal internal processes are the basis, and zonal processes are overlapping. The combination of various zonal and azoanal factors creates a variety of natural-territorial complexes on Earth.

Properties of natural-territorial complexes

Natural-territorial complexes are distinguished by the following properties:

Integrity, which consists in the close connection of the components;
Sustainability, consisting in the ability of complexes to return to their original state after external influence;
Variability, which consists in constant change in the direction of increasing sustainability (for natural PTCs);
Rhythm, consisting of adaptation to external periodic influences,

Differences in the relationship between air temperature and precipitation in different parts Lands determine the diversity of soils and fauna. Therefore, our planet is a delightful variety of “pictures of nature.”

What is a natural complex?

The interaction of natural components: rocks, air, water, flora and fauna - leads to the formation of natural complexes.

Any natural complex is characterized by a special composition of components and has a unique appearance.

Natural complexes in the mountains, replacing each other with height, are called altitudinal zones. Their number depends on the geographical location and height of the mountains. The higher the mountains, the closer they are located, the greater the set of altitude zones.

In the World Ocean, along with zonal ones, shallow and deep-water natural complexes are distinguished.

Anthropogenic complexes

Today, natural-anthropogenic complexes—territories that have been significantly altered by humans—are increasingly encountered. These are drained swamps, plowed steppes, artificial forest belts, parks and gardens, irrigated and watered desert areas, mining areas. In cities, major ports, along roads and railways, where natural environment completely changed by man, anthropogenic complexes are formed.

The main object of study of modern physical geography is the geographical shell of our planet as a complex material system. It is heterogeneous in both vertical and horizontal directions. In the horizontal, i.e. spatially, the geographic envelope is divided into separate natural complexes (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes).

Natural complex- a territory homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition of specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a uniform soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis (a combination of microorganisms and characteristic animals). In a natural complex, the interaction and metabolism between its components are also of the same type. The interaction of components ultimately leads to the formation of specific natural complexes.

The level of interaction of components within a natural complex is determined primarily by the amount and rhythms of solar energy (solar radiation). Knowing the quantitative expression of the energy potential of a natural complex and its rhythm, modern geographers can determine the annual productivity of its natural resources and the optimal timing of their renewability. This allows us to objectively predict the use of natural resources of natural-territorial complexes (NTC) in the interests of human economic activity.

Natural complexes can be of different sizes - of different ranks, as scientists say. The largest natural complex is the geographical shell of the Earth. Continents and oceans are natural complexes of the next rank. Within the continents, physical-geographical countries are distinguished - natural complexes of the third level. Such, for example, as the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the Amazon Lowland, the Sahara Desert and others. Well-known natural zones can serve as examples of natural complexes: tundra, taiga, temperate forests, steppes, deserts, etc. The smallest natural complexes (terrains, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, individual hills, their slopes; or a low-lying river valley and its individual sections: bed, floodplain, above-floodplain terraces. It is interesting that the smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. However, even natural complexes of significant size retain the homogeneity of natural components and basic physical-geographical processes. Thus, the nature of Australia is not at all similar to the nature of North America, the Amazonian lowland is noticeably different from the Andes adjacent to the west, an experienced geographer-researcher will not confuse the Karakum (temperate zone deserts) with the Sahara (tropical deserts), etc.