What disease did Nicholas II suffer from? Disease of royal blood. How did the Romanovs end up with hemophilia?
Chapter 1
What illnesses did the Romanov Tsars suffer from and how were they treated?
The treatment of the Romanov kings followed the same rules as the treatment of their predecessors on the Moscow throne. Although the Pharmacy Order already had many doctors at its disposal, the king usually tried first, and the queen and her children always tried to be treated with home remedies, and doctors were called only when they had to go to bed and the disease was mostly already determined. Especially the female half royal palace in every possible way fenced herself off from rational Western medicine and its representatives. Doctors were called to the queens and princesses only in the most extreme cases, and even then they did not see the patient herself, but listened and asked the mothers of the boyars and gave advice to special grandmothers - doctors. The queen also had a special midwife. Gradually, the influence of time opened the doors of the Tsarina's chambers. Already under Mikhail Fedorovich, they became available to foreign doctors, especially for their favorite therapeutic action - “throwing blood”. It is known, for example, that Tsarina Evdokia Lukyanovna (the second wife of Mikhail Fedorovich) in important cases “opened the veins” with the help of German doctors. However, under Tsarina Marya Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya (the first wife of Alexei Mikhailovich), the doctor could not yet see his patients - the windows were tightly curtained, the patient’s hand was wrapped in muslin so that the doctor could not touch the body. But on February 18, 1676, the king and Grand Duke Fyodor Alekseevich instructed the “doctor” Stepan Fungadin to “go to the mansions of the blessed Empress Tsarina and Grand Duchess Natalia Kirillovna.” In general, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina (the second wife of Alexei Mikhailovich, mother of Peter I) was, according to modern terminology, an “advanced” patient: she was the first to let the doctor “into her eyes” when she was ill, but even then most often these were “narrow” specialists , such as, for example, Ivashka Gubin - “guttural master”.
Under Fyodor Alekseevich, consultations were in vogue. In this case, particular importance was attached to agreement between doctors. Thus, a document has been preserved about the participation in the examination of Alexei Mikhailovich by doctors Yagan Rozenburkh, Stefan Fungadin and Lavrenty Blumentrost, Simon Zomer and the pharmacist Krestyan Engler, which stated that “there is no disagreement or friendship between them and they have love among themselves.”
The participation of doctors in the treatment of the kings was purely advisory: “they looked at the water and spoke,” and what they saw and decided was entered into a special protocol of the Pharmacy Order. The pharmacy boyar supervised the preparation and administration of medicines and the course of the illness itself. How this happened in practice can be seen from the interrogation of the Romanov boyar A.S. Matveev, who, thanks to the machinations of the Miloslavsky family, was removed from the management of the royal pharmacy. The Duma nobleman Sokovnin and the Duma clerk Semyonov took from Matveev a “fairy tale” about how medicines were prepared and presented to the sick Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. Matveev testified that the medicines were prepared by doctors Costerius and Stefan Simon according to a prescription, and the recipes were kept in the Pharmacy Chamber. Every medicine was first tasted by the doctor, then he, Matveev, and after him the sovereign’s uncles, the boyars Fyodor Fedorovich Kurakin and Ivan Bogdanovich Khitrovo, and after taking the medicine, he, Matveev, finished the medicine again, in the eyes of the sovereign. L.F. Zmeev describes an incident that occurred under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. Doctor Rosenburg prescribed medicine for the queen. The pharmacist did not prepare it exactly. The boyar, who tasted the medicine, felt sick. Then they forced Rosenburg himself to drink all the medicine at once. “All these are features of terrible universal superstition and fear of poisons,” writes L.F. Zmeev - characteristic of that era. If the culprit served at court, then this, in addition, was seen as laesio majestatis (state harm. - B.N.) and the punishment increased greatly."
But there were also completely objective ways of causing harm to the royal family. Since over time the circle of patients among the doctors of the Apothecary Prikaz expanded and they also treated, at the royal command, nobles, foreign guests, boyars and military men, there was a real danger of introducing “infection” into the royal chambers. Therefore, if any of the doctors accidentally visited a “clingy” patient, he was obliged, after notifying the sovereign, to sit at home until the royal permission. This measure did not only apply to doctors. On June 8, 1680, a strict royal decree was issued, prohibiting anyone from coming to the palace, especially the Bed Porch, or from houses in which they were sick with “fire pain or fever and smallpox or other serious illnesses.”
The Romanov tsars, generally speaking, were not distinguished by good health. In this regard, L.Ya. Skorokhodov expressed the paradoxical idea that the poor physical health of the Russian tsars had positive influence to the flourishing of medicine and medicine at the Moscow court in the 17th century.
The first tsar from the house of Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich (1596–1645), was crowned king on July 11, 1613, at less than seventeen years old. Gentle in disposition, weak physically and spiritually, he was so sickly that, in his own words, “his legs were so painful that at the age of just over thirty he was carried to and from the cart in chairs.”
In 1643, the king fell ill with erysipelas. He was treated by doctors Artman Graman, Johann (Yagan) Belau and Willim Kramer. Before the tsar had time to recover from his erysipelas, on July 6, 1643, he fell ill with a sore throat (“toad”). He was treated by the same doctors - Graman and Belau. In April 1645, shocked partly by family troubles, partly by alarming rumors about a new impostor - the son of Marina Mnishek, the tsar fell ill again. Doctors Graman, Belau and Wendelinus Sibelist, who arrived in Russia in 1643 instead of Artemy Diy, gathered at the patient’s bedside. The doctors “looked at the water” (urine) and found that “the stomach, liver and spleen, due to the mucus accumulated in them, are deprived of natural warmth and that is why the blood gradually becomes watery and cold occurs.” It was decided to treat the sovereign with “cleaning agents.” He was given a compound Rhine wine with various roots and herbs, moderation in food and drink was prescribed, and he was forbidden to dine and drink “cold and sour drinks.” However, the treatment did not help. The king gradually became exhausted. At the end of May, the doctors again “looked at the water,” and she turned out to be pale, because “the stomach, liver and spleen are powerless from a lot of sitting, from cold drinks and from melancholy, that is, sadness.” The king was again ordered to give cleansing compounds and smear the stomach with balm. On July 12, 1645, the day of his angel, the king went to matins, but apparently his strength had already left him, and he had a seizure in the church. The sick man was carried into the mansion in his arms, and on the same day the illness intensified. The king began to moan and complain that “his insides were tormented.” At the beginning of three o'clock in the morning, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich died. According to F.L. Herman, the disease that brought the king to the grave was kidney damage.
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1629–1676), who ascended the throne just like his father at the age of sixteen, also did not have good health, and therefore repeatedly resorted to bloodletting. At the same time, the doctors, ore thrower and translator were given special awards each time. Bloodletting was also done to Tsarina Marya Ilyinichna. They say that one day, having opened his blood and feeling relief, the king suggested doing the same to his courtiers. Everyone, willy-nilly, agreed, except for the Tsar’s maternal relative Rodion Streshnev, who refused this procedure under the pretext of age. Alexey Mikhailovich flared up: “Is your blood more valuable than mine? What, do you think you’re better than everyone else?” And here the matter did not end with words, but when the anger passed, rich gifts were sent to Streshnev from the palace so that he would forget the royal beatings.
In January 1675, the tsar, who was obese and sometimes suffered from stomach problems, fell ill. He was treated by Dr. Samoilo Collins. In January 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich felt a loss of strength and on January 29 at 9 pm he died at the age of 47.
Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich (1661–1682), who inherited the throne at the age of fifteen, was so weak in health, his legs were so swollen that he could not even walk behind his father’s coffin - he was carried on a stretcher. He was treated by doctors Johann Rosenburg, Stefan Fungadanov (von Gaden), Lavrenty Blumentrost, Sommer, and pharmacist Christian Engler. Most often - Sommer, Gutmensch and von Gaden. The king was sick all the time. He died on April 27, 1682, at the age of 21. Such an early death of the king gave rise to rumors of poisoning, the victims of which were doctors Gaden and Gutmensch.
Stefan (Daniel) von Gaden came from Polish Jews. From the Jewish faith he switched to the Catholic faith, from it to the Lutheran faith, and finally accepted the Greek faith. In this regard, he had different nicknames: Danila Zhidovin, Danila Ievlevich, Danila Ilyin. He was sent to Moscow from Kyiv in 1657 by boyar Vasily Vasilyevich Buturlin. He began his royal service at the lowest level - as a barber. He was soon promoted to the rank of doctor, in 1667 - subdoctor, and in 1672 Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich promoted him to doctor of medicine, despite the fact that Gaden did not have the opportunity to systematically study medical sciences at foreign universities. A historical precedent of this kind was created by Boris Godunov, who awarded the doctorate to the doctor Christopher Rietlinger, who did not have a corresponding diploma, who arrived in Russia in 1601 in his retinue English Ambassador Richard Lee. In 1676, as before von Gaden, by royal decree, as a reward for the successful treatment of the often ill Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the physician (medicine) Sigismund (Simon) Sommer was promoted to doctor.
In the letter issued to Gaden, it was said that he “is quite skilled in doctoral and all medicinal teachings and is worthy of the doctor’s honor and is a person in need in everything.” He was one of the doctors closest to the tsar, which played a tragic role during the Streltsy riot on May 15, 1682.
Here is what the Polish diplomatic resident P. Swiderski wrote about this:
“The cause of the death of the Tsar of Muscovy Fyodor Alekseevich was an equally good attitude towards both the Poles and the Catholic faith, while the boyars warned him in vain and did not like it and finally decided to eliminate him secretly, persuading the doctor to shorten his life with poison and kill the king from the world. The duma boyars persuaded Danilo Zhida, the royal doctor, to betray the king and give him poison. poison, went up to the king and said: “Righteous sovereign. Your Majesty the right half, and I, your servant, the left.” So saying, he cut it in half and gave the king the right half, smeared with poison from the knife, and he ate the healthy half.
The rebel archers, confident that the king had been poisoned, searched in vain for Gaden. On the night of May 16, his wife was arrested as a hostage. At two o'clock in the afternoon on May 16, a message came that the son of Dr. Danila Mikhail, a young man of 22 years old, had been found. They caught him in disguise on the street (since no one could let him into their house, he was hiding in taverns). The Sagittarius asked him where his father might be, but he did not know it, so (?) they killed him. The execution took place at Lobnoye Mesto. Doctor Gaden was found the next night. They wanted to kill his wife instead, but Marfa Matveevna, the wife of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, begged her to spare. The next morning, Wednesday May 17, at dawn a message arrived from the German settlement that there last night Dr. Danila came in the dress of a beggar, who had been hiding for two days and two nights in Maryina Roshcha and other nearby places. He thought of asking his friends in the settlement for sugar to eat, since he was very hungry, but was detained on the street by some of them, who had great friendship with the archers. The request for the doctor from the younger queen and princesses was not successful, since at Gaden’s house they found a “sea fish with many legs,” which the archers took for a witchcraft remedy (in fact, it was an ordinary crab. - B.N.). Gaden was tortured and confessed to many things. He was forced for three hours because he wanted to give information about those who deserved death more than him. The archers tortured him themselves, one of them recorded everything that the doctor said under torture, but these people, perhaps tired and enraged, tore up the protocol, saying that it would take a long time, immediately took him to the market and killed him. Other sources call the place of death of the doctor Spassky Bridge near Lobnoye Mesto.”
The writer A. Sumarokov describes these tragic events somewhat differently: “On the same day, they, the archers, caught the German physician Danilo von Gaden in the clothes of the German baptized Jewish breed in the German settlement and took another German, Gutmensh the physician, in his house on Pogany Pond, called after Chistye Pond, and his son Gutmenshev (?). And these innocent foreigner doctors because they poisoned Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, and Gutmenshev’s son because he was the son of a doctor they hated, were brought to Red Square, raised on spears, then chopped into small pieces.”
Tsar Ivan Alekseevich (1666–1696), the younger brother of Fyodor Alekseevich, being a very sickly man, lived only thirty years. Nevertheless, he left behind numerous offspring. His daughter Anna Ioannovna became Russian empress, and his great-grandson Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI) - the emperor, who, however, practically did not reign, but spent his entire life in captivity in the Shlisselburg fortress, where he was killed during an unsuccessful attempt to free him at the age of 24.
The long-awaited heir to the Romanov family was born in 1904. Unlike the previous four births, which resulted in the birth of daughters, these were easy and lasted no more than half an hour. However, the happiness was short-lived. Two months after the birth, it became clear that the boy had hemophilia; this happened after no one could stop the bleeding from the baby’s navel.
The heir to the Russian throne, Tsarevich Alexei, was distinguished by his intelligence, kind, inquisitive character and inherited his father’s prostate, however, any abrasion or the smallest cut on the child’s body caused unstoppable bleeding. Blood ended up in the muscles surrounding the cut, resulting in huge hematomas that stretched the skin, slowed blood circulation and formed blood clots.
The most dangerous were nosebleeds, which could not be covered with a tight bandage. As a result of one of them, Alexey almost died. The disease caused hemorrhages in the joints, and the boy was constantly in pain, and the child was not given morphine due to its destructive properties. Only the “old man” Grigory Rasputin managed to calm the disease, who, as eyewitnesses said, spoke to the wounds.
After the death of the “Siberian sorcerer,” the disease struck again and, according to researchers, if there had not been a murder in the basement of the Ipatiev House, Alexey most likely would not have lived to adulthood anyway.
How did the Romanovs end up with hemophilia?
The disease entered the Russian imperial family through the wife of Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. The parents of the German aristocrat were Duke Ludwig of Hessen and the Rhine, as well as Duchess Alice, daughter of the British Queen Victoria. Through her grandmother, Queen of England Alexandra Feodorovna became a carrier of hemophilia. Most often, men suffer from it, and seemingly healthy women become carriers of the affected gene.
Geneticists from the University of Massachusetts managed to find out this by conducting research on material from the remains of the Romanov family executed by the Bolsheviks. As it turned out, in addition to the mother, her daughters Maria and Anastasia were also carriers of the disease.
Hemophilia was not known until the end of the twentieth century, however, due to dynastic marriages with the English royal family the disease struck the royal houses not only of Russia, but also of Germany, Austria, and Spain. The last carrier of the genetic disease, transmitted from Queen Victoria of England, was Prince Waldemar of Prussia, who died in 1945.
On July 30 (August 12, new style), 1904, the only son of the last Russian Sovereign Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, heir to the throne, was born in Peterhof Russian Empire Tsarevich Alexei. He was the fifth and very long-awaited child of the royal couple, for whom they prayed a lot and fervently, including during celebrations dedicated to the glorification of St. Seraphim of Sarov July 17-19, 1903
On September 3, 1904, in the church of the Great Peterhof Palace, the sacrament of Baptism of the Tsarevich was performed with the name in honor of St. Alexy, Metropolitan of Moscow. According to a number of researchers, the heir received the name Alexey in memory of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676). The successors of the porphyritic baby were the English and Danish kings, the German emperor, as well as the Russian Grand Dukes. Since Russia was at war with Japan during this period, all officers and soldiers of the Russian army and navy were proclaimed honorary godparents of the heir. According to tradition, in connection with the birth of an heir, charitable organizations were established: a military hospital train named after the heir-cresarevich, the Alekseevsky Committee for providing assistance to children who lost their fathers in the Russian-Japanese War.
The educator and teacher of the royal children, Pierre Gilliard, in his memoirs recalls how he first saw the Tsarevich, who was then one and a half years old, in February 1906: “... I was already preparing to finish my lesson with Olga Nikolaevna, when the Empress entered with the Grand Duke Heir in her arms . She came to us with the obvious intention of showing me her son, whom I did not yet know. The joy of her mother shone on her face, having finally seen her most cherished dream come true. It was felt that she was proud and happy with the beauty of her child.
And in fact, the Tsarevich was at that time the most marvelous child one could dream of, with his wonderful blond curls and large gray-blue eyes, shaded by long, curled eyelashes. He had the fresh and rosy complexion of a healthy child, and when he smiled, two dimples appeared on his round cheeks. When I approached him, he looked at me seriously and shyly, and only with great difficulty did he decide to extend his small hand to me.
During this first meeting, I saw several times how the Empress hugged the Tsarevich to her with the tender gesture of a mother who always seems to tremble for the life of her child; but this caress and the look that accompanied it revealed so clearly and so strongly hidden anxiety that I was already amazed by it. It was only a long time later that I came to understand its meaning.”
Terrible disease
On his mother's side, Alexey inherited hemophilia, the carriers of which were some daughters and granddaughters of Queen Victoria of England (1837-1901). The disease became evident already in the fall of 1904, when a two-month-old baby began to bleed heavily. Any scratch could lead to the death of the child; the lining of his arteries and veins was so weak that any bruise, increased movement or tension could cause rupture of blood vessels and lead to a fatal end: a fall, a nosebleed, a simple cut - everything that would be a trifle for an ordinary child could be fatal for Alexey. From the very first years of his life, the Tsarevich required special care and constant vigilance, as a result of which, on doctors’ orders, two sailors from the imperial yacht were assigned to him as bodyguards: the boatswain Derevenko and his assistant Nagorny.
The Empress's maid of honor Anna Taneyeva wrote: “The life of Alexei Nikolaevich was one of the most tragic in the history of the Tsar’s children. He was a charming, affectionate boy, the most beautiful of all children. In early childhood, his parents and nanny Maria Vishnyakova spoiled him greatly, fulfilling his slightest whims. And this is understandable, since it was very difficult to see the constant suffering of the little one; Whether he hit his head or his hand on the furniture, a huge blue tumor would immediately appear, indicating an internal hemorrhage that was causing him great suffering. At the age of five or six he passed into the hands of men, to uncle Derevenko. This one used to be less pampering, although he was very loyal and had great patience. I hear Alexei Nikolaevich’s voice during his illnesses: “Raise my hand,” or: “Turn my leg,” or: “Warm my hands,” and often Derevenko calmed him down. When he began to grow up, his parents explained his illness to Alexei Nikolaevich, asking him to be careful. But the heir was very lively, loved the games and fun of boys, and it was often impossible to restrain him. “Give me a bicycle,” he asked his mother. “Alexey, you know you can’t!” - “I want to learn to play tennis like my sisters!” - “You know that you don’t dare play.” Sometimes Alexey Nikolaevich cried, repeating: “Why am I not like all the boys?”
Alexey understood perfectly well that he might not live to reach adulthood. When he was ten years old, his older sister Olga found him lying on his back and looking at the clouds. She asked what he was doing. “I like to think, reflect,” Alexey answered. Olga asked what he liked to think about. “Oh, a lot of things,” the boy replied, “I enjoy the sun and the beauty of summer while I can. Who knows, maybe one of these days I won’t be able to do this anymore.”
Life in Tsarskoe Selo
Outwardly, Alexei resembled the Empress and Grand Duchess Tatiana: he had the same delicate facial features and large blue eyes. P. Gilliard describes him as follows: “Alexey Nikolaevich was then nine and a half years old. He was quite large for his age, had a thin, elongated oval face with delicate features, wonderful light brown hair with bronze tints, large blue-gray eyes, reminiscent of his mother’s eyes.
He thoroughly enjoyed life when he could, like a playful and cheerful boy. His tastes were very modest. He was not at all proud of the fact that he was the heir to the throne; this was the last thing he thought about. His greatest happiness was playing with the two sons of the sailor Derevenko, who were both somewhat younger than him. He had great quickness of mind and judgment and a lot of thoughtfulness. He sometimes amazed me with questions above his age, which testified to a delicate and sensitive soul.
I easily understood that those who, like me, did not have to instill discipline in him, could easily succumb to his charm without a second thought. In the little capricious creature that he seemed at first, I discovered a child with a heart that was naturally loving and sensitive to suffering, because he himself had already suffered a lot.”
Resident of Tsarskoye Selo S.Ya. Ofrosimova shares the following impressions: “The heir Tsarevich had a very soft and kind heart. He was passionately attached not only to those close to him, but also to the ordinary employees around him. None of them saw arrogance or harsh behavior from him. He especially quickly and passionately became attached to ordinary people. His love for Uncle Derevenko was tender, hot and touching. One of his greatest pleasures was playing with his uncle's children and being among ordinary soldiers. With interest and deep attention, he peered into the lives of ordinary people, and often an exclamation escaped him: “When I am king, there will be no poor and unhappy! I want everyone to be happy."
A.A. Taneyeva recalled: “The heir took an ardent part if the servants experienced any grief. His Majesty was also compassionate, but did not actively express it, while Alexey Nikolaevich did not calm down until he immediately helped. I remember the case of a cook who for some reason was denied a position. Alexey Nikolaevich somehow found out about this and pestered his parents all day until they ordered the cook to be taken back again. He defended and stood up for all his people.”
At the age of seven, Alexey began to study. The classes were led by the Empress, who herself chose the teachers: the spiritual teacher of the imperial family, Archpriest Alexander Vasiliev, became the teacher of the law, and Privy Councilor P.V. became the teacher of the Russian language. Petrov, arithmetic teacher - State Councilor E.P. Tsytovich, teacher French and tutor - P. Gilliard, English language taught by C. Gibbs and Alexandra Fedorovna herself.
Life in Tsarskoe Selo was of a close family nature: the retinue, with the exception of the ladies-in-waiting on duty and the commander of the consolidated guards regiment, did not live in the palace, and the Royal family, except when visiting relatives, gathered at the table without strangers and quite easily. The Tsarevich's lessons began at nine o'clock with a break between eleven and noon, during which the heir and his teacher went for a walk in a carriage, sleigh or car. Then classes resumed until lunch, after which Alexey always spent two hours outdoors. The Grand Duchesses and the Emperor, when he was free, joined him. In winter, Alexey had fun with his sisters, descending from an icy mountain built on the shore of a small artificial lake.
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In 1910, Patriarch Damian of Jerusalem, knowing about the piety of the heir, gave him for Easter an icon of the “Resurrection of Christ” with particles of stones from the Holy Sepulcher and Golgotha.
According to P. Gilliard, Alexei was the center of the closely knit Royal family; all affections and hopes were focused on him. “His sisters adored him and he was the joy of his parents. When he was healthy, the whole palace seemed transformed; it was a ray of sunshine that illuminated both things and those around them. Happily gifted by nature, he would have developed quite correctly and evenly if his illness had not prevented this.” S.Ya. Ofrosimova recalls: “His liveliness could not be tempered by his illness, and as soon as he felt better, as soon as his suffering subsided, he began to play pranks uncontrollably, he buried himself in pillows, crawled under the bed to scare the doctors with an imaginary disappearance... When the Princesses came, especially Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna, terrible fuss and pranks began. Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna was a desperate naughty girl and a faithful friend in all the Tsarevich’s pranks, but she was strong and healthy, and the Tsarevich was forbidden from these hours of childhood pranks that were dangerous for Him.”
Raising an heir to the throne
In 1912, while on vacation in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the Tsarevich unsuccessfully jumped into a boat and severely bruised his thigh: the resulting hematoma did not resolve for a long time, the child’s health condition was very serious, and bulletins were officially published about him. There was a real threat of death. “The Empress sat at her son’s bedside from the beginning of the illness,” writes P. Gilliard, “bent over to him, caressed him, surrounded him with her love, trying with a thousand small concerns to alleviate his suffering. The Emperor also came as soon as he had a free minute.
He tried to cheer up the child, entertain him, but the pain was stronger than the mother's caresses and father's stories, and the interrupted moans were resumed. From time to time the door opened, and one of the Grand Duchesses tiptoed into the room, kissed her little brother and seemed to bring with her a stream of freshness and health. The child opened his large eyes, already deeply outlined by illness, for a minute, and immediately closed them again.
One morning I found a mother at the head of her son... The Tsarevich, lying in his crib, moaned pitifully, pressing his head against his mother’s hand, and his thin, bloodless face was unrecognizable. Occasionally he interrupted his groans to whisper only one word, “mother,” in which he expressed all his suffering, all his despair. And his mother kissed his hair, his forehead, his eyes, as if with this caress she could ease his suffering, breathe into him a little of the life that was leaving him. How to convey the torture of this mother, helplessly present at the torment of her child during long hours of mortal anxiety..."
According to the opinion of many people surrounding Tsarevich Alexei, he had a strong will, which was not just an inherited quality, but developed and strengthened due to the frequent physical suffering caused to the child by a terrible disease. The disease became a kind of teacher of the little martyr. According to Anna Taneyeva, “frequent suffering and involuntary self-sacrifice developed in the character of Alexei Nikolaevich pity and compassion for everyone who was sick, as well as amazing respect for his mother and all elders.”
However, for all his kindness and compassion, the boy did not tolerate it when he, as the heir to the throne, was treated with insufficient respect. S.Ya. Ofrosimova recounts the following episode: “The Tsarevich was not a proud child, although the thought that he was a future king filled his entire being with the consciousness of his highest destiny. When he was in the company of noble people and people close to the Emperor, he became aware of his royalty.
One day, the Tsarevich entered the office of the Tsar, who at that time was talking with the minister. When the heir entered, the Tsar’s interlocutor did not find it necessary to stand up, but only, rising from his chair, offered his hand to the Tsarevich. The heir, offended, stopped in front of him and silently put his hands behind his back; this gesture did not give him an arrogant appearance, but only a regal, expectant pose. The minister involuntarily stood up and straightened up to his full height in front of the Tsarevich. The Tsarevich responded to this with a polite handshake. Having told the Emperor something about his walk, he slowly left the office. The Emperor looked after him for a long time and finally said with sadness and pride: “Yes, it will not be as easy for you to cope with him as with me.”
According to the memoirs of Yulia Den, maid of honor and friend of the Empress, while still a very small boy, Alexei already realized that he was the heir: “Once, when he was playing with the Grand Duchesses, he was informed that officers of his sponsored regiment had come to the palace and asked permission to see Tsesarevich. The six-year-old child, immediately leaving the fuss with his sisters, said with an important look: “Girls, go away, the heir will have a reception.”
Claudia Mikhailovna Bitner, who gave lessons to the heir in Tobolsk, recalled the Tsarevich this way: “I loved Alexei Nikolaevich most of all. He was a sweet, good boy. He was smart, observant, receptive, very affectionate, cheerful and cheerful, despite his often severe painful condition...
He was used to being disciplined, but did not like the former court etiquette. He could not stand lies and would not have tolerated them around him if he had ever taken power. He combined the features of his father and mother. From his father he inherited his simplicity. There was no complacency, arrogance or arrogance in him at all. He was simple.
But he had a great will and would never submit to outside influence. Now, the Emperor, if he took power again, I’m sure he would forget and forgive the actions of those soldiers who were known in this regard. Alexey Nikolaevich, if he received power, would never forget or forgive them for this and would draw the appropriate conclusions.
He understood a lot and understood people. But he was closed and reserved. He was terribly patient, very careful, disciplined and demanding of himself and others. He was kind, like his father, in the sense that he did not have the ability in his heart to cause unnecessary harm.
At the same time, he was thrifty. One day he was sick, he was served a dish that was shared with the whole family, which he did not eat because he did not like this dish. I was indignant. How can they not prepare a separate meal for a child when he is sick? I said something. He answered me: “Well, here’s another one!” There’s no need to waste money just because of me.”
Favorite Bet. Getting to know military life
According to tradition, grand dukes became chiefs or officers of guard regiments on their birthday. Alexey became the chief of the 12th East Siberian Rifle Regiment, and later other military units and the ataman of all Cossack troops. The Emperor introduced him to Russian military history, the structure of the army and the peculiarities of its life, he organized a detachment of the sons of lower ranks under the leadership of the “uncle” Tsarevich Derevenko and managed to instill in the heir a love of military affairs. Alexey was often present at the reception of deputations and at parades of troops, and during the First World War he visited the active army with his father, awarded distinguished soldiers, and was himself awarded the silver St. George medal of the 4th degree.
On July 20, 1914, the President of the French Republic R. Poincaré presented the heir with the ribbon of the Order of the Legion of Honor. In Petrograd, in the Winter Palace, there were two institutions named after Alexei - a hospital and the Committee of One-Time Benefits for Sick and Wounded Soldiers, and many military hospitals also bore his name.
The Tsarevich spent almost the entire 1916 with his father at the headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief in Mogilev. According to A.A. Mordvinov, the aide-de-camp of Nicholas II, the heir “promised to be not only a good, but also an outstanding monarch.” P. Gilliard recalls: “After the review, the Emperor approached the soldiers and entered into a simple conversation with some of them, asking them about the fierce battles in which they had participated.
Alexey Nikolaevich followed his father step by step, listening with passionate interest to the stories of these people who had seen the proximity of death so many times. His usually expressive and moving face was full of tension from the effort he made not to miss a single word of what they were saying.
The presence of the heir next to the Sovereign aroused the interest of the soldiers, and when he walked away, they could be heard exchanging impressions in a whisper about his age, height, facial expression, etc. But what struck them most was that the Tsarevich was in a simple soldier’s uniform, no different from the one worn by the team of soldiers’ children.”
The English General Hanbury-Williams, with whom the Tsarevich became friends at Headquarters, published after the revolution his memoirs “Emperor Nicholas II as I Knew Him.” About his acquaintance with Alexei, he writes: “When I first saw Alexei Nikolaevich in 1915, he was about eleven years old. Having heard stories about him, I expected to see a very weak and not very bright boy. He was indeed of a frail build, as he was stricken with illness. However, during those periods when the heir was healthy, he was cheerful and mischievous, like any boy of his age...
The Tsarevich wore a protective uniform and high Russian boots, proud of the fact that he looked like a real soldier. He had excellent manners and spoke several languages fluently. Over time, his shyness disappeared, and he began to treat us like old friends.
Every time, greeting, the Tsarevich came up with some joke for each of us. When he approached me, he used to check that all the buttons on my jacket were fastened. Naturally, I tried to leave one or two buttons undone. In this case, the Tsarevich stopped and noticed to me that I was “sloppy again.” Sighing heavily at the sight of such sloppiness on my part, he buttoned up my buttons to restore order.”
After visiting Headquarters, the Tsarevich’s favorite food became “cabbage soup and porridge and black bread, which all my soldiers eat,” as he always said. Every day they brought him sampler of cabbage soup and porridge from the soldiers’ kitchen of the Consolidated Regiment. According to the recollections of those around him, the Tsarevich ate everything and still licked the spoon, beaming with pleasure and saying: “This is delicious - not like our lunch.” Sometimes, without touching anything at the table, he would quietly make his way to the royal kitchen buildings, ask the cooks for a hunk of black bread and secretly share it with his dog.
From Headquarters, the Tsarevich brought an ugly, sand-colored kitten with white spots, which he named Zubrovka and, as a sign of special affection, put a collar with a bell on it. Julia Den writes about the Tsarevich’s new favorite: “Zubrovka was not a particular admirer of palaces. He fought with the bulldog every now and then Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna, whose name was Artipo, and knocked over all the family photographs in Her Majesty’s boudoir onto the floor. But Zubrovka enjoyed the privileges of his position. What happened to him when the Imperial Family was sent to Tobolsk is unknown.”
The newspaper “Kronstadt Bulletin” dated November 7, 1915 published an article entitled “Our Hope”, dedicated to the heir’s stay at Headquarters. It described the days of Alexei: “...After mass, the Emperor, along with the heir and retinue, went home on foot. The smile, look, gait of the young heir, his habit of waving his left hand - all this was reminiscent of the manners of the Emperor, from whom the child adopted them. Despite wartime and frequent trips with his sovereign parent to the fronts, the Tsarevich continued to study...
There is a friendly atmosphere in the classroom where classes with mentors take place. Teachers forgive the child for his habit of leaving his dog, Joy, and cat for lessons. “Kitty” - that’s his name - is present at all his master’s lessons. After class, play burners with friends. He doesn't choose them based on their origin. As a rule, these are the children of commoners. Having learned that their parents need something, the heir often says to the tutor: “I’ll ask dad to help them.” The father and heir go both to and from the temple together. In religion, a child finds clarity of views and simplicity in relationships with all people.”The Sovereign Emperor Nicholas II himself did a lot to instill in his son attention and compassion for people. P. Gilliard describes the following incident: “On the way back, having learned from General Ivanov that there was a forward dressing station nearby, the Emperor decided to go straight there. We drove into a dense forest and soon noticed a small building, dimly lit by the red light of torches. The Emperor, accompanied by Alexei Nikolaevich, entered the house, approached all the wounded and talked to them with great kindness. His sudden visit at such a late hour and so close to the front line caused amazement to be expressed on all faces.
One of the soldiers, who had just been put back to bed after bandaging, looked intently at the Tsar, and when the latter bent over him, he raised his only good hand to touch his clothes and make sure that it was really the Tsar in front of him, and not vision. Alexey Nikolaevich stood slightly behind his father. He was deeply shocked by the groans he heard and the suffering he sensed around him.”
On March 2 (15th Art.), 1917, news was received of the abdication of Nicholas II from the throne for himself and for his son in favor of Mikhail Alexandrovich, the Sovereign’s younger brother. P. Gilliard recalls: “... It was noticeable how she [the Empress] suffered at the thought of how she would have to worry the sick Grand Duchesses by announcing to them the abdication of their father, especially since this excitement could worsen their health. I went to Alexei Nikolaevich and told him that the Emperor was returning tomorrow from Mogilev and would not return there again.
Because your father doesn't want to be commander in chief anymore!
You know, Alexey Nikolaevich, your father doesn’t want to be Emperor anymore.
He looked at me in surprise, trying to read on my face what had happened.
For what? Why?
Because he is very tired and has suffered a lot lately.
Oh yes! Mom told me that when he wanted to go here, his train was delayed. But will dad be Emperor again later?
I explained to him then that the Emperor had abdicated the throne in favor of Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich, who in turn declined.
But then who will be the Emperor?
I don't know, no one yet!..
Not a word about himself, not a hint of his rights as an heir. He blushed deeply and was excited. After several minutes of silence he said:
If there is no longer a Tsar, who will rule Russia?
I explained to him that a Provisional Government had been formed, which would deal with State affairs until the convening of the Constituent Assembly, and that then, perhaps, his uncle Mikhail would ascend the throne. I was once again amazed at the modesty of this child.”
The last lessons of the Sovereign Father
From March 8, 1917, the Royal Family was under arrest in Tsarskoye Selo, and on August 1 they were sent into exile to Tobolsk, where they were imprisoned in the governor’s house. Here the Emperor managed to fulfill his dream of raising his son himself. He gave lessons to the Tsarevich in a gloomy house in Tobolsk. The lessons continued in the poverty and squalor of the Yekaterinburg confinement, where the imperial family was transported in the spring of 1918.
Life of the Royal Family in the house of engineer N.K. Ipatieva was subject to a strict prison regime: isolation from outside world, meager food rations, an hour-long walk, searches, hostility from the guards. While still in Tobolsk, Alexey fell down the stairs and received severe bruises, after which he could not walk for a long time, and in Yekaterinburg his illness worsened greatly.
In a tragic time, the family was united by common prayer, faith, hope and patience. Alexei was always present at the service, sitting in a chair; at the head of his bed hung many icons on a gold chain, which was later stolen by the guards. Being surrounded by enemies, the prisoners turned to spiritual literature and strengthened themselves with the examples of the Savior and St. martyrs, prepared for martyrdom.
Tsarevich Alexei did not live to see his fourteenth birthday for several weeks. On the night of July 17, 1918, he was killed along with his parents and sisters in the basement of the Ipatiev House.
In 1996, the Synodal Commission for the Canonization of Saints, chaired by Metropolitan Juvenaly (Poyarkov) of Krutitsy and Kolomna, found “it possible to raise the question of canonizing... Tsarevich Alexy.” Canonization of St. passion-bearer Tsarevich Alexy took place at the Council of Bishops in August 2000.
There are diseases that most of us know only by hearsay - from school course literature or history. Indeed, the plague and typhus have long been forgotten; leprosy exists somewhere far away in the southern countries. But what about other “historical” diseases, such as hemophilia? Does this disease continue to threaten people? The questions are answered by the head of the Republican and St. Petersburg Center for the Treatment of Hemophilia Patients, Candidate of Medical Sciences, doctor of the highest category, T. A. Andreeva.
— Tatyana Andreevna, speaking about hemophilia, we, of course, first of all remember Tsarevich Alexei...
— In fact, the disease, the main symptom of which is poor blood clotting, was known back in the 4th century: its description is given in the Talmud. Then it received the name “royal”, since royal families in Europe suffered from it. Subsequently, it was noticed that consanguineous marriages in monarchical dynasties, dictated by the struggle for the purity of royal blood, contribute to the disease of hemophilia; as we now understand, the offspring from such marriages were born with more defective genes. It is known that Alice of Hesse, the future Tsarina Alexandra, feared for her offspring, knowing that there were hemophiliacs in her family, and for a long time did not give consent to the future Tsar Nicholas II, despite the strong love between them. Then, while the princesses were being born, she was not very worried, but when Tsarevich Alexei was born, the anxiety of the king and queen knew no bounds. For a month or two they hoped that the heir to the throne would suffer a bitter fate, but, unfortunately, their hopes were not justified.
This played a tragic role in the fate of Russia. It was difficult for the Grand Duchesses to get married: everyone knew that they were carriers of the hemophilia gene, capable of passing it on to their male children. And the boy, Tsarevich Alexey, on whom such great hopes were pinned, was always under the threat of death, because at that time there was no replacement therapy, which now allows our patients to live to a ripe old age. The Tsar and Tsarina turned to everyone who promised help, including Rasputin, who, as they say, “charmed” the boy’s blood and saved him from bleeding. However, even today we do not know a single healed hemophiliac.
- How common is this disease?
“There are 4,000 patients registered in our center—compared to other serious diseases, this is not so much. However, currently the number of patients in the world is growing exponentially. On the one hand, some success has been achieved in the treatment of hemophilia, which is why the life expectancy of patients has increased. On the other hand, the role of sporadic (that is, random, episodic) gene mutations has clearly increased. And although hemophilia is inherited, today it often happens that we cannot trace a relative with this disease in the family. Mutations can be caused by unfavorable environmental conditions, a large number of medications taken by a pregnant woman, thoughtlessly consumed dietary supplements, as well as infections suffered by the mother. The mutated gene can be fixed in further generations and transmitted by inheritance.
— How is hemophilia transmitted?
— Only men suffer from hemophilia, but since the affected gene is contained on chromosome X, a healthy female carrier can also pass it on to the offspring. Here's how it happens.
All men have chromosomes X and Y, and women have two chromosomes X. Therefore, the son of a sick man is not in danger: the boy always receives a Y chromosome from his father. But all daughters will inherit an affected X chromosome from their father. Girls will not get sick because they have a healthy second X chromosome, but they can all transmit this disease to their sons. Whether the son of such a woman will definitely get sick is up to nature to decide (the probability is approximately 50%). The daughter of this woman can pass the hemophilia gene on to her daughter, who can pass it on to her daughter, etc. from generation to generation.
— What is the essence of this disease?
— Externally, hemophilia manifests itself in increased bleeding and low blood clotting. This is due to a violation of the number of platelets in the blood, weak blood vessels and the composition of the blood plasma. So, with hemophilia, both platelets and blood vessels are fine. But in the blood plasma there is a deficiency or even a complete absence of one of the two special proteins involved in the process of blood clotting. Depending on which of these proteins and to what extent is missing, two types of hemophilia are distinguished (A and B), each of which can be expressed in mild, moderate and severe forms. The severe form is the complete absence of the corresponding protein. Modern methods diagnostics make it possible to determine even a mild form of the disease.
— How early can a disease be suspected?
- Usually this is visible already at birth, when a child is born with a tumor-hematoma on the head. Therefore, he may have severe bleeding from the umbilical wound. Usually, in a boy with severe hemophilia, the first manifestations are noticed when he tries to stand up in his crib and hits himself, like all children. But if in ordinary children a bleeding wound, for example in the mouth under the lower lip - the frenulum - heals quickly, then in a sick child this can cause unstoppable bleeding. When the baby begins to walk, the joints become very injured and internal hemorrhage occurs.
In severe hemophilia, the most dangerous thing is internal bleeding into the joints, into the nerve area, into the kidneys, into the digestive tract. Often they occur even without micro-traumas, spontaneously. A man goes to bed, and the next morning he gets up with a huge knee joint swollen from internal hemorrhage.
In moderate forms of hemophilia, internal bleeding is almost entirely dependent on injuries. But the most insidious one is a mild form of the disease, because it may not manifest itself for a long time. Our body has a huge reserve of safety, and for the time being you can live without suspecting that you are sick with such a serious disease. For example, before the first tooth extraction or before some other micro-operation. But if hemophilia first appears during a serious surgical intervention already on the operating table, then this can turn into a disaster. Operations for such patients are possible only against the background of replacement therapy.
Therefore, if you are unable to stop the bleeding for a long time, this is a reason to immediately contact a specialist.
— What does a mother need to know in order to detect this disease early?
- If a baby is under 6-7 months of age, for example, when swaddling, bruises appear on the skin on soft tissues, which are completely unrelated to any injury; if the baby has not stopped bleeding from a wound in the mouth for five or more days; if the child has walked and there are swellings on his ankle that are hot to the touch (internal hemorrhages), and the child cannot stand; If you experience prolonged nosebleeds of unknown origin, contact our center for diagnosis. The same can be said for mothers who have daughters at the age when menstruation begins. If the bleeding does not stop for a week or more, contact a gynecologist, endocrinologist, rule out pathology in these areas, and then go to a hemophilia center for a diagnosis. Monitor your hemoglobin. In certain cases, with low hemoglobin, it is also necessary to contact a hematologist for diagnosis.
— Hemophilia affects only men. Do women suffer from something similar?
- Yes, there is von Willebrandt disease - it is also genetic, associated with reduced blood clotting, and both men and women suffer from it. On average, every hundred people get sick. But often women do not pay attention to its manifestations for a long time, for example, heavy and too long monthly bleeding. But this leads to low hemoglobin, that is, iron deficiency anemia occurs! It’s sad that some gynecologists say: nothing, it’s “due to age.” There is nothing “by age”; hemoglobin norms are the same for any age.
The same applies to nosebleeds, bleeding gums, etc. Thus, if the gynecologist, ENT, or dentist does not find any pathologies, then we conduct special tests to identify genetic diseases of blood clotting.
— What does the treatment consist of?
— This is replacement therapy, similar to that used for diabetes. By taking certain medications, bringing the level of proteins involved in blood clotting to normal, the patient can live ordinary life. Thanks to new laws on providing patients with medications, their situation has improved incomparably. Now we can provide our patients with sufficient medications. If you carry out preventive therapy, you can live a full life, travel, play the sport you want. Moreover, the disease does not progress with age, unlike, for example, diabetes mellitus.
— What should hemophilia patients protect themselves from?
- Alcohol should be avoided or limited because it reduces the control needed to exercise caution to avoid unexpected injuries. Of course, you need maximum caution at work and at home. But besides this, patients need to know that they should not take any medications containing aspirin. But these same drugs are contraindicated for people who simply suffer from increased bleeding gums, and for those who have prolonged nasal or uterine bleeding. Chimes and valtoren are also dangerous, and even when taking ortho-phen, it is better to consult a medical specialist.
— Special nutrition for hemophiliacs is not required. Nutrition should be complete and balanced: include the required amount of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. In addition, our patients must have sufficient muscle mass, this is important when receiving sudden microtraumas, in order to somehow protect fragile bone tissue.
For von Willebrandt disease, for thrombocytopathy (when the quality of platelets is impaired), and especially for people suffering from nasal and uterine bleeding, infusions of nettle, yarrow and other hemostatic herbs are recommended. Unfortunately, for patients with hemophilia, these herbs do not play a significant role.
Seasonal vitamin supplementation is very useful - as many fresh vegetables and fruits as possible in summer and autumn. During the rest of the year, infusions of rosehip (alternating with other vitamin mixtures) and herbs that stimulate vital activity are good. In addition, hemophiliac patients need gymnastics to strengthen ligaments and joints, any feasible exercises - just like the rest of us.
Interviewed by Alexander Volt
Chapter 1
What illnesses did the Romanov Tsars suffer from and how were they treated?
The treatment of the Romanov kings followed the same rules as the treatment of their predecessors on the Moscow throne. Although the Pharmacy Order already had many doctors at its disposal, the king usually tried first, and the queen and her children always tried to be treated with home remedies, and doctors were called only when they had to go to bed and the disease was mostly already determined. In particular, the female half of the royal palace fenced off in every possible way from rational Western medicine and its representatives. Doctors were called to the queens and princesses only in the most extreme cases, and even then they did not see the patient herself, but listened and asked the mothers of the boyars and gave advice to special grandmothers - doctors. The queen also had a special midwife. Gradually, the influence of time opened the doors of the Tsarina's chambers. Already under Mikhail Fedorovich, they became available to foreign doctors, especially for their favorite therapeutic action - “throwing blood”. It is known, for example, that Tsarina Evdokia Lukyanovna (the second wife of Mikhail Fedorovich) in important cases “opened the veins” with the help of German doctors. However, under Tsarina Marya Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya (the first wife of Alexei Mikhailovich), the doctor could not yet see his patients - the windows were tightly curtained, the patient’s hand was wrapped in muslin so that the doctor could not touch the body. But on February 18, 1676, the Tsar and Grand Duke Fyodor Alekseevich instructed the “doctor” Stepan Fungadin to “go to the mansions of the blessed Empress Tsarina and Grand Duchess Natalia Kirillovna.” In general, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina (the second wife of Alexei Mikhailovich, mother of Peter I) was, according to modern terminology, an “advanced” patient: she was the first to let the doctor “into her eyes” when she was ill, but even then most often these were “narrow” specialists , such as, for example, Ivashka Gubin - “guttural master”.
Under Fyodor Alekseevich, consultations were in vogue. In this case, particular importance was attached to agreement between doctors. Thus, a document has been preserved about the participation in the examination of Alexei Mikhailovich by doctors Yagan Rozenburkh, Stefan Fungadin and Lavrenty Blumentrost, Simon Zomer and the pharmacist Krestyan Engler, which stated that “there is no disagreement or friendship between them and they have love among themselves.”
The participation of doctors in the treatment of the kings was purely advisory: “they looked at the water and spoke,” and what they saw and decided was entered into a special protocol of the Pharmacy Order. The pharmacy boyar supervised the preparation and administration of medicines and the course of the illness itself. How this happened in practice can be seen from the interrogation of the Romanov boyar A.S. Matveev, who, thanks to the machinations of the Miloslavsky family, was removed from the management of the royal pharmacy. The Duma nobleman Sokovnin and the Duma clerk Semyonov took from Matveev a “fairy tale” about how medicines were prepared and presented to the sick Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. Matveev testified that the medicines were prepared by doctors Costerius and Stefan Simon according to a prescription, and the recipes were kept in the Pharmacy Chamber. Every medicine was first tasted by the doctor, then he, Matveev, and after him the sovereign’s uncles, the boyars Fyodor Fedorovich Kurakin and Ivan Bogdanovich Khitrovo, and after taking the medicine, he, Matveev, finished the medicine again, in the eyes of the sovereign. L.F. Zmeev describes an incident that occurred under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. Doctor Rosenburg prescribed medicine for the queen. The pharmacist did not prepare it exactly. The boyar, who tasted the medicine, felt sick. Then they forced Rosenburg himself to drink all the medicine at once. “All these are features of terrible universal superstition and fear of poisons,” writes L.F. Zmeev - characteristic of that era. If the culprit served at court, then this, in addition, was seen as laesio majestatis (state harm. - B.N.) and the punishment increased greatly."
But there were also completely objective ways of causing harm to the royal family. Since over time the circle of patients among the doctors of the Apothecary Prikaz expanded and they also treated, at the royal command, nobles, foreign guests, boyars and military men, there was a real danger of introducing “infection” into the royal chambers. Therefore, if any of the doctors accidentally visited a “clingy” patient, he was obliged, after notifying the sovereign, to sit at home until the royal permission. This measure did not only apply to doctors. On June 8, 1680, a strict royal decree was issued, prohibiting anyone from coming to the palace, especially the Bed Porch, or from houses in which they were sick with “fire pain or fever and smallpox or other serious illnesses.”
The Romanov tsars, generally speaking, were not distinguished by good health. In this regard, L.Ya. Skorokhodov expressed the paradoxical idea that the poor physical health of the Russian tsars had a positive impact on the flourishing of medicine and medicine at the Moscow court in the 17th century.
The first tsar from the house of Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich (1596–1645), was crowned king on July 11, 1613, at less than seventeen years old. Gentle in disposition, weak physically and spiritually, he was so sickly that, in his own words, “his legs were so painful that at the age of just over thirty he was carried to and from the cart in chairs.”
In 1643, the king fell ill with erysipelas. He was treated by doctors Artman Graman, Johann (Yagan) Belau and Willim Kramer. Before the tsar had time to recover from his erysipelas, on July 6, 1643, he fell ill with a sore throat (“toad”). He was treated by the same doctors - Graman and Belau. In April 1645, shocked partly by family troubles, partly by alarming rumors about a new impostor - the son of Marina Mnishek, the tsar fell ill again. Doctors Graman, Belau and Wendelinus Sibelist, who arrived in Russia in 1643 instead of Artemy Diy, gathered at the patient’s bedside. The doctors “looked at the water” (urine) and found that “the stomach, liver and spleen, due to the mucus accumulated in them, are deprived of natural warmth and that is why the blood gradually becomes watery and cold occurs.” It was decided to treat the sovereign with “cleaning agents.” He was given a compound Rhine wine with various roots and herbs, moderation in food and drink was prescribed, and he was forbidden to dine and drink “cold and sour drinks.” However, the treatment did not help. The king gradually became exhausted. At the end of May, the doctors again “looked at the water,” and she turned out to be pale, because “the stomach, liver and spleen are powerless from a lot of sitting, from cold drinks and from melancholy, that is, sadness.” The king was again ordered to give cleansing compounds and smear the stomach with balm. On July 12, 1645, the day of his angel, the king went to matins, but apparently his strength had already left him, and he had a seizure in the church. The sick man was carried into the mansion in his arms, and on the same day the illness intensified. The king began to moan and complain that “his insides were tormented.” At the beginning of three o'clock in the morning, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich died. According to F.L. Herman, the disease that brought the king to the grave was kidney damage.
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1629–1676), who ascended the throne just like his father at the age of sixteen, also did not have good health, and therefore repeatedly resorted to bloodletting. At the same time, the doctors, ore thrower and translator were given special awards each time. Bloodletting was also done to Tsarina Marya Ilyinichna. They say that one day, having opened his blood and feeling relief, the king suggested doing the same to his courtiers. Everyone, willy-nilly, agreed, except for the Tsar’s maternal relative Rodion Streshnev, who refused this procedure under the pretext of age. Alexey Mikhailovich flared up: “Is your blood more valuable than mine? What, do you think you’re better than everyone else?” And here the matter did not end with words, but when the anger passed, rich gifts were sent to Streshnev from the palace so that he would forget the royal beatings.
In January 1675, the tsar, who was obese and sometimes suffered from stomach problems, fell ill. He was treated by Dr. Samoilo Collins. In January 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich felt a loss of strength and on January 29 at 9 pm he died at the age of 47.
Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich (1661–1682), who inherited the throne at the age of fifteen, was so weak in health, his legs were so swollen that he could not even walk behind his father’s coffin - he was carried on a stretcher. He was treated by doctors Johann Rosenburg, Stefan Fungadanov (von Gaden), Lavrenty Blumentrost, Sommer, and pharmacist Christian Engler. Most often - Sommer, Gutmensch and von Gaden. The king was sick all the time. He died on April 27, 1682, at the age of 21. Such an early death of the king gave rise to rumors of poisoning, the victims of which were doctors Gaden and Gutmensch.
Stefan (Daniel) von Gaden came from Polish Jews. From the Jewish faith he switched to the Catholic faith, from it to the Lutheran faith, and finally accepted the Greek faith. In this regard, he had different nicknames: Danila Zhidovin, Danila Ievlevich, Danila Ilyin. He was sent to Moscow from Kyiv in 1657 by boyar Vasily Vasilyevich Buturlin. He began his royal service at the lowest level - as a barber. He was soon promoted to the rank of doctor, in 1667 - subdoctor, and in 1672 Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich promoted him to doctor of medicine, despite the fact that Gaden did not have the opportunity to systematically study medical sciences at foreign universities. A historical precedent of this kind was created by Boris Godunov, who awarded the doctorate to the doctor Christopher Rietlinger, who did not have a corresponding diploma, who arrived in Russia in 1601 in the retinue of the English ambassador Richard Lee. In 1676, as before von Gaden, by royal decree, as a reward for the successful treatment of the often ill Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the physician (medicine) Sigismund (Simon) Sommer was promoted to doctor.
In the letter issued to Gaden, it was said that he “is quite skilled in doctoral and all medicinal teachings and is worthy of the doctor’s honor and is a person in need in everything.” He was one of the doctors closest to the tsar, which played a tragic role during the Streltsy riot on May 15, 1682.
Here is what the Polish diplomatic resident P. Swiderski wrote about this:
“The cause of the death of the Tsar of Muscovy Fyodor Alekseevich was an equally good attitude towards both the Poles and the Catholic faith, while the boyars warned him in vain and did not like it and finally decided to eliminate him secretly, persuading the doctor to shorten his life with poison and kill the king from the world. The duma boyars persuaded Danilo Zhida, the royal doctor, to betray the king and give him poison. poison, went up to the king and said: “Righteous sovereign. Your Majesty the right half, and I, your servant, the left.” So saying, he cut it in half and gave the king the right half, smeared with poison from the knife, and he ate the healthy half.
The rebel archers, confident that the king had been poisoned, searched in vain for Gaden. On the night of May 16, his wife was arrested as a hostage. At two o'clock in the afternoon on May 16, a message came that the son of Dr. Danila Mikhail, a young man of 22 years old, had been found. They caught him in disguise on the street (since no one could let him into their house, he was hiding in taverns). The Sagittarius asked him where his father might be, but he did not know it, so (?) they killed him. The execution took place at Lobnoye Mesto. Doctor Gaden was found the next night. They wanted to kill his wife instead, but Marfa Matveevna, the wife of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, begged her to spare. The next morning, Wednesday May 17, at dawn a message arrived from the German settlement that Dr. Danila had come there the previous night in the dress of a beggar, who had been hiding for two days and two nights in Maryina Roshcha and other nearby places. He thought of asking his friends in the settlement for sugar to eat, since he was very hungry, but was detained on the street by some of them, who had great friendship with the archers. The request for the doctor from the younger queen and princesses was not successful, since at Gaden’s house they found a “sea fish with many legs,” which the archers took for a witchcraft remedy (in fact, it was an ordinary crab. - B.N.). Gaden was tortured and confessed to many things. He was forced for three hours because he wanted to give information about those who deserved death more than him. The archers tortured him themselves, one of them recorded everything that the doctor said under torture, but these people, perhaps tired and enraged, tore up the protocol, saying that it would take a long time, immediately took him to the market and killed him. Other sources call the place of death of the doctor Spassky Bridge near Lobnoye Mesto.”
The writer A. Sumarokov describes these tragic events somewhat differently: “On the same day, they, the archers, caught the German physician Danilo von Gaden in the clothes of the German baptized Jewish breed in the German settlement and took another German, Gutmensh the physician, in his house on Pogany Pond, called after Chistye Pond, and his son Gutmenshev (?). And these innocent foreigner doctors because they poisoned Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, and Gutmenshev’s son because he was the son of a doctor they hated, were brought to Red Square, raised on spears, then chopped into small pieces.”
Tsar Ivan Alekseevich (1666–1696), the younger brother of Fyodor Alekseevich, being a very sickly man, lived only thirty years. Nevertheless, he left behind numerous offspring. His daughter Anna Ioannovna became the Russian empress, and his great-grandson Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI) became the emperor, who, however, practically did not reign, but spent his entire life imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, where he was killed during an unsuccessful attempt to free him at the age of 24 .
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