Classification of observation method. Methods of sociological research Features of observation
Observation as a method of sociological research has long been used in sociology as an important source of social information. Observation in social research is a method of collecting primary social information about the object under study through direct perception of the object being studied, recording all factors influencing the object of study in the context of the goals and objectives of the study.
A specific feature of observation is the inextricable connection between the subject of observation (observer) and the object of observation. The researcher observes society, social processes and phenomena, being at the same time an element of this society, inextricably linked with it and subject to all the influences and changes to which society as a whole is exposed. Therefore, the interpretation of observed phenomena directly depends on the observer’s perception of social reality, understanding of social processes, situations, and actions of individuals. The observer's social worldview is necessarily influenced by the researcher's worldview.
Objectivity social research using the observation method is not to exclude a personal attitude towards the object of research, but not to replace the criteria with emotional, moral and other values scientific research. Another feature of observation in social research is that the emotional perception of the object of study by the observer leaves an imprint on the interpretation of the social phenomenon. This feature should be taken into account as a possible source of distortion and errors.
The next characteristic feature of observation is the difficulty of repeated observation. Repeated observation of even everyday social factors is difficult, because social processes are influenced by a huge number of different factors and are therefore rarely identical.
The difficulties of using observation as a method of collecting primary social information are a consequence of its characteristics. They are divided into subjective(related to the personality of the observer) and objective(independent of the observer).
TO subjective difficulties include the influence of the emotional perception of the object of study from the position of the personal value system on the process of interpretation of the object under study. TO objective Difficulties include limited observation time and the inability to observe a number of social factors.
The process of observation, like any perception, is the result of the addition of sensations at the moment and already accumulated experience: everything that the observer perceives, he correlates with the information that he already has, therefore, observation and conclusion are practically inseparable. Observation can be used when the information needed by the researcher cannot be obtained by other means. Observation in social research can be aimed at achieving various goals. Observation can be used as a source of information to build hypotheses. Observation can serve to verify data obtained by other methods. Using observation, you can extract additional data about the object being studied. Observation is always subordinated to the general purpose of the study, which determines the scope of observation and makes observation selective.
Planning for observation involves determining the terms of observation and the scope of activity. Let us highlight several stages of observation:
Establishing the object and subject of observation, defining the goal, setting research objectives.
Ensuring access to the environment: obtaining appropriate permits, making contacts with people, etc.
Preparation of technical documents and equipment (replication of cards, protocols, instructions, preparation of technical equipment, writing instruments, etc.).
Conducting observations, collecting data, accumulating information.
Recording of observation results, performed in the form:
· short-term observation recording,
· observation protocol,
· observation diary,
· video, photo, film, sound recording of surveillance.
Surveillance control, which can be carried out in various ways:
Conducting a conversation with the participants in the situation,
· access to documents related to this event,
· checking the results of one’s own observation by an independent researcher,
· sending observation reports to other researchers for the purpose of conducting similar observations (or, if possible, repeated observations).
7. Observation report containing:
· thorough documentation of the time, place and circumstances of the observation made,
information about the role of the observer in the team, the method of observation,
· characteristics of the observed persons,
· detailed description of the observed facts,
· observer's own notes and interpretations.
When drawing up an observation program, a number of rules must be observed that affect the quality of the information received:
· the division of the object of observation into its component elements must be logical, correspond to the organic nature of the object and allow the reconstruction of the whole from parts;
· the dissection should be carried out in terms adequate to the topics with which the researcher intends to operate when analyzing the information obtained during observation;
· units of observation must be interpreted unambiguously; ambiguous interpretation is not allowed.
As a method of collecting primary social information, observation can be classified according to the degree of formalization of the procedure, according to the position of the observer, according to the conditions of the organization and frequency of implementation.
According to the degree of formalization observation is divided into unstructured and structured.
IN unstructured(uncontrolled) observation, the researcher does not have a specific observation plan, only the object of research is designated. IN structured(controlled) observation, the researcher determines the subject of the study in advance, draws up a plan for conducting observation and recording information.
Depending on the degree of observer participation in the social situation under study there are included (participating) and not included (not participating) observation.
At not included(external) observation, the researcher (observer) is outside the object being studied, recording the progress of events. Conducting included(participant) observation, the researcher is directly involved in the process being studied, is in contact with the people being observed, and takes part in their activities.
According to the venue and conditions of the organization observations are divided into field and laboratory.
Field The research is carried out in a natural setting, in a real life situation, in direct contact with the object being studied. Laboratory observation is an observation where the environmental conditions, the observed situation, are determined by the researcher.
According to the regularity can be distinguished systematic and random observations.
Systematic observation is characterized primarily by the regularity of recording actions, situations, processes over a certain period of time. TO random observation refers to the observation of a pre-planned phenomenon, activity, or social situation.
Observation as a method of social research contributes to obtaining primary social information. The main advantage of direct observation is that it allows you to record various changes in the social object being studied at the moment of its appearance, in natural conditions, and to see hidden processes.
Observation method in sociological research
Observation in sociology, it is a method of purposeful, systematic, and fixed in a certain way perception of the object being studied.
It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and everyday observation.
The most characteristic features of scientific observation as a method of collecting primary social information are purposefulness and planning. This means that scientific observation, firstly, is subject to certain practical or theoretical goals and, secondly, it is carried out according to a pre-thought-out plan, according to a pre-developed program. The systematic nature of observation and its implementation according to a pre-prepared program assume that the results of observation are recorded in a certain way and can be monitored for validity and stability.
In addition, a number of specific observation features are noted. According to the authors of The Sociologist's Workbook, there are three such features.FirstThe peculiarity is the specificity of the connection between the observer and the object of observation. This specificity lies in the fact that knowledge of social reality is always associated with the personal positions of the scientist, with his value orientation.
SecondThe peculiarity of observation in sociology is expressed in the emotionality of the sociologist’s perception of the object of observation.
Thirdpeculiarity is the difficulty of repeated observation. This is due to the fact that any objects of sociological observation are always exposed to a large number of different factors.
In the process of applying the observation method, the sociologist faces a number of difficulties. First of all, these are difficulties of a subjective nature. The fact is that an observer can interpret observed phenomena and processes through the prism of his own views. Among the objective difficulties, it is necessary to highlight, firstly, the fact that not all social facts are amenable to scientific observation, and, secondly, the limited time of all observed facts.
The practice of sociological research shows that most often observation acts as an auxiliary method of collecting sociological information. This is due to the fact that observation is used when it is necessary to deepen knowledge about the research problem, when it is impossible to collect information completely enough by other methods.
As noted above, the characteristic features of scientific observation are its focus and systematic nature, which predetermines the need for an observation program. The observation program includes the following stages:
1. Determination of the purpose and objectives of observation. For example, the purpose of observation is to identify the degree of independent physical culture and sports activity of mature-aged people in the microdistrict. Objectives: a) determine the number of athletes on the sports grounds of the microdistrict; b) determine the number of days of classes per week; determine the average time of one lesson.
2. Selection of the type of observation that best suits the objectives of observation.
3. Selection of object and subject of observation. In our case, the object of observation is middle-aged people. The subject of observation is the level of physical education and sports activity.
4. Selecting a method for registering the observed object.
5. Processing and interpretation of the information received, writing a report.
Types of surveillance
Observations in sociology can be classified according to various signs: according to the degree of formalization of the procedure, according to the position of the observer, according to the conditions of the organization, according to the regularity of the procedure.
By degree of formalizationobservations are divided into structuralized and non-structuralized. The first is carried out according to a pre-developed plan, when the sociologist is well acquainted with the subject of the study. Non-structuralized observation is a type of observation in which only the object of observation is defined. It is used to identify a problem situation and obtain more specific information about the object of study.
By observer positionobservations are divided into included and non-included. Participant observation is a type of observation in which the sociologist, to one degree or another, is directly “involved” in the object being studied, is in direct contact with the observed and participates with them in the same field of activity, for example, engages in physical exercises in the observed physical education center. health group. Non-participant observation is a type of observation in which a sociologist observes an object from the outside, for example, individual classes from the stands of a stadium.
By venue and conditions of the organizationObservations are divided into field and laboratory.
Field observation is carried out in a natural setting, in real life conditions. Laboratory is an observation in which the object of study is in artificially created conditions.
In the field of physical education, in the first case, an example would be classes at the place of residence in the yard. In the other - classes in a specially equipped gym.
By regularityobservations are divided into systematic and random. The main characteristic of systematic observations is the regularity of recording actions over a certain period of time (for the period of the training cycle, the effectiveness of the team’s attacking actions is determined, for example, in football). During random observations, previously unplanned actions and situations are studied.
Observation is one of the most interesting methods of collecting primary sociological information. Its most important advantage is the direct observation of the object being studied, which is often indispensable in the initial stages of research. This helps the researcher clarify the problem, more clearly define the object and subject of research, and allows the formulation of hypotheses.
1. Select a research question, formulate goals, objectives, hypotheses to be verified. Next, search for completed studies that have data adequate for new tasks that were not subjected to appropriate analysis in the primary study.
2. Expansion and deepening of the information field based on the use of primary sociological information. Organizing data, editing data, presenting reviewed data material in the form of tables.
3. Rationale for the secondary analysis study sample.
4. Comparability of the results of the secondary analysis with the results obtained earlier in the study ( verification). Not only the conclusions are subject to verification, but also the methods for obtaining the results, since they are responsible for the accuracy of the research.
5. Coding of data - transformation of source data and their additional statistical processing in accordance with the requirements of cognitive, target and methodological settings other than those of the original study using the methods of mathematical operations; carrying out classification (ranking, grouping), typology, statistical analysis (dispersion, factor, cluster, determinant).
7. Analysis and synthesis of data is carried out using manual and computer processing methods. Both descriptive and analytical methods are used for processing.
3.4. Observation method
In sociological research observation– this is a directed, systematic, direct, visual perception and registration of social phenomena (processes) that are significant from the point of view of the purposes of the study, subject to control and verification. The observation method can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.
Scientific sociological observation, in contrast to everyday observation, must have the following features: a) direction to achieve a specific goal; scientific observation is subject to a clear research goal and clearly formulated tasks; b) planning – planned according to a predetermined procedure; c) systematic– all observation data are recorded in protocols, diaries, cards; d) the presence of control elements– information obtained through observation must be controllable for validity and stability.
Peculiarities sociological observation: simultaneity of an event and its observation; connection between the observer and the object of observation. A sociologist, observing society (social processes), is at the same time part of this society. This leaves an imprint on his perception of social reality and interpretation. The observer's perception is influenced by many factors: the researcher's worldview, his professionalism, objectivity, personal qualities; the emotional perception of a social phenomenon by an observer can influence the results of the study and distort the data.
Advantages: contributes to obtaining valuable information about the actual event and people’s behavior; allows you to record changes in a social object or the emergence of a new event; the observer has the opportunity to understand the meaning and logic of an event, situation, and therefore the behavior of people; flexibility of the method.
Restrictions: locality of the observed phenomena, complexity, and sometimes impossibility of repeated observation; subjectivity, distortion, observer errors in assessing the situation due to the influence of the emotional state, the observer’s attitude to the observed object, sociocultural distance; subjectivity of the researcher, laboriousness of the procedure; the possibilities of obtaining data on the goals and motives of people’s behavior are limited.
Areas of use: at the preparatory stage of any research, where the goal is a preliminary familiarization with the problem and range of tasks; in a monographic, qualitative study, when there is no requirement for representativeness; in the study of the described plan, to verify assumptions about the object.
When using the quantitative approach methodology, observation as a method of collecting primary data either leads to hypotheses and serves as the basis for a mass survey, or is used at the final stage of mass surveys to clarify and interpret the main findings.
In qualitative research, the observation method is the main tool for recording and interpreting data. In this strategy, the observer is actively involved in the course of the events being studied and interacts with the observed. Observation is the research methodology here.
Types of observation. Observations can be classified on various grounds.
According to the degree of formalization Observations can be structured or unstructured. Structured observation- a type in which the researcher has sufficient information about the object of research and determines in advance the significant elements of the situation being studied, draws up a detailed form for recording the results of the observation, instructions for filling it out . Unstructured observation– a type of information collection in which the elements of the process to be studied are not determined in advance. It is used in the absence of clear hypotheses and a detailed action plan for the observer.
By order distinguish between random and systematic. Random observation - observation of an unplanned phenomenon or event . Systematic observation– a type of observation that is carried out regularly over a certain period.
According to the terms of the organization: field and laboratory. Field observation– a type of information collection carried out in natural conditions observed, in a real life situation. Laboratory observation– a type of collection of sociological information carried out in conditions artificially created for the observed group and controlled by the researcher.
Depending on the observer's position: included and not included. Participant observation- observation in which the observer, to one degree or another, is directly involved in the process being studied, is in contact with the individuals and groups being studied and participates with them in a certain field of activity.
There are the following types of observer inclusion: 1) full member(the goals and status of the researcher remain a secret to everyone else, so this situation is often called a situation of covert observation); 2) participant as observer(characterized by the inclusion of the observer in the group, but it is assumed that his role as a researcher is clear to all participants.); 3) observer as participant(means that the observer is, first of all, a researcher and, interacting with participants in the social process, does not pretend to be an actual participant; 4) full observer(the researcher performs only the function of an observer, without interacting with the participants in the situation, remaining outside their field of vision. Here, a situation using a hidden camera or a socio-psychological experiment with a hidden observer is possible.
One of the modifications of participant observation is the so-called stimulating or " observing participation" during which the researcher creates some experimental setting in order to better identify the states of the object, which are “invisible” in a normal situation.
Advantages participant observation: it allows you to consider the phenomenon under study as if from the inside, gives the most vivid, direct impressions of the environment, and helps to better understand the actions of people. But there is also a fundamental limitation of the method. The logic of circumstances often prompts the observer to look at what is happening through the eyes of his eyewitnesses, as a result of which there is a danger that the observer will lose an active, objective approach to the process being studied. Long-term immersion in the life of the object under study forms attachments, likes and dislikes, which leads to the subjectivism of the observer, unconscious filtering of events, etc. Some ethical issues also arise.
Non-participant observation- this type, when the observer is outside the society being studied and studies the ongoing processes from the outside, without interfering in their course, without asking any questions - simply recording the events taking place.
Before starting direct observation, the researcher must first study the object and situation and formulate a general concept of the observation process.
Observation object: individuals, various communities, group, collective, methods of their activities. Subject of observation: signs, properties, factors of activity of the observed object, individual situations in which the studied individuals and social communities find themselves.
Observed situations: a set of external conditions in the presence of which an object is subject to observation. An important quality of the observed situation is that it empirically represents the problem situation of the study.
Units of observation: accessible, simple or complex, acts of action of the object of observation (the stage of changes occurring with the object).
Categories of observation: empirical signs of an object recorded during observation. IN standardized observations they are expressed by certain indicators. Observation categories can be descriptive or evaluative. Signs of observation reflect particularly significant aspects of the object. Each feature characterizes the features of the problem situation and expresses the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the object. The identification of observed situations, units, and categories of observation constitutes the content of the procedure for operationalizing concepts in this method.
Observation stages: establishing the object and subject of observation; defining its goals and objectives; obtaining appropriate decisions, establishing contacts; choosing the method and type of observation, determining the basic procedures; preparation of technical means and documents; collection of information (direct observation), accumulation of information; recording results; control of observation by other sociological data; observation report.
Clear and correct registration of observed phenomena and processes is essential. The main requirement for recording data is that the recording be made at the observation site and at the time of the observed event.
Instrumentation of the method are:
· observation diary– a methodological document where a) the progress of the observation is recorded in a coded or generally understandable form; b) observation results; c) actions of the observer; d) evaluation of tools and procedures; e) reaction of those observed, etc.;
· observer card, a methodological document intended for recording units of observation in a strictly formalized and coded form;
· observation protocol– a methodological document summarizing the data of all cards and containing methodological information about the observation procedure;
· audiovisual technical means fixation of observation units.
Verification of observation data is carried out by monitoring the results obtained by other observers (if possible, observation is carried out simultaneously by several observers); control by other methods of collecting information (survey, document analysis, etc.); requests for re-observation.
The use of the observation method places high demands on the personality of the observer. Its level is of great importance professional competence, the ability to come into contact with observed individuals and groups, attentiveness, the ability to control one’s actions, etc. It is mandatory to train the persons who will carry out the observation: conduct detailed instructions: what criteria will be used to select events, what and how to record, conduct special trainings.
3.5. Social experiment
Social experiment is a method of collecting information about changes in the performance indicators of a social object as a result of the influence of specified and controllable factors (variables) on it.
The experiment was originally used in natural science. The idea of the possibility of using experiment in the study of society was first expressed by P. Laplace (1749-1827). O. Comte (1798-1857) considered it one of the main methods for studying society. Only in the 20s. XX century the social experiment became widespread.
Main purpose experiment in sociological research: identifying information about cause-and-effect relationships between the phenomena under study, their properties, in achieving new, more accurate knowledge about the patterns and trends of social processes; on its basis they provide an explanation of connections, relationships, processes; involves the use of a number of other methods (observation, survey, document analysis). Social experiment is used for research purposes (check scientific hypothesis) and in achieving effect in practical transformative activities.
The main features of a social experiment are: active intervention of the researcher in the system of the phenomena being studied; systematic introduction of a relatively isolated experimental factor, its variation, possible combination with other factors; systematic control over all significant determining factors; the effects of changes in dependent variables must be measured and unambiguously reduced to the influence of independent variables (experimental factor).
Requirements to conduct an experiment: compliance of the tasks to be solved with the criteria of social progress, legal and moral norms; limiting the degree of risk; clear focus on research hypotheses; maintaining the normal functioning and development of the facility; not all aspects of people's lives in certain social situations can be subjected to experimental actions.
Features of the experiment: a) dependence on the action of the experimental factor; b) dependence on the experimenter’s settings; c) the experimental situation is under control; d) dependence not only on the experimental, but also on other factors, including the reactions of the participants.
Advantages: a) it is possible to establish a causal relationship between individual facts and give not only a description, but also an explanation; b) the information received is specific in nature; c) the ability to reproduce the experiment; d) the results can be transferred into practice; e) participants in the experiment can provide assistance in organizing experimental procedures and identifying changes that have arisen.
Restrictions: a) an experimental factor can disrupt natural connections both inside and outside the object, as well as remove it from its normal state; b) subjectivity of perception, incorrect methodological settings can lead to a distortion of the essence of what is happening; c) insignificant factors can be interpreted as causes; d) the artificial nature of the experimental situation reduces the possibility of generalizing conclusions; e) the effect of “exclusivity” of participants may be a decisive factor in the results of the experiment.
Types of social experiment. There is a wide variety of social experiments.
Depending on the object and subject of research: economic, pedagogical, sociological, psychological, legal, etc.
According to the nature of the experimental situation: field, laboratory, controlled, uncontrolled.
According to the nature of the situation: real (natural) - involves the intervention of the experimenter in the natural course of events; mental is the manipulation of information about real objects without interfering with the actual course of events (on a mathematical model, “ex-post facto” experiments).
By the nature of the logical structure of the proof of hypotheses: differentiate parallel And consistent experiments. In a parallel experiment, two groups are distinguished: an experimental group, which is exposed to certain conditions (factors) and a control group, which is not subject to this influence.
According to the specifics of the factors used(independent variables): single-factor and multi-factor.
By nature of tasks experiments are divided into research, aimed at achieving new knowledge, in which a hypothesis is tested, containing new information of a scientific nature that has not found sufficient evidence; scientific and practical – aimed at introducing new social technologies, achieving and testing innovations.
Structure social experiment can be presented as follows:
§ an experimenter is usually a researcher or group of researchers who designs and conducts an experiment;
§ experimental factor (independent variable);
§ the experimental situation is created in accordance with the research program for conducting the experiment;
§ experimental object.
Object experiment are a social group, a team (experiment participants). There are often two types of objects: experimental and control groups.
Experimental group– the one that is influenced by the experimental factor (independent variable). In addition to the general requirement for choosing an object (representativeness in the class of objects under study), the experimental group is required to have relative stability of the composition for the period of the experiment and the ability to conduct systematic controlled observation. In some cases, the consent of the group to participate in the experiment is required.
Control group is identical to the experimental one in the given parameters, but is not influenced by the experimental factor (independent variable). In the presence of a control group, the purity of the social experiment increases due to the fact that the influence of side parameters in to the same degree probably in both the experimental and control groups. There are various methods for selecting experimental and control groups: random selection, pairwise selection, etc.
Variables in the experiment– these are controlled and uncontrollable factors that have a direct or indirect impact on the state of the object being studied. The main ones are the independent and dependent variables.
Independent variable– this is a factor that will influence the experimental group. This variable is often called experimental factor. It must be determined in full accordance with the research program (hypotheses that are submitted for testing), be relatively independent, stable, significant, influencing the state of the object, manageable, controllable, and amenable to sociological measurements.
Dependent Variable– a factor that changes under the influence of an independent variable. Establishing the relationship between these variables is the subject of any experiment.
Control involves monitoring an object, accurately recording variables and their states, regulating processes in order to maintain given parameters state of the object. This is one of the leading procedures at all stages of the experiment.
Stages and procedures social experiment:
1. Preparatory stage: formulation of the problem, setting goals and objectives. Justification of the need for the experiment: identification and description of the object, modeling of its actions in a system of variables; identifying independent, dependent and other variables; choosing the type of experiment, determining the general conditions of the experimental situation; selection of experimental and control groups; design of tools for collecting and recording information.
2. Operational (experimental) stage: briefing of experiment participants (if their information is provided for by the program); measurement of variables (pre-test); introduction of an experimental factor (independent variable) and subsequent control of its effect in accordance with the program; observation and control, registration of variables in the protocol, cards, questionnaires, tests for the experimental and control groups; measurement of dependent variables (post-test).
3. Resulting stage: collection of accounting documents, their verification; translation into computer media or manual processing; statistical processing; confirmation or refutation of hypotheses; highlighting the main and secondary results of the experiment, conclusions; assessing the effectiveness of the method, identifying errors, innovations, comparison with data obtained by other methods; development of recommendations; compilation of a report.
Toolkit The experimental method is a protocol, diary, observer card. The main resulting document is the experimental protocol, which must reflect the following information: 1) the name of the topic of the experiment; 2) time and place of its holding; 3) formulation of the hypothesis being tested; 4) content of the experimental factor; 5) characteristics of dependent variables and their indicators; 6) essential description of the experimental group; 7) characteristics of the control group and principles of its selection; 8) description of the experimental situation; 9) characteristics of the experimental conditions; 10) the course of the experiment, i.e. its setting: a) before the introduction of the experimental factor; b) in the process of entering it; c) after its administration; d) after the end of the experiment; 11) assessment of the purity of the experiment and the instruments used; 12) conclusion about the reliability of the hypothesis; 13) other conclusions; 14) information about the drafters of the protocol and the degree of their consent; 15) date of signing the protocol.
Section 4. Research potential of some less
common methods
4.1. Diary method
Diary method is a qualitative research method that focuses on observing an individual and his daily life.
Diary– a certain schematized form of recording information about everyday practices by the informant himself.
Application area: used in the study of time budgets; lifestyle; social networks, when studying mass media, studying consumption, etc.
As K. Plumer notes, at present, diaries as a source of information can be used as follows:
(a) At the request of the researcher, individuals keep a diary of daily events for a short period of time, such as a week or a month. At the same time, short instructions are offered for filling out such a diary, which also includes personal comments from the person filling out the diary;
b) a similar technique is used in classical studies of time budgets to describe a typical day of life;
c) the third type of diary entries can be called the diary interviewing method. It is usually used to study communities that are difficult to observe. Therefore, they are asked to fill out a daily diary of their activity, while revealing the nature of such activity according to the scheme proposed by the researchers.
Depending on the goals of the study, a diary form is developed (the number of blocks can be varied) and detailed instructions for filling it out. Informants are selected using qualitative sampling methods, and they are given detailed instructions on how to fill out the diary. Diaries should be filled out during the day, or at least in the evening from memory, depending on the type of diary for a certain time.
Appendix 6 provides an example of a diary form and instructions for filling it out to collect data from a real audience of the Vesti-Kuzbass program. Culture".
Advantages: diaries describe events day by day, not after the fact. This means that the time effect does not leave its mark on the perception and description of events; allows you to overcome the fragmentation of the document analysis method (does not lose sight of everyday routine practices); can partially replace participant observation in those groups that are difficult to “penetrate”, events and processes of everyday life that are difficult to observe; allows you to analyze not only the informant’s discursive models, but also his practical actions, which may differ from their discursive interpretation.
Restrictions: many shy away from keeping a diary; they do not record information in the diary accurately and in a timely manner; filling out the diary is limited in time, which is why significant information may not be included in the diary; the subjectivity of the informant may manifest itself; It is rarely self-sufficient (requires use in combination with other research methods).
4.2. Social mapping method
Social mapping is a method of converting social data into cartographic form and its use in scientific and practical activities. Transformation is an operation as a result of which one cartographic image (original map or map diagram) is transformed into another (derived map or derived map diagram), in accordance with the goals of a specific social study. The method allows you to transform social data into a visual cartographic form, that is, create maps of social phenomena and processes occurring in any socio-territorial community.
The social mapping method was first used by the English entrepreneur Charles Booth (in the 80s of the 19th century), who studied living conditions in London. A social survey found that London has a concentric structure. Charles Booth introduced the mapping technique into the methodology of social surveys: he painted London neighborhoods in different colors depending on the income of their residents.
Another equally interesting study was the study of the city of Chicago conducted by E. Burgess (20s of the twentieth century). Social maps of Chicago were drawn up. At first these were maps of the distribution of teenage crime, then - cinemas, dance floors, etc. From the totality of the collected social maps, it became clear that there is a city structure and different types social problems correlate with each other.
Currently, the social mapping method is used to study problems such as employment and social well-being of the population, identifying critical areas of the labor market, crime, population migration, compliance of social infrastructure with the needs of the population, etc. The widespread use of this method is currently associated with the development of information technology.
Social cards may include cards characterizing: a) living conditions of the population; b) intra-city settlement of various population groups; c) real behavior of the population; d) scorecards; e) maps of migration flows, etc.
The mapping method is used in sociological research at all stages. At the initial stages of research, social maps serve as one of the sources of hypotheses and theoretical innovations. Social mapping can be used at the final stage as a visual display of the research results. Maps drawn up for the same territory at certain intervals can serve as a tool for monitoring social processes.
Most often, social mapping is complemented by other methods of collecting information (initial data): document analysis, survey. It is used in sociological research, in which one of the main tasks is to identify the spatial differentiation of certain indicators. Maps clearly show not only the features of the territorial organization of a particular phenomenon, but also the location of various objects and networks in space. The map makes it possible to show what the usual ones do not take into account. statistical methods information processing: territorial proximity, proximity and distance, consistency or inconsistency of various territorial patterns.
Maps and map diagrams are used as the basis for compiling new cartographic works. Map– a reduced, generalized image of the Earth’s surface on a plane, constructed in one or another cartographic projection and scale according to a mathematical law. Map– a map of reduced accuracy, usually devoid of a cartographic grid (Appendix 8). The schematic nature of the image usually makes it possible to obtain in a visual form a general idea of the phenomenon (event) shown on the map and to emphasize its essential features. The content of map diagrams is strictly limited to elements important for understanding its plot.
To prevent maps from being overloaded, an important modeling principle is cartographic generalization- this is the selection of the main, essential and its purposeful generalization in order to depict on maps the main, typical features and characteristic features of the phenomenon in accordance with the purpose, theme and scale of the map. Generalization is carried out in several directions. First of all, the map legend is generalized, qualifications and selection standards are established, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are generalized and enlarged, geometric outlines are simplified and schematized, sometimes it is necessary to exaggerate individual objects, shift their images, etc. Map legend– a set of symbols and explanations for the map, revealing its content.
Stages social mapping.
1. Preparatory stage:
Ü preparation of a mapping program;
Ü setting a cartographic problem;
Ü determination of the range of sources of initial information. Ensuring its completeness, accuracy, adequacy, convenience;
Ü selection of a cartographic basis (initial map);
Ü selection of the mapping procedure, cartographic images and the order of work.
2. Operational stage:
Ü collection of social information and its statistical processing (summarization, compilation of tables, matrices, etc.);
Ü cartographic generalization;
Ü selection of symbols and methods of representation;
Ü development of a map legend;
Ü “pencil” sketch of a map with a legend and title.
3. Resulting stage:
Ü finalization of derivative maps;
Ü interpretation of research results;
The initial information can be documentary sources, sample surveys on certain issues, and statistical data. Mapping is carried out in accordance with the goals and purpose of the maps. The nature of the transformation is influenced by the scientific and methodological principles of cartography, the choice of classifications, the logic of cartographic legends, the scale of the map, the system of symbols and methods of cartographic images, and generalization of the image. All this is necessary for an adequate representation of social processes and phenomena on maps.
There are many ways to display social information on a source map or schematic diagram. The type of map largely depends on the nature of the information available to the researcher. The difference in the localization of data is especially noticeable: whether it refers to areas of territories (areas) or to objects that are taken as points on the map scale. The method of mapping largely depends on this. Either the point nature of the phenomenon or its “spreading” over the area is emphasized. Based on the mapping method, thematic maps can be divided into two main types:
1) character cards, in which basic information for both points and areas is transmitted using conventional signs (graphic symbols used on maps to indicate various objects and their characteristics);
2) line and contour maps, showing the relationship of places or areas.
Let's briefly look at the main mapping methods.
Character cards. Graphic tools used in cartography provide great opportunities for the design and construction of symbols and their various systems. To do this, they resort to differentiating signs by shape, color, light intensity and internal structure (pattern, shading). The main mapping methods for character maps are the localized icon method, the qualitative and quantitative background method, and the point method.
To display information related to points on the map, use way of localized icons, not expressed on map scale. In their form, icons can be abstract, alphabetic and visual. Among abstract icons, the most common are geometric shapes: circles, squares, triangles, etc. They are easy to perform, are well recognized by the legend, take up relatively little space, accurately indicate the location of the object, and are easily comparable in size. The number of elementary figures is small, but the number of symbols can be increased by using different colors for icons and modifying their internal design.
Letter icons– this is one or two initial letters of the name of the depicted phenomenon or object. Their use is relatively limited, because they scatter the map, do not indicate the exact location of objects, and are poorly comparable in size. Comparing letter icons by size and their location is easier if the letters are inscribed in some geometric figure, for example, a square or a circle. In this case, the advantages of both types of icons are combined.
Also used visual icons, resembling the depicted objects in design. Among them, a distinction is made between symbolic, the form of which evokes some association with the depicted object (Appendix 9), and naturalistic. Such icons are less convenient for comparing and localizing objects.
Icons of various sizes are used to convey quantitative relationships. (“scale” icons"). The commensurability of icons, exactly proportional to the size of objects, is called absolute. For example, the linear size of an icon is proportional to square root from a number characterizing the size of an object. The map is then visual, but inconvenient, since the extreme sizes of the mapped objects differ greatly from each other. Therefore, conditional commensurability is often used, reflecting only the general trend in changes in values. Both with absolute and conditional commensurability of icons, their scale can be continuous or stepped, that is, divided into intervals. With a continuous scale, the size of the signs changes following the change in the size of the object. With a step (interval) scale, the size of the icons is constant within each interval, increasing abruptly when moving to the next step. Stepped scales are preferable when depicting and grouping objects into ranks (classes) of magnitude. Experience shows that in order to visually differentiate signs on a map, it is necessary to consistently increase their linear dimensions on a scale by at least 1.5 times; it is advisable to delimit the steps with round numbers (the number of these differences is 5-7, maximum 10-12).
Inscriptions on maps also often serve as cards.
Purpose of the lecture: study the observation procedure.
Lecture outline:
1. Observation as a research method in social work.
2. Classification of observations.
3. Features of observation.
1. Scientific knowledge as a way of reflecting reality invariably involves the perception of the characteristics of natural phenomena and spheres of human activity. Broadly speaking, any method of empirical research contains elements of observation of objects in order to study their specificity and changes. The observation method is based on two principles:
– passivity of the subject of cognition, expressed in refusal to interfere in the processes being studied in order to preserve the naturalness of their flow;
– immediacy of perception, which implies limiting the possibility of obtaining data within the limits of a clearly presented situation of the present time (what is usually observed is what is happening “here and now”).
The understanding of “observation” as a research method is different in different sciences.
Thus, in sociology, “observation” is understood as a method of collecting primary sociological information about the social object under study through direct perception and direct recording of facts (events and conditions) that are significant from the point of view of the goals of the study.
In psychology, “observation” is understood as a method of studying the mental characteristics of individuals based on recording manifestations of their behavior.
In philosophy, “observation” is a deliberate and purposeful perception determined by the task of the activity.
In social work, “observation is understood as a way of collecting primary social information, as a method of purposeful, systematic, and in a certain way planned perception of the recorded phenomenon, process, object.
Observation is addressed in various circumstances: Firstly, when receiving preliminary material to clarify the directions of the planned research. Observation carried out for such purposes expands the vision of the phenomenon being studied, helps to identify significant situations, determines the “actors,” and opens up previously unknown layers and “slices” of social reality for the researcher. Secondly, the observational method is used to obtain illustrative data. Thirdly, observation acts as the main method of obtaining primary information.
The observation method is effectively used in studying the behavior of individuals and groups in work and social and political life, in the sphere of leisure, and in the study of a wide variety of forms of communication between people.
Subject observations are verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior that take place in a certain situation or environment.
Thus, when studying people, a researcher can observe:
1) speech activity (content, sequence, duration, frequency, direction, intensity...);
2) expressive reactions (expressive movements of the face, body);
3) position of bodies in space (movement, immobility, distance, speed, direction of movement..);
4) physical contacts (touching, pushing, hitting, passing, joint efforts...).
At the same time, a lot depends on observation - the ability to notice significant, characteristic, including subtle, properties of objects and phenomena.
2. There is a distinction between scientific and ordinary (everyday) observation. Scientific observation 1) is subject to a clear research goal and clearly defined objectives; 2) observation is planned according to a pre-thought-out procedure; 3) all observation data are recorded in protocols or diaries according to a certain system; 4) information obtained through observation must be controllable for validity and stability.
Ordinary observation cannot provide complete and reliable information about the observed phenomenon, process, or object. It is superficial and unsystematic. The most important advantage of the method observation is that it 1) is carried out simultaneously with the development of the phenomena and processes being studied. 2) Opens up the opportunity to directly perceive people’s behavior in specific conditions and in real time. 3) A carefully prepared observation procedure ensures that all significant elements of the situation are recorded (thereby creating the prerequisites for its objective study).
The disadvantages of the observation method are divided into two groups: objective (independent of the observer) and subjective (related to the personal and professional characteristics of the observer).
Objective disadvantages include: 1) The limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation; 2) complexity, and often simply impossibility of repeating observations (since social processes are irreversible, they cannot be played out again); 3) the high complexity of the method (sometimes a large number of highly qualified people are involved in collecting information).
The difficulties of the subjective plane are also diverse 1) The quality of primary information can be influenced by the difference in the social status of the observer and the observed, the dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc. 2) The quality of information is affected by both the attitudes of the observed and the observer. (If the observed know what the object of study is, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adjusting to what, in their opinion, the observer would like to see. In turn, the presence of a certain expectation in the observer regarding the behavior of the observed can form a specific point of view on happening).
Observation in sociology is classified according to the following criteria: according to the degree of formalization of the procedure, according to the position of the observer, according to the conditions of the organization, according to the regularity of the conduct.
1. According to the degree of formalization, observations are divided into structured (controlled) and unstructured (uncontrolled). Structured observation is carried out according to a pre-developed plan. This type of observation can only be applied when the researcher is well acquainted with the subject of his study.
Unstructured observation is a type of observation in which only the object of observation is defined. This type of observation is used at the initial stage of research in order to determine the problem situation and obtain more specific knowledge about the object of research. The main disadvantage of uncontrolled observation is the possibility of a purely objective assessment of events and phenomena, the manifestation of the researcher’s “I”.
2. According to the position of the observer, observations are divided into included and unincluded.
Included observation is a type of observation in which the sociologist, to one degree or another, is directly “involved” in the object being studied, is in direct contact with the observed and participates with them in the same field of activity.
Non-participant observation- this is a type of observation in which a sociologist observes the object of research from the outside, without participating in the activities of the group, without entering into direct contact with its members.
This kind of observation is most often used to characterize the social environment in which the object being studied is located.
3. Based on the location and conditions of organization, observations are divided into field and laboratory.
Field observation is carried out in a natural setting, in a real life situation.
Laboratory observation is observation in which the object of study is in artificially created conditions. This type of observation is most often used in experimental studies. During laboratory observation, a sociologist can successfully use various kinds of technical means to record situations, the behavior of those observed, etc.
4. According to the regularity of observations, they are divided into systematic and random. Characteristic feature systematic observations is the regularity of recording actions, situations, processes over a certain time period. Systematic observation allows a sociologist to identify the pattern of development of observed phenomena and processes.
At random During observations, previously unplanned actions, situations, and phenomena are studied.
3. Features of observation:
In the observation method, there is an approximate list of significant elements characteristic of all observed situations. Based on them, the program and scientific and organizational plan of observation are specified. This list includes: a) observables - the number of people participating in the situation, the socio-demographic structure of the group, the nature of the relationships in it, the distribution of roles between the participants in the situation; b) setting - the location of the observed situation, typical social behavior for this place, possible deviations in the behavior of participants in the observed group; c) the purpose of the group’s activity – the observed situation is random or natural, the presence of certain formal or informal goals for which the group gathered; the goals of various participants in the situation are compatible or opposite; d) social behavior - the nature of the activity of the observed group, the incentives for the activity, to whom (what) the activity is directed, the psychological atmosphere in the group; e) frequency and duration - time, duration and repeatability of the observed situation, its uniqueness or typicality.
Gorbatov D.S.
The following stages of scientific observation are distinguished:
1. Determining the purpose of observation (why, why is it being carried out?);
2. Selection of the object of research (what individual or what kind of group is to be studied?);
3. Clarification of the subject of research (which aspects of behavior reveal the content of the mental phenomena being studied?);
4. Planning observation situations (in what cases or under what conditions does the subject of research reveal itself most clearly?);
5. Selection of an observation method that has the least impact on the object and ensures the collection of the necessary information to the greatest extent (how to observe?);
6. Establishing the duration of the total research time and the number of observations (how many to observe?);
7. Selecting methods for recording the research material (how to keep records?);
8. Forecasting possible observation errors and searching for ways to prevent them;
9. Carrying out a preliminary, trial observation session necessary to clarify the actions of the previous stages and identify organizational shortcomings;
10. Correction of the monitoring program;
11. Observation stage.
12. Processing and interpretation of received information.
The process of effective observation is impossible without artificially isolating certain units of object activity from the general course of events. This refers to the designation of what he is doing at the moment, how he is doing it. Such units of activity are expressed using ordinary words in scientific terminology. They are recorded in the observation protocol. Typically, there are three types of procedures for recording results:
1) Use of attribute (sign) systems. At the same time, in advance, during the preparation of observation forms, specific types of behavior characteristic of this area are described. In the future, they record which of them and how often they appeared during the observation period. Each sign must be formulated unambiguously for understanding different people and not require additional explanations, for example, what signs of students’ interest in the content of the lesson can you name? What are the signs that they are not interested in the material they are learning?
Among the designations there should not be words like “attentive”, “interested”, “understanding”, etc., which need to be specified in meaning. And such signs as “animated gestures”, “chewing a pencil”, etc. indicate both the intensity of interest and the complete absence of the latter.
2) Application of a category system. Such a system contains Full description all types of possible behavior. You cannot add anything new to it during the observation process because a set of categories is compiled on a certain scientific basis. It is assumed that it covers all theoretically possible manifestations of the process being studied.
3) Rating scale. With this method of recording results, the researcher’s attention is drawn not to the presence of this or that characteristic, but to the quantitative or qualitative degree of its presence and representation, while the work is carried out on a pre-prepared ordinal scale.
Common mistakes researchers using the observation method:
1 – in an effort to confirm his hypothesis, the researcher sometimes unconsciously ignores everything that may contradict it;
2 – mixing of the main and the secondary, the random and the natural in the process of observation;
3 – premature generalizations and conclusions;
4 – assessment of one mental phenomenon is made on the basis of a sign of behavior related to another phenomenon;
5 – focusing the observer’s attention on the opposite character traits or forms of behavior of the observed;
6 – the determining influence on the results of observation of the first impression about a person or group;
7 – failure to take into account possible motives for actions, observed well-being, significant changes in the conditions of the situation.
Technical equipment: multimedia support.
Literature:
1. Kulseeva T.G., Molchanova L.N. Sociological workshop. – Kursk, 2006.
2. Yadov V.A. Strategy of sociological research: description, explanation, understanding of social reality. – M., 2000.
3. Fundamentals of applied sociology. Edited by F.E. Sheregi, M.K. Gorshkova. – M., 1996.
4. Grechikhin V.G. Lectures on methods and techniques of sociological research. – M., 1988.
2.1. Formal observation techniques
This chapter discusses two types of observation: formalized and informal. Let us reveal in more detail the specifics of these types of observation and give specific techniques for each of them.
A formalized method can be classified as one that in any of its parts has a limitation specified externally (by the researcher or the creator of the method). This limitation may concern the assessment of the degree of expression of observed facts (scores or a measure of severity in other forms are indicated). The range of observable features may be limited. In this case, the protocol or registration form specifies the observation objects that need to be seen and their presence or absence recorded. The term “formalized” can also be applied to situations in which observation is carried out. Here restrictions are introduced in relation to time, space, type of activity, social circle, etc. Finally, observation results can be formalized if they are obtained on a representative sample and scaled (level, normative, etc.). In this case, it becomes possible to correlate the results of newly conducted observations with existing scales.
The second condition for classifying a technique as formalized is that the limitation introduced into the observation must be constant throughout the entire study. This condition may apply to the sample, to the objects of observation, to situations. For example, all subjects are observed according to a predetermined set of characteristics (objects of observation).
By calling the methodology formalized, we want to emphasize that there are types of observation where the researcher is completely dependent on the realities of life, without limiting anything in them, but only recording the changes that he observes.
Formalization of the entire observation program and statistical verification of the results obtained with the compilation of normative scales make it possible to create a standardized observation methodology. An example is the Stott Observation Map. The observation scheme presented in it consists of 16 symptom complexes, according to which rating scales are given.
Methods of formalized observation significantly correct the shortcomings that are inherent in observation. It becomes possible to more clearly and completely compare the results of various observations, the negative influence of the observer (his subjectivity) is eliminated, unity of qualitative and quantitative analysis of the obtained facts can be achieved, and not only the facts, but also their reasons can be established.
Below are observation techniques created and tested by different authors. These methods can be classified as formalized.
List of observation techniques included in the book
1. Methodology for observing the behavior of the organizer of a discussion between children after watching a TV show, play, etc. (compiled by N. Yu. Skorokhodova).
2. Methodology for observing the teacher’s verbal influences in the classroom (compiled by L. A. Regush).
3. Methodology expert assessment non-verbal behavior of the individual (compiled by V. A. Labunskaya).
4. Methodology for observing the manifestation of perseverance and perseverance during a training session or competition (compiled by A. Ts. Puni).
5. Methodology for observing emotional arousal (compiled by A. Ts. Puni).
6. Scheme of observation of a child during a psychological examination (for children from 6 to 15 years old) (compiled by Sh. Gyurichova, P. Gusnikova).
7. Rating scale for measuring student reactivity (compiled by Ya. Strelyau).
8. Scheme of monitoring the manifestations of interest and attention of students in the lesson (compiled by A. V. Vikulov).
9. Methodology for observing the process of students solving problems (compiled by A. V. Orlova).
10. Stott's observation map.
11. Scheme of observation of various aspects of the behavior of a small child (compiled by N. Bayley).
12. Methodology for monitoring the manifestations of interpersonal desires in adolescents (compiled by A.G. Gretsov).
A technique for observing the behavior of the organizer of a discussion between children after watching a TV show, play, etc.
Age-related features of discussions in groups of schoolchildren / Comp. N. Yu. Skorokhodova. – Petrozavodsk, 1984. – pp. 16–18.
Instructions. According to the proposed scheme, it is possible to conduct both observation and self-observation of the organization of the discussion. To do this, you need to circle on the point scale the value that, in the observer’s opinion, characterizes one or another aspect of the behavior of the discussion organizer.
It is very useful to compare self-assessment of behavior and expert assessments. Significant differences in assessments indicate the inability of the discussion leader to control and evaluate his behavior. Analysis of assessments will also help to identify defects in the conduct of the discussion and further direct efforts to correct one’s behavior.
Methodology for observing the teacher’s verbal influences in the classroom
(Compiled by L. A. Regush)
Target: characterize the teacher’s verbal influences in the lesson.
Instructions to the expert observer:
I. Preparation for attending a lesson (class)
1. Clarify and understand the goals of the examination of the teacher’s communicative culture, as well as the purpose of observation.
2. Carefully study the observation scheme.
3. Remember or re-acquaint yourself with the specifics of the observation method and the requirements for it.
4. Set yourself up to objectively record what you observe, eliminating the influence of subjective attitudes on the teacher, the process and the result of observation.
5. Get acquainted with the dictionary of terms that reveal the meaning various types verbal influences; If necessary, refer to additional literature.
II. Conducting surveillance
1. When meeting the teacher whose lesson is being observed and establishing contact with him, avoid formulating a specific purpose for the observation.
2. The recording of observed verbal influences is carried out according to the scheme (see the table, where in column 4 words, addresses, statements that can be attributed to one or another type of influence are recorded; if difficulties arise in attributing certain statements to a certain type, you can use a dictionary of terms).
3. It is necessary to record verbal influences that are not in the diagram, but are present in the teacher’s speech. This material should be used when conducting analysis and drawing conclusions.
Glossary of terms that reveal the meaning of various types of verbal influences
Compiled by: Ozhegov S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language. – M., 1964.
Comment– a reprimand, an indication of a mistake.
Intonation– raising or lowering the voice during pronunciation; a manner of pronunciation that reflects the speaker's feelings.
Instructions– a sequence of actions formulated in a word.
Irony- subtle mockery expressed in a hidden form.
Team- a short verbal order.
Moral teaching- teaching, instilling moral rules.
Notation- instruction, reprimand.
Encouragement– instilling cheerfulness, uplifting mood.
Censure- reprimand, condemnation.
Promotion- something that encourages: approval, reward, assistance, sympathy, stimulating the desire to do well, better.
Request- an appeal calling for the satisfaction of any needs or desires.
Order– 1. The same as an order. 2. Caring about the structure, use, application of something.
Threat- intimidation, promise to do harm.
Note- instruction, explanation, indicating how to act.
Reproach– displeasure, disapproval or accusation expressed to someone.
Humor- a kindly, mocking attitude towards something.
III. Processing observation results and drawing conclusions
2. Determine the ranking place of each type of impact and enter this data in column 6.
3. Correlate the ranking places of one or another type of influence that was observed by the teacher during the lesson with the data presented in columns 1 and 3.
Note. Column 1 shows the ranking places of verbal influences that are typical for teachers who have high level students' understanding.
Column 3 shows the ranking places of verbal influences for teachers who have a low level of understanding of students.
Characteristics of the ranking places of these types of impacts were obtained in the study of S. V. Kondratyeva (Kondratieva S.V. Psychological problems of people understanding each other // Psychology of interpersonal cognition. – M.: Pedagogy, 1981).
4. Conclude:
a) about the most typical verbal influences on students for a given teacher, taking into account that 1–4 are high, 5–8 are average, 9–12 are low ranking places of a particular type of influence;
b) do these, the most characteristic species the teacher’s influence on his understanding of students, given that one of the main indicators of communicative culture is the student’s understanding.
5. If the processing carried out does not allow us to definitely draw a conclusion about the most characteristic verbal influences of the teacher, then you need to turn to those types of influences that are not indicated in the diagram, but which you established and recorded during observation, and use these data to resolve doubts.
Methodology for expert assessment of nonverbal behavior of an individual
Emotional and cognitive characteristics of communication / Ed. V. A. Labunskaya. – Rostov-on-Don, 1990. – pp. 150–153.
Instructions. You often communicate with... and, of course, you know his (her) behavior and habits well. Please express your opinion about the characteristics of his (her) non-speech (non-verbal) behavior by answering the questions below. Assess how often certain behavioral characteristics are manifested... in communication with you and other people.
Questions 1, 5, 8, 12, 15, 17 concern the general assessment of a person’s nonverbal repertoire in terms of its diversity, harmony, individuality, etc.
Questions 2, 4, 7, 11, 14, 18, 20 characterize a person’s ability to adequately understand the various components of a partner’s nonverbal behavior.
Questions 3, 6, 9, 10, 13, 16, 19 determine the ability to manage, to purposefully use non-verbal means in communication.
Methods for observing the manifestation of perseverance and perseverance during a training session or competition
Practical lessons in psychology / Ed. A. Ts. Puni. – M.: Physical culture and sport, 1977. – P. 147–148.
Technique for monitoring emotional arousal
Practical lessons in psychology / Ed. A. Ts. Puni. – M.: Physical culture and sport, 1977. – P. 120–121.
The scale for assessing external signs of emotional arousal includes assessment of behavior, attention, facial expressions, pantomime, movements, static poses, speech, and vegetative shifts.
Behavior
Indifference to everything. Drowsiness, yawning. Reduced reactivity...1
The behavior is no different from usual. Efficiency. Consciousness is aimed at the upcoming competitive activity (correct and rational execution of exercises, tactical techniques, etc.)… 2
There is anxiety and fussiness. Consciousness is aimed at the possible final result (outcome) of the competition... 3
Frequent mood swings, irritability... 4
Mimicry, pantomime
The face is frozen. Mouth half open. Eyes half closed... 1
Facial expressions and pantomimes do not differ from ordinary ones... 2
Some tension and slight movements of the lips are evident in facial expressions. Slight gestures when speaking... 3
Tense facial expressions, clenched jaws, nodules on the cheeks, displacement of the lips to the side, biting of the lips, sudden movements of the head, frequent blinking of the eyes, unmotivated squinting of the eyes. Violent gestures... 4
Movements
Movements are slow, sluggish... 1
The movements are calm, united, soft, as usual... 2
Some sharpness, impetuosity of movements. There are no unnecessary movements... 3
Movements are abrupt, disproportionate, accompanied by excessive effort. Hand movements are sometimes accompanied by movements of the whole body... 4
Static poses
Poses that are uncomfortable but not changing, frozen static positions... 1
The poses are comfortable, relaxed, justified by the circumstances. The poses are comfortable, but there is a tendency to unjustifiably change them... 3
Poses are uncomfortable, they change frequently... 4
Speech
Speech is slow, sluggish, and inexpressive. A quiet voice... 1
Ordinary speech... 2
Speech is faster, louder, or more expressive than usual... 3
Speech is frequent. The endings of words are not pronounced clearly. Noticeable changes in voice intonation... 4
Vegetative shifts
Pulse and breathing are normal or slow. Pallor of the facial skin. Mild malaise, feeling of lethargy, weakness. The muscles are more relaxed than ever, it is difficult to tense them... 1
Pulse and breathing are normal. Complexion unchanged. Normal muscle tone... 2
The pulse is slightly increased (by 5-10 beats per minute). Breathing faster than usual. Redness of the skin of the face. Muscle tone is normal or slightly increased... 3
The pulse is significantly increased. Breathing is frequent and shallow. Increased sweating. Increased diuresis. Sharp redness of the skin of the face and body. Muscles are tense... 4
Protocol for assessing external manifestations of emotional arousal
In each group of signs, the rating scale is built on the principle of increasing external manifestations of emotional arousal. A score of 2 points corresponds to the usual – background – emotional state characteristic of a person in a calm environment; score 1 point – insufficient emotional arousal (pre-launch apathy); score 3 points – increased level of emotional arousal compared to the usual level (for many athletes it is optimal, corresponding to a state of readiness); score 4 points – a state of pre-launch fever, when external manifestations of emotions indicate their excessive intensity.
Observation scheme for a child during a psychological examination (for children from 6 to 15 years old)
Cherny V., Kollarik T. Compendium of psychodiagnostic methods. Bratislava, 1988. – T. 2. – P. 215–216.
When creating the observation scheme, the authors proceeded from the requirement to create a manual that would combine and simplify the system of observation and conversation. The starting points were the analysis of the course of a conventional psychological examination, the choice psychological concepts and terms, familiarization with scientific literature and schemes of a similar type. The diagram contains concepts related to certain manifestations of the child’s behavior and its characteristics. The psychologist’s task is to note the child’s characteristic features.
The basis of the observation scheme is a form consisting of the following parts:
1) direct observation;
2) derived characteristics;
3) topics for conversation.
The first part of the form concerns data obtained during the observation process and contains the following characteristics of the child:
1. Somatotype, gait, face, facial expressions and pantomime, skin, teeth, hygiene, cosmetics, clothing.
3. General mobility - speed, accuracy, focus, tension, impaired mobility.
4. Social behavior - establishing contact, changes in behavior during the examination, social skills and politeness, qualitative indicators of social behavior (related to manifestations of dominance, aggression, submission and affiliation).
5. Mood – euphoria, carefree, happiness, even mood, serious mood; mood variability under the influence of external factors.
6. Behavior in a problem-solving situation (test) – attitude to tasks, work skills, attentiveness.
7. Signs of neurotic tension - hand movements, grimaces, nail biting, sweating, hand trembling, etc.
The second part of the form contains a list of important personality traits. Here, based on all the data about the child, his personal characteristics are reproduced. This part contains the categories: temperament, character traits, volitional properties and attitude to work, social reactivity, attitude towards adults, attitude towards oneself, family environment.
The third part contains topics for conversation: symptom, family, parents, apartment, family involvement, school, study (performance), teachers, classmates, home preparation, household chores, pastime, self-esteem, sleep, food, health, concerns, fear , load situations.
Rating scale for measuring student reactivity
Strelyau Ya. The role of temperament in mental development / Transl. from Polish – M.: Progress, 1982. – P. 157–160.
To construct the rating scale, an observation scheme previously developed by the author was used. The scale used by M. Grodner, which allows measuring 12 types of behavior on a nine-point scale, was further modified and in the latest version was reduced to 10 different types of behavior in different situations, considered especially important for the diagnosis of reactivity. Each of these types is rated on a five-point system. Therefore, a student can receive a maximum of 50 points, a minimum of 10. Moreover, the higher the number of points the subject receives, the lower the level of reactivity. This is done to make the quantitative results easier to understand. So, the number 50 indicates minimal reactivity, 10 – maximum.
We present the rating scale along with brief instructions so that the reader can try to apply it for his own purposes.
Instructions. Determine the intensity of each of the named properties of the student’s behavior on a five-point scale. The assessment should be based on specific, observable forms and modes of behavior.
Digit 1– the lowest intensity of this property (complete absence). For example, when assessing such a property as the energy of the movements performed, we will circle number 1 if the observed movements of the student are completely devoid of energy.
Number 5– the highest intensity of this property (obvious possession of this property, for example, the student’s movements are very energetic).
Digit 3– average rating means moderate intensity of this property.
Circle the selected number. After assessing all ten categories of behavior, which will require (depending on the possibilities and conditions of observation, the frequency of contact with the student) various amounts of time, summarize the results.
Scheme of monitoring manifestations of interest and attention of students in the lesson
Vikulov A.V. Expressive movements of students and their psychological classification: Dis... Cand. psychol. Sci. – L., 1986. – P. 94.
Forehead-eyebrow area:
Bringing down – lowering of the eyebrows;
Raising eyebrows.
Eye area:
Enlargement – reduction of the palpebral fissure;
Raising the upper eyelid, decreasing the tone of the upper eyelid;
The nature of the gaze (visual axes intersect on the object itself or converge outside the object);
Direction of gaze (to the side, in the face, in the eyes);
Intensity of gaze.
Area from base of nose to chin:
Changes in the corners of the mouth (pulled-down);
Mouth tone;
The size of the mouth gap (mouth closed, half-open, open).
Head area:
The student’s facial orientation to the object (increase - decrease); in a fixed coordinate system: complete, incomplete, no facial orientation;
Changes in head position horizontally (left, right), vertically (raised, lowered);
Methods of fixing the head through support on the hand.
Neck area:
Changes in the tone of the neck (associated with changes in the position of the head vertically and horizontally, with the presence or absence of supports).
Torso area:
Changes in the position of the body in relation to the object;
The orientation of the plane of the body to the object in a relative and fixed coordinate system (similar to the facial orientation).
Hand area:
Tone of the left and right hands (clenched, splayed, involuntary contact with the desk, other objects);
Movements that are means of self-influence, self-stimulation: auto-contacts of the hands, auto-contacts of the hand with other parts of the body.
Leg area:
Change in leg tone;
Changing the position of the legs.
Statistically significant changes in expressive movements of attention of schoolchildren
Stott Observation Map
Workbook of a school psychologist / Ed. I. V. Dubrovina. – M.: Education, 1991. – P. 169.
Stott's observation map (OC) consists of 16 complexes of symptoms-patterns of behavior, symptom complexes (SC). IC are printed in the form of lists and numbered (I–XVI). In each social complex, behavioral patterns have their own numbering. When filling out the CT, the presence of each of the behavioral patterns indicated in it in the subject is marked with a “+” sign, and the absence – with a “-”. These data are entered into a special table (see Table 1).
The filling out SC, having made a conclusion about the presence or absence of the next behavior pattern, enters the number of the behavior pattern in the column of the corresponding SC and puts a “+” or “-” sign to the right of the number.
Patterns of behavior have unequal informational weight. Therefore, when translating the primary empirical indicators “+” and “-” into raw scores, 1 point is given for some behavior patterns, and 2 points for others. To do this, use a table for converting primary empirical indicators into raw estimates (Table 2).
In each SC, points for behavior patterns are summed up. Then the sums of raw scores for each IC are converted into percentages. Percentage indicators indicate the severity of KS in the subject from the maximum possible severity. Conversion of raw estimates into percentages is shown in table. 3, which is constructed as follows:
1. All points for each SC from the table are summed up. 2.
2. Then each of the possible “raw” sums of assessments is divided by the maximum possible sum and multiplied by 100%.
According to Stott, the numerical indicators of the SC have significance, but only approximate, so they must be handled with caution when interpreting. The technique is not standardized for practical needs.
Using quantiles, the numerical scales (from 0 to 100%) for each SC were divided into five intervals. The interval from 0 to 20% indicates such a weak expression of quality that in fact we are dealing with a quality that is different from that inherent in a given SC. Thus, a very weakly expressed V.NV SC may indicate a child’s attempts to establish a good relationship with an adult, but are accompanied by actions that are unpleasant for the adult.
The interval from 80 to 100% similarly shows that here the quality of the SC has outgrown itself and we are dealing with a different quality. For the correct interpretation of extreme intervals, it is especially important to involve additional information.
Intervals from 20 to 40, from 40 to 60 and from 60 to 80%, respectively, indicate noticeable expression, strong expression, very strong expression of quality.
Stott's CN is designed to study the characteristics of students maladapted to school conditions. Maladjusted students include two types of students: first, those who themselves experience difficulties and create many difficulties for those around them (technical staff, teachers and other children), the so-called difficult ones; the second – for whom it is difficult at school, but they do not cause trouble to others.
The identified features (external manifestations, patterns of behavior), called symptom complexes, are as follows:
I. ND – lack of trust in new things, people, situations.
SC positively correlates with sensitivity according to the Lichko PDO. Any achievement costs a child enormous effort.
II. O – weakness (asthenia).
We are not talking about clinical or even subclinical forms of weakness, but about manifestations of apathy, low mood, and a kind of neurophysical exhaustion. In a milder form, drops in energy alternate with manifestations of energy and activity. KS speaks of a shortage of energy resources in the child’s body, and therefore of his inability to be active.
III. U – withdrawal into oneself.
Self-elimination. A defensive attitude towards contacts with any people, rejection of the feelings of love shown towards him.
IV. TV – anxiety about acceptance by adults and interest on their part.
Anxiety and uncertainty as to whether adults are interested in him or love him. SK expresses the student’s anxious hope, aspirations, and attempts to establish and maintain good relationships with adults.
V. NV – rejection of adults.
Manifestation of various forms of rejection by adults: from avoidance of the teacher, suspicion of him to an uncontrollable habit of hostility.
VI. TD – anxiety for acceptance by children.
Anxiety and uncertainty about whether his children love him and whether he is of interest to them. SK TD expresses the same tendencies as SK TV, but in relation to peers.
VII. A – asociality.
Lack of social normativity. This term does not mean manifestations of antisocial behavior, although with strong severity (82% or more) this may occur. A weak expression of SC A (14% or less) can also occur if the student’s moral attitudes are higher than the moral requirements imposed on him by the school (which, of course, is not necessary, but does occur).
VIII. KD – conflict with children.
It should be noted that the weak expression of SC NV and CD may indicate attempts to establish or maintain good relationships, but not in normal, but in erroneous ways. This may be a signal of the beginning of the transition “from love to hate,” when manifestations of the bad still alternate with manifestations of the good.
IX. N – restlessness or restlessness.
Impatience, unsuitability for work that requires perseverance, concentration, reflection, avoidance of long-term efforts.
X. EN – emotional stress or emotional immaturity.
A sign of delayed emotional development, leading to emotional overstrain (stress) in school conditions. Manifests itself in infantilism of speech, anxiety, tendency to tears, etc.
XI. NS – neurotic symptoms.
Include signs of neurosis: predominantly obsessive-compulsive neurosis - frequent blinking, nail biting, finger sucking, etc.; partly a neurosis of fear - “you can’t get a word out of him,” he speaks randomly.
SCs associated with the constitution and type of the nervous system - O, N, EN, NS, and also partly ND and U - are important for understanding the student’s personality.
XII. C – Wednesday.
Contains several external signs - signals that a child is growing up in a dysfunctional environment, primarily this concerns the family circle.
XIII. UR – mental development.
State the level of educational retardation and assess the general impression made by the child’s level of mental development (“just stupid”).
XIV. SR – sexual development.
Records the general assessment given by the teacher of the pace and direction of sexual development.
XV. B – diseases.
It contains external signs by which one can identify a disease in a child, but, of course, does not allow an accurate diagnosis to be made.
XVI. F – physical defects.
Draws attention to abnormal physique, poor vision and hearing.
In order for the interpretation of numerical expression to be adequate, it is necessary: 1) to analyze not only the final expression of the SC, but also the observed patterns of behavior; 2) attract additional data about the student, which must be obtained from the teacher in a conversation or from a description compiled by the teacher.
Table 1
Sample of filling out an observation map
Note: The 1st final grade shows the result of summing up the raw grades (points); The 2nd final assessment shows the severity of KS from the maximum possible (%).
table 2
Key for conversion to points
Table 3
Converting raw points to percentages
Observation map
I. ND – lack of trust in new people, things, situations. This leads to the fact that any success costs the child enormous effort. From 1 to 11 – less obvious symptoms; from 12 to 17 – symptoms of a clear violation.
1. Talks to the teacher only when he is alone with him.
2. Cries when reprimanded.
3. Never offers any help to anyone, but willingly provides it if asked.
4. The child is “subordinate” (agrees to “non-winning” roles, for example, during a game he runs after the ball, while others calmly watch it).
5. Too anxious to be naughty.
6. Lies out of fear.
7. He loves if people show him sympathy, but does not ask for it.
8. Never brings flowers or other gifts to the teacher, although his comrades often do this.
9. Never brings or shows the teacher the things he has found, although his comrades often do this.
10. Has only one good friend and tends to ignore the other boys and girls in the class.
11. Greets the teacher only when he pays attention to him. Wants to be noticed.
12. Does not approach the teacher on his own initiative.
13. Too shy to ask for things (such as help).
14. Easily becomes “nervous”, cries, blushes if asked a question.
15. Easily withdraws from active participation in the game.
16. Speaks inexpressively, mumbles, especially when greeted.
II. O – weakness (asthenia). In a milder form (symptoms 1–6), various changes in activity and mood changes are observed from time to time. The presence of symptoms 7 and 8 indicates a tendency to irritation and physiological exhaustion. Symptoms 9-20 reflect more acute forms of depression. Syndrome O items are usually accompanied by severe TV and NV syndromes (see IV and V), especially in extreme forms of depression. In all likelihood, they do represent elements of depressive exhaustion.
1. When answering in class, sometimes he is diligent, sometimes he doesn’t care about anything.
2. Depending on how you feel, or asks for help in performing school assignments, or not.
3. Behaves differently. Diligence in academic work changes almost daily.
4. Sometimes active in games, sometimes apathetic.
5. In his free time, he sometimes shows a complete lack of interest in anything.
6. When doing manual work, sometimes he is very diligent, sometimes not.
7. Impatient, loses interest in work as it progresses.
8. Angry, “flies into a rage.”
9. Can work alone, but gets tired quickly.
10. There is not enough physical strength for manual work.
11. Lethargic, lacking initiative (in class).
12. Apathetic, passive, inattentive.
13. Sudden and sharp drops in energy are often observed.
14. Movements are slow.
15. Too apathetic to get upset about anything (and therefore does not turn to anyone for help).
16. The look is “dull” and indifferent.
17. Always lazy and apathetic in games.
18. Often dreams in reality.
19. Speaks inexpressively, mumbles.
20. Causes pity (oppressed, unhappy), rarely laughs.
III. U – withdrawal into oneself. Avoiding contact with people, self-withdrawal. A defensive attitude towards any contact with people, rejection of the feelings of love shown towards him.
1. Absolutely never greets anyone.
2. Does not respond to greetings.
3. Does not show friendliness and goodwill towards other people.
4. Avoids conversations (“closed in”).
5. Dreams and does something else instead of schoolwork (“lives in another world”).
6. Shows absolutely no interest in manual work.
7. Shows no interest in group games.
8. Avoids other people.
9. Stays away from adults even when he is offended by something or is suspected of something.
10. Completely isolated from other children (it is impossible to approach him).
11. Gives the impression that he doesn’t notice other people at all.
12. Restless in conversation, gets off topic.
13. Acts like a wary animal.
IV. TV – anxiety towards adults. Anxiety and uncertainty about whether adults are interested in him or whether they love him. Symptoms 1–6 – the child tries to make sure whether adults “accept” and love him. Symptoms 7-10 – tries to attract attention and exaggeratedly seeks the love of an adult. Symptoms 11–16 – Shows great concern about being “accepted” by adults.
1. Performs his duties very willingly.
2. Shows an excessive desire to greet the teacher.
3. Too talkative (bothers with his chatter).
4. Very willingly brings flowers and other gifts to the teacher.
5. Very often brings and shows the teacher objects, drawings, etc. he has found.
6. Being overly friendly towards the teacher.
7. Tells the teacher an exaggerated amount about his family activities.
8. “Sucks up”, tries to please the teacher.
9. Always finds an excuse to keep the teacher busy with his special someone.
10. Constantly needs help and control from the teacher.
11. Seeks the teacher’s sympathy, comes to him with various small matters and complaints about his comrades.
12. Tries to “monopolize” the teacher (occupy him exclusively with his own person).
13. Tells fantastic, fictitious stories.
14. Wants to interest adults in his person, but does not make any efforts in this direction.
15. Excessively concerned with attracting adults' interest and gaining their sympathy.
16. Completely “eliminated” if his efforts are not crowned with success.
V. NV – rejection of adults. Symptoms 1–4 – The child exhibits various forms of rejection of adults, which may be the beginning of hostility or depression. Symptoms 5–9 – sometimes treats adults with hostility, sometimes tries to achieve their good attitude. Symptoms 10–17 – open hostility, manifested in antisocial behavior. Symptoms 18–24 – complete, uncontrollable, habitual hostility.
1. Changeable in moods.
2. Extremely impatient, except when in a good mood.
3. Shows perseverance and perseverance in manual work.
4. Is often in a bad mood.
5. When in the right mood, offers his help or services.
6. When the teacher asks for something, he is sometimes very cordial, sometimes indifferent.
7. Sometimes he strives, and sometimes he avoids, to greet the teacher.
8. In response to a greeting, he may express anger or suspicion.
9. At times friendly, at times in a bad mood.
10. Very changeable in behavior. Sometimes it seems that he is deliberately doing a bad job.
11. Damages public and personal property (in houses, gardens, public transport).
12. Vulgar language, stories, poems, drawings.
13. Unpleasant, especially when defending himself against accusations brought against him.
14. Mutters under his breath if he is dissatisfied with something.
15. Has a negative attitude towards comments.
16. Sometimes lies without any reason and without difficulty.
17. Once or twice he was noticed stealing money, sweets, and valuable items.
18. Always pretends to something and believes that he has been unfairly punished.
19. “Wild” look, looking from under his brows.
20. Very disobedient, does not observe discipline.
21. Aggressive (screams, threatens, uses force).
22. Most willing to be friends with so-called suspicious types.
23. Often steals money, sweets, and valuable items.
24. Behaves indecently.
VI. TD – anxiety towards children. The child's anxiety about being accepted by other children. At times it takes the form of open hostility. All symptoms are equally important.
1. “Plays the hero,” especially when comments are made to him.
2. Can’t help but “play” in front of others.
3. Tends to “play the fool.”
4. Too bold (takes unnecessary risks).
5. Takes care to always be in agreement with the majority. Imposed on others; it is easy to operate.
6. Loves to be the center of attention.
7. Plays exclusively (or almost exclusively) with older children.
8. Tries to take a responsible position, but is afraid that he will not be able to cope with it.
9. Shows off to other children.
10. Clowns around (plays like a buffoon).
11. Behaves noisily when the teacher is not in the classroom.
12. Dresses provocatively (pants, hairstyle - boys; exaggerated clothing, cosmetics - girls).
13. Destroys public property with passion.
14. Stupid antics in a peer group.
15. Imitates the hooligan antics of others.
VII. A – lack of social normativity (asociality). Uncertainty in the approval of adults, which is expressed in various forms of negativism. Symptoms 1–5 – lack of effort to please adults, indifference and lack of interest in good relations with them. Symptoms 5–9 in older children may indicate a degree of independence. Symptoms 10–16 – lack of moral scrupulousness in detail. 16 – the child believes that adults are unfriendly and interfere in his affairs without having the right to do so.
1. Not interested in studying.
2. Works at school when he is “stood” over or when he is forced to work.
3. Works outside of school only when supervised or forced to work.
4. Not shy, but shows indifference when answering the teacher's questions.
5. Not shy, but never asks for help.
6. Never voluntarily undertakes any work.
7. Not interested in the approval or disapproval of adults.
8. Minimizes contact with the teacher, but communicates normally with other people.
9. Avoids the teacher, but talks to other people.
10. Copies homework.
11. Takes other people's books without permission.
12. Selfish, loves intrigue, spoils other children's games.
13. Shows cunning and dishonesty when playing with other children.
14. “Dishonest player” (plays only for personal gain, cheats in games).
15. Cannot look directly into another's eyes.
16. Secretive and distrustful.
VIII. KD – conflict with children(from jealous rivalry to open hostility).
1. Disturbs other children in games, laughs at them, likes to scare them.
2. At times he is very unkind towards those children who do not belong to his close circle of friends.
3. Bores other children and pesters them.
4. Quarrel and offend other children.
5. Tries to create certain difficulties for other children with his comments.
6. Hides or destroys objects that belong to other children.
7. Mainly has bad relationships with other children.
8. Picks on weaker children.
9. Other children don’t like him or even tolerate him.
10. Fights inappropriately (biting, scratching, etc.).
IX. N – restlessness. Restlessness, impatience, inability to do work that requires perseverance, concentration and reflection. Tendency to short and easy efforts. Avoidance of long-term efforts.
1. Very sloppy.
2. Refuses contact with other children in a way that is very unpleasant for them.
3. Easily comes to terms with failures in manual labor.
4. In games he has absolutely no self-control.
5. Unpunctual, not diligent. Often forgets or loses pencils, books, and other items.
6. Uneven, irresponsible in manual labor.
7. Not diligent in schoolwork.
8. Too restless to work alone.
9. Cannot pay attention or concentrate on anything for long periods of time in class.
10. Doesn't know what to do with himself. He cannot stop at anything, at least for a relatively long period of time.
11. Too restless to remember adults' comments or directions.
X. EN – emotional stress. Symptoms 1–5 indicate emotional immaturity, 6–7 indicate serious fears, 8–10 indicate absenteeism and unpunctuality.
1. Plays with toys that are too childish for his age.
2. Loves games, but quickly loses interest in them.
3. Too childish in speech.
4. Too immature to listen and follow directions.
5. Plays exclusively (mostly) with younger children.
6. Too anxious to decide on anything.
7. Other children pick on him (he is the scapegoat).
8. He is often suspected of playing truant, although in fact he has tried to do so once or twice.
9. He is often late.
10. Leaves individual lessons.
11. Disorganized, loose, uncollected.
12. Behaves in the group (class) as an outsider, an outcast.
XI. NS – neurotic symptoms. Their severity may depend on the age of the child, and they may also be the consequences of a pre-existing disorder.
1. Stutters, stammers, “it’s difficult to get a word out of him.”
2. Speaks erratically.
3. Blinks frequently.
4. Moves hands aimlessly. Various tics.
5. Nail-biting.
6. Walks bouncing.
7. Thumb sucking (over 10 years old).
XII. C – unfavorable environmental conditions.
1. Often absent from school.
2. Doesn't go to school for several days.
3. Parents deliberately lie to justify their child’s absence from school.
4. Forced to stay at home to help parents.
5. Sloppy, dirty.
6. Looks like she's eating very poorly.
7. Significantly uglier than other children.
XIII. UR – mental development.
1. Severely behind in school.
2. “Dumb” for his age.
4. Huge shortcomings in knowledge of elementary mathematics.
5. Doesn't understand math at all.
6. Other children treat him like a fool.
7. Simply stupid.
XIV. SR – sexual development.
1. Very early development, sensitivity to the opposite sex.
2. Delayed sexual development.
3. Shows perverted tendencies.
XV. B – diseases and organic disorders.
1. Improper breathing.
2. Frequent colds.
3. Frequent nosebleeds.
4. Breathes through the mouth.
5. Tendency to ear diseases.
6. Tendency to skin diseases.
7. Complains of frequent stomach pain and nausea.
8. Frequent headaches.
9. Tendency to become excessively pale or blush.
10. Painful, reddened eyelids.
11. Very cold hands.
12. Strabismus.
13. Poor coordination of movements.
14. Unnatural poses.
XVI. F – physical defects.
1. Poor vision.
2. Weak hearing.
3. Too short.
4. Excessive fullness.
5. Other abnormal body features.
According to V. A. Murzenko, the maladaptation coefficient of the main part of the sample ranges from 6 to 25 points, in 20.8% of the sample the maladjustment coefficient exceeds 25 points, which, in the author’s opinion, indicates the significant seriousness of the violation of the mechanisms of personal adaptation - such children are already on the verge of clinical disorders and need special help, including the intervention of a neuropsychiatrist. For 5.5% of students, we can talk more about situational reactions than about stable personality deviations.
Analysis of the structures of filled CIs showed that a typical structure is one in which a dominant syndrome is identified, sometimes a group of syndromes. The following frequencies of distribution of dominant syndromes have been identified:
V. Hostility towards adults – 34.4%.
VII. Lack of social normativity – 22.2%.
III. Withdrawal – 12.5%.
II. Depression – 11.1%.
VIII. Hostility towards children – 11.1%.
I. Lack of trust in new people, things, situations – 8.3%.
Methodology for observing the process of problem solving by students
Regush L. A., Orlova A. V. Laboratory workshop on educational psychology. – St. Petersburg: Education, 1993. – P. 18.
The process of solving problems can be considered as a subject of observation of the manifestation of psychological characteristics of students: their thinking, memory, attention, emotions, will, characteristics of learning motivation. Such observation takes place in natural conditions for the student, it is not limited by time frames and can be carried out on various mathematical contents.
In order for observation of problem solving to become a truly effective method of studying the psychological characteristics of students, you need to do the following.
1. Determine the psychological subject of observation (for example, cognitive interest, emotional manifestations, stability of attention, etc.).
2. Formulate the purpose of observation (for example, give a comparative description of manifestations of cognitive interest in solving mathematical and linguistic problems).
3. Develop an observation program and methods for recording facts; it is especially important to determine the units of observation, that is, those features of student behavior that can be seen and that characterize the selected psychological object.
4. Identify lines of analysis of the obtained material.
As a result of observation, organized taking into account the listed requirements, it is possible to move from an external description of the student’s behavior to the construction of a hypothesis that explains the internal psychological essence of what is happening, and to its subsequent verification.
The quality of the conclusions will depend primarily on the thoroughness of the observation program. It must take into account a wide range of mental manifestations, which will allow the observer to give an appropriate interpretation of what he saw.
In addition, you need to plan the time of observations, since they must be multiple - five or more observations. It is necessary that each of them be carried out at the same time of day, preferably on the same days of the week.
Speaking about the specifics of methods for psychological research in problem solving, L.L. Gurova in her book “Psychological Analysis of Problem Solving” (Voronezh, 1976) notes that in order to develop, objectify the mental activity of the subject solving problems, two ways are possible: either intervention in the process decisions from the outside, or a comparison of the actual progress of the solution with an objective-logical program for solving the same problem.
Intervention in solving a problem in the form of hints and interference, stimulating and destructive influences, or with the help of provocative questions and the student’s reaction to it can become valuable additional material in observing a particular psychological phenomenon.
As for comparing the real and optimal progress of solving a problem, this is very easy to do when solving well-known experimental problems such as the Székely candle problem or the Tower of Hanoi problem (see: Workshop on General and Experimental Psychology / Edited by A. A. Krylov L., 1987). In order to make such a comparison for an arbitrary problem, it is necessary to structure its most rational solution step by step, and also to analyze which cognitive processes and to what extent can be involved in solving which psychological characteristics has the content of the task (for example, access to spatial representations, the ability to construct large number hypotheses, the need to transfer the solution method to a new situation, etc.).
To carry out the observation, the following task is proposed: “In front of you is a square divided into 25 cells. Each column (top) and each row (left) are designated by indices from 1 to 5. In each of the 25 cells of the square, you can put a number equal to the product of the row and column indices. For the cell in the upper left corner of the square, this product will be: 4 x 2 = 8. It is necessary to select 5 cells in the square so that the sum of their products amounts to a given number (in this example, 39).
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