Mengu Timur and the Russian princess. Eastern literature - a library of medieval texts. Attitude to the Russian Orthodox Church
4. Reign of Mengu-Timur
Berke left no sons. If he had had the opportunity to appoint an heir, his choice would probably have fallen on Prince Nogai, who proved himself to be an outstanding military leader and whom he apparently loved very much. However, the new khan had to be elected by the local kurultai, a meeting of Juchid princes and senior military leaders. Genealogical seniority was not an absolutely necessary condition for the election of a candidate, but it often provided a serious advantage. Nogai could not claim seniority in the Jochi house. His father, Tatar, was the son of Boal, the seventh son of Jochi. And Batu’s two grandsons still lived: Mengu-Timur (Mongka-Temur) and Tuda-Mengu (Teda-Mongka), both sons of Tugan.
In view of the high prestige of Batu as the founder of the Kipchak Khanate, it seems quite natural that the electoral assembly preferred his grandchildren to Nogai. Therefore, it was Mengu-Timur, and not Nogai, who succeeded Berke as the khan of the Kipchaks. Since Arig Bugha had by then surrendered to Kublai (1264), the latter was the undisputed master of the empire, from which we can conclude that Kublai approved the candidacy of Mengu Timur as Great Khan (around 1267).
Nogai, however, was too prominent a figure to completely leave the stage. In addition to the fact that he was a Juchid, he was also a high-ranking military leader - a miriarch. Moreover, he had his own army at his disposal - the troops of his horde, recruited mainly from the Mangkyt tribe. The main territory of residence of the Mangkyts at that time was the Yaik River basin. Later they became known as the Nogai horde. Since "Nogai" means "dog", it can be assumed that the dog was the totem animal of the leading Mangkyt clan. In Egyptian sources, Khan Nogai is mentioned under a double name: Isa-Nogai. It is quite possible that Isa is his own name, and Nogai is a clan name (that is, the name of the clan of which he was the leader). In 1287, Nogai stated that he received a special decree from Batu Khan to maintain unity and order among his relatives after the death of the latter in the Kipchak Khanate. If this was in reality, Batu must have established Nogai's dominance over the troops of his horde (the Mangkyt horde), considering them a special unit intended to maintain the legitimate government in the khanate.
It seems possible that, by agreement with Mengu-Timur, Nogai was recognized as the acting ruler of the Lower Danube region and authorized to conduct diplomatic relations with both the Byzantine Empire and Egypt. According to the Byzantine historian George Pachymeres, Nogai was sent by the “Khans” to the Balkans. Is it possible to conclude from Pachymeres' use of the plural in the word "khans" that the agreement between Mengu-Timur and Nogai was confirmed by Kublai?
For himself, Mengu-Timur left the negotiations with Il-Khan Abaga, as well as the conduct of Russian affairs. Since Mengu-Timur worshiped Heaven and was not a Muslim, the religious motive in the previous struggle between the Golden Horde and the Il-Khans had now disappeared. In addition, the Great Khan Kublai put pressure on both Abaga and Mengu-Timur to settle their differences. As a result, in 668 Gijra (1269-1270) they concluded a peace treaty, which, naturally, greatly upset Sultan Baybars. However, the Sultan was encouraged by receiving a friendly message from Nogai the following year.
In 1271, Nogai launched a campaign against Constantinople to force Emperor Michael VIII to allow his embassies and those of the Egyptian Sultan to use the Bosphorus sea route. Seriously risking defeat, the emperor sued for peace and offered Nogai his friendship. In 1273, Mikhail gave his illegitimate daughter Euphrosyne in marriage to No-gai. Thus, the house of Palaiologos now established familial ties (through illegitimate princesses) with both the Il-Khans and the Kipchak rulers.
Mengu-Timur's policy towards Rus' was more favorable than that of his predecessors. The chronicler notes under the date 6774 from acc. peace (1266): " This year Khan Berke died and the oppression by the Tatars was greatly eased" In all likelihood, tax collection by Muslim merchants ceased and permanent tax collectors were appointed instead. Another act of great significance was the issuance of a charter of immunity, or label, for the Russian Church. Following the commandments of Yasa Genghis Khan, Mengu-Timur’s predecessors did not include Russian abbots, monks, priests and sextons among those “counted” during the census. Now the privileges of the clergy as a social group, including family members, were approved; Church and monastery land with all the people working there did not pay tax; and all “church people” were exempted from military service.
Mongol officials were prohibited, on pain of death, from taking away church lands or demanding any service from church people. Anyone guilty of slander and defamation of the Greek Orthodox faith was also sentenced to death. To enhance the impact of the charter, the name of Genghis Khan was placed at the beginning. As gratitude for the privileges granted, Russian priests and monks were expected to pray to God for Mengu-Timur, his family and heirs. It was emphasized that their prayers and blessings should be earnest and sincere. "A if one of the clergy prays with a hidden thought, he will commit a sin».
Apparently, the label was originally written in Mongolian and was immediately translated into Russian. It should be remembered that, according to Plano Carpini, there were Russian translators and scribes in the Batu office; and Batu's heirs must have employed a certain number of Russian secretaries. It can also be assumed that the text of the label was compiled jointly by Mengu-Timur (or his chief Mongol secretary) and Bishop Mitrofan of Sarai, representing the Russian clergy. And if so, then the moral sanction against insincere prayer must have been formulated by this bishop.
Thanks to this label, and a number of similar ones issued by the heirs of Mengu-Timur, the Russian clergy and the people under its jurisdiction constituted a privileged group, and thus the foundation of ecclesiastical wealth was laid. By issuing this label, Mengu Timur was following the traditions of Genghis Khan and the practice of Genghis' successors in China, just like other local Mongol khans. From this point of view (his label corresponded to the basic ideas of Mongol rule and was, in principle, logical. At the same time, it was a successful foreign policy step, since it ensured, at least to a certain extent, loyalty to the khan of the most educated social group in Rus', which enjoyed great authority among the people. Thanks to the label, one could expect that the Russian spirit of resistance to the khan would be significantly weakened.
Due to the policy of loyalty of the princes towards the khan, established in Eastern Rus' thanks to Alexander Nevsky, and the collapse of the resistance of the Western Russian princes during the reign of Berke, the task of containing the Russian princes did not present any particular difficulties for Mengu-Timur. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, permission to occupy the Vladimir table was given by Khan Berke to Alexander's brother, Prince Yaroslav of Tver (Yaroslav II, Grand Duke of Vladimir, 1263-1272). His power was confirmed by Mengu-Timur. Yaroslav's successor was his brother, Prince Vasily of Kostroma (Grand Duke of Vladimir, 1272-1276). After his death, there were no more sons of Yaroslav I, and Mengu-Timur granted the Vladimir table to the eldest living son of Alexander Nevsky, Prince Dmitry Pereyaslavsky.
A new trend in political organization in Rus' became noticeable after the ascension of Yaroslav II to the Vladimir throne. Each of Alexander Nevsky's brothers, and then each of his sons, titled Grand Dukes of Vladimir, preferred to remain in their own appanages, coming to Vladimir only for short visits in order to quickly resolve those state affairs that required their presence. This indicates the temporary victory of the specific principle over the national-state principle. It should be remembered that the succession to the Kiev throne by right of seniority was shaken already at the end of the 12th century, when the Principality of Galicia in Western Rus' and Suzdal (later the Grand Duchy of Vladimir) in Eastern Rus', each under the rule of its own princely branch, gained virtual independence from Kyiv . Moreover, in the local principalities, the younger members of the princely house clung to their inheritances, and each of them sought to make their inheritance their own hereditary principality. On the other hand, the senior prince in any of the regional states tried to establish his supreme power in the principality and did not consider local appanages to be established once and for all. In short, there is no doubt that the new “appanage order” that emerged in Eastern Rus' after the death of Alexander Nevsky was partly an expression of trends that had already manifested themselves in the previous period. However, the victory of these tendencies over the opposite ones was greatly facilitated by Mongol rule in Rus'.
In giving labels to the Russian princes, the khan was guided, at least in part, by Mongol ideas about the relationship between the empire and the uluses, as well as between local khanates and the appanages of lesser princes. From this point of view, the desire of each Russian prince to ensure his hereditary rights to his appanage principality was quite understandable to the Mongols and was considered suitable for the stability of possessions in Rus'.
Among the Russian princes who showed loyal relations to Mengu-Timur during his reign, Mengu-Timur gave preference to the Rostov princes and singled them out. In his relations with them one can detect a certain design: the desire of the khan to create among the Russian princes a group on which he could rely unconditionally and which he could use to strengthen Mongol rule in the event that symptoms of Russian opposition to him appeared. The choice of the Rostov principality as the main point in the khan's policy related to Russian affairs can be explained by his fear of a possible repetition of a Russian rebellion similar to the uprising of 1262. By maintaining friendly relations with the Rostov princes, the khan hoped to ensure the obedience of the entire Rostov land to him and to undermine the authority of the city council, which both he and the Rostov princes considered dangerous for their interests. It was more than natural that, as a reward for the devotion of the Rostov princes, the khan was only happy to allow them to curb the power of the veche.
The Rostov princes were descendants of Grand Duke Vsevolod III the Big Nest through his eldest son Konstantin, the famous patron of education. The most prominent among them during the reign of Mengu-Timur were the grandchildren of Constantine, Prince Boris of Rostov and Prince Gleb of Beloozersky, as well as their son-in-law, Fedor, son of Prince Rostislav of Smolensk. Fyodor married Princess Maria of Yaroslavl (great-granddaughter of Constantine) and received Yaroslavl as his inheritance. The mother of Boris and Gleb, also named Maria, was the daughter of the martyr prince Mikhail of Chernigov. Well educated and deeply religious, she played an important role in the spiritual life of the elite of Rostov society.
At the same time, one of the Juchid princes, converted to Christianity by the Rostov bishop Kirill around 1259 and named Peter, settled in Rostov and there married the daughter of a Mongol official, whose family was also Christian. He became known in Rus' as Tsarevich Peter of the Horde (Peter Ordynsky). Due to Mongol religious tolerance, the change of religion did not annul Peter's rights and privileges as a Mongol prince. Therefore, his stay in Rostov was considered useful for maintaining friendly relations between the Rostov princes and the khan. Prince Boris of Rostov was especially friendly with Peter. According to Peter's biographer, Boris loved Peter so much that he always ate with him and, finally, with the blessing of the bishop, proclaimed Peter his sworn brother. But friendship is friendship, but business is business. Prince Boris apparently had real business acumen. Peter, who was a very rich man, on the contrary, did not know the value of money; when he decided to build a church on the shore of a lake near Rostov, Prince Boris, who owned that land, asked for a mind-boggling price for it, and Peter immediately paid it. As stated in the life of Peter, the amount was one pound of gold and nine pounds of silver. Klyuchevsky says that this deal was the main topic of conversation in Rostov for some time.
When Peter was told about the need to draw up a document on the purchase of land, he replied that he did not understand what the documents were for. Boris Rostovsky this time turned out to be decent enough to hand over the document to Peter. This turned out to be very useful for the descendants of Peter when, later, the grandchildren of Boris of Rostov tried to make their claims to this land. In his old age, Peter turned the church he built into a monastery, bequeathed a constant income to it and, having taken monastic vows, himself became a monk. He was canonized by the Russian Church in the middle of the 16th century.
The Rostov princes often traveled to the Horde. In 1257, Prince Gleb went to Mongolia and was warmly received at the court of the Great Khan Mongke. There he married a Mongol princess, who agreed to be baptized; she received the name Theodora. When Mengu-Timur became the khan of the Kipchaks, Gleb and a number of other Russian princes went to his headquarters to receive a label for reign. He stayed in the Horde until 1268. In 1271 he was again in the camp of Mengu-Timur. In 1277, his brother Boris with his wife and children made a trip to the Horde. There he fell ill and died. In 1278, Gleb, who became the prince of Rostov after the death of Boris, sent his son Mikhail to Mengu-Timur along with Konstantin Uglichsky (son of Boris) and Fyodor of Yaroslavl.
Another region of Rus' to which Mengu-Timur showed considerable attention was Novgorod. In this case, the khan’s motives were of a commercial nature: he hoped to support the Baltic trade, in which Novgorod was the main channel for Eastern Rus' and the East. International trade was one of the foundations of the Golden Horde's prosperity, and most khans supported its development. During the reign of Mengu-Timur, the foundations for its widespread distribution were laid.
While Novgorod was the most convenient northern point of Mongolian foreign trade, the Crimean ports were of great importance for maintaining the Black Sea and Mediterranean trade, which at that time was dominated mainly by Italian merchants - the Venetians and Genoese. In this regard, the Novgorod and Crimean ports attracted the close attention of Mengu-Timur. The Genoese entered the Black Sea, presumably in the second half of the 12th century. During the existence of the Latin Empire in Constantinople (1204-1261), all Black Sea trade was monopolized by the Venetians. The two Polo brothers were among other Venetian merchants who arrived at the Crimean port of Soldaia in 1260; this was the starting point of their great adventure. However, after the restoration of the Byzantine Empire by Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Genoese not only returned to the Black Sea, but also found themselves in a more privileged position than the Venetians, and saw a real opportunity for themselves to establish “factories” in the Crimea. Around 1267 Mengu-Timur granted them special privileges for their trade in Caffa (modern Feodosia). And in 1274 they established themselves in Soldaya.
For parallel development in the north, Mengu-Timur took on the role of defender of Novgorod and founder of free trade in the Baltic region. After the conclusion of an agreement between Novgorod and Grand Duke Vsevolod III of Suzdal (1211), only princes from the Suzdal house could lay claim to reign in Novgorod. Each of them, however, at the time of his election had to sign a treaty guaranteeing the traditional freedoms of the city. Alexander Nevsky, like others, signed a similar agreement, but no copy of it has survived. After the death of Alexander Yaroslavich, the Novgorodians agreed to recognize his brother Yaroslav II, Prince of Tver and Grand Duke of Vladimir, as their prince (1264). On this occasion, a new agreement was concluded between the Grand Duke and the city of Novgorod; its conditions were formulated in two identical letters - one addressed by the Novgorodians to the Grand Duke, and the other from the Grand Duke to Novgorod (circa 1265). The original Novgorod charter is still preserved in Russian archives.
Two years later, the charters were confirmed by both parties. Soon after this, Yaroslav Tverskoy violated some of the terms of the treaty, and the Novgorodians immediately demanded that he leave the city. Not wanting to give in to their demands, Yaroslav Tverskoy turned to the khan for help, accusing the Novgorodians of wanting to revolt. To his disappointment, Mengu-Timur ordered him to enter into negotiations with the Novgorodians, and Prince Yaroslav had no choice but to agree. A new treaty was concluded confirming the rights and privileges of the city. To approve this ritual for the future, Mengu-Timur sent two envoys, in whose presence Prince Yaroslav II swore by “kissing the cross” to comply with the terms of the treaty (1270). At the same time, Mengu-Timur ordered Yaroslav Tverskoy not to interfere in trade between Novgorod and Riga. Yaroslav Yaroslavich should also have informed Riga about this.
However, Mengu-Timur cannot be considered a champion of political freedoms for Novgorod. He was only interested in supporting Baltic trade through Novgorod and its expansion to the East. The most convenient route from Novgorod to Sarai passed through the upper Volga region, that is, through the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. In this regard, although Mengu-Timur showed a willingness to defend Novgorod from any attacks from the Grand Duke of Vladimir, he also insisted on continuing the political connection between Novgorod and the Grand Duke. After the death of Yaroslav II (1272), the Novgorodians elected Dmitry Pereyaslavsky as their prince. The new Grand Duke Vasily of Kostroma, who himself laid claim to the Novgorod table, turned to the khan. The latter sent part of the Mongol troops to support the candidacy of Prince Vasily, which forced the Novgorodians to “change their minds,” as the chronicler says, and recognize Vasily of Kostroma as their prince. When, after his death (1276), Dmitry received the label for the great reign in Vladimir, the khan agreed to confirm him as the Novgorod prince.
In 1275, a new general census and recruitment of recruits took place in Rus'. The order for this probably came in 1273 or 1274. from the Great Khan Kublai Khan, who needed reinforcements for campaigns in Southern China and Indochina. Since Khan Mengu-Timur, for his part, intended to strengthen his power in the Caucasus, a fresh contingent of troops would also be very useful to him. This time, along with Eastern Russia, the census was also carried out on Smolensk land. In 1281, the Khan's favorite, Grand Duke Fyodor of Smolensk (who had returned to Smolensk from Yaroslavl by this time) established his dominance over Vitebsk, which formerly belonged to the Principality of Polotsk. Mongolian collectors must have been sent to Vitebsk as well.
In 1277 Mengu-Timur launched a campaign against the Alans in the northern Caucasus. As we know, this group of Alans, as well as other Alan tribes in the Don basin and Crimea, were conquered by the Mongols during Batu's campaign in 1239. After this, they collaborated with the Mongols and provided troops for the Mongol conquest of China. During the civil strife between Berke and the Il-Khans, the Alans of the North Caucasian group (Ossetians) took the opportunity to free themselves from subordination to the Kipchak Khan. In fact, those who lived in the high mountain valleys were never completely conquered by the Mongols. Mengu-Timur ordered a number of Russian princes with their boyars and retinue to join his campaign against the Alans. According to the Nikon Chronicle, princes Gleb, Boris’s son Konstantin, Fyodor Yaroslavsky and Andrei Gorodetsky (son of Alexander Nevsky) took part in the campaign. The hike was successful; The Russians took the main stronghold of the Alans, the fortified city of Dedyakov (1278), and captured rich booty, most of which probably went to the khan. Mengu-Timur praised his Russian vassals and awarded them with many gifts.
Now let's turn to Western Russian affairs. It should be remembered that after Burundai's campaign against Lithuania, relations between Prince Daniil of Galicia and Mindaugas of Lithuania became tense. Daniel died in 1264. In the same year, part of the Lithuanian nobility, outraged by the centralization policy pursued by Mindaugas, organized a conspiracy against him, during which he was killed. The son of Mindaugas, monk Voishelk left the monastery to avenge his father. Many of the conspirators were captured and executed, and Voishelk, with the help of Russian troops recruited in Novgorod and Pinsk, became the ruler of Lithuania. In 1267 he returned to the monastery and transferred power over Lithuania to his brother-in-law, Daniil's son Shvarn. The location of the stars on the political horizon seemed extremely favorable for the Danilovichs (sons of Daniel); they were now in a position to take a leading role in the unification of Western Rus' and Lithuania. However, as the Volyn chronicler writes, “ Satan, who never wishes the good of mankind, now filled Leo's heart with envy towards Schwarn" As a result, Lev (Schwarn's brother) killed not Schwarn, but his patron Voishelk.
The murder of Voyshelk, naturally, caused great indignation among the Lithuanians, and after the death of Švarn (1270), none of the Danilovichs had the slightest chance of becoming the prince of Lithuania. The Lithuanian prince Troyden (Tridenis, 1270-1282) took power into his own hands; and after his death another ancient Lithuanian clan came to power.
After the completion of the Ossetian campaign, Mengu-Timur turned his attention to Byzantine and Egyptian affairs. Before this, as we know, relations with both Byzantium and Egypt were under the competence of Nogai. Apparently, Mengu-Timur decided to curb Nogai’s authority. When the Bulgarian Khan Constantine Tikh was killed in battle with another contender for the throne in 1277, discord began in Bulgaria due to the fact that several candidates for the throne declared their claims at once. Since Michael VIII and Nogai supported different candidates, relations between them deteriorated. It seems that it was this confusion that led Mengu-Timur to the idea of intervening in Balkan affairs. Russian chronicles record that Khan Mengu-Timur and Metropolitan Kirill sent the Sarai bishop Theognostus to Emperor Michael VIII and the Patriarch of Constantinople as their joint envoy, with letters and gifts from each of them. This embassy probably took place around 1278, since Theognostus returned to Sarai in 1279.
Apparently, relations with Egypt were also discussed by Theognostus with the emperor and the patriarch. In any case, around the same time, Mengu-Timur tried to establish direct diplomatic connections with Egypt through Constantinople. Berke's friend, the Egyptian Sultan Baybars I, died in 1277. His two sons ruled after him in turn, each for a fairly short period, and in 1279 Kilawun (Kalaun) came to power. In July 1280, his envoys arrived to the Kipchaks, most likely in response to a mission sent to Egypt by Mengu-Timur around 1279. By the time Kilawun's envoys arrived to the Kipchaks, Mengu-Timur had already died.
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And now where?
Have supper. When I told you I wasn't hungry, I lied.
Who knows, in such circumstances I am completely unable to say that I am tired and want to go home. Even when it's completely true.
Therefore, I returned home already in the pre-dawn twilight, as befits an irresponsible parasite and a waster of life, which I sincerely hope to someday turn into. And I’m pretending more or less tolerably right now.
I thought everyone had been asleep for a long time. This turned out to be partly true, at least the dogs were definitely sleeping somewhere, and no one began to knock me off my feet and then enthusiastically drag me for a morning walk. I'm so lucky today.
However, in the living room sat a skinny red-haired girl, freckled, big-eyed, high-cheekboned and, overall, extremely pretty. At first I looked at her in bewilderment, wondering: who is she, where did she come from? And what such a terrible thing had to happen in her life for her to run not to the House by the Bridge, but straight to me? Still, my reputation, frankly speaking, is ambiguous, dating back to the old days, when Juffin and Kofa had a lot of fun inventing legends about me that were supposed to at least slightly balance out my undignified appearance and sometimes absurd, but still too easy for a Secret Detective character .
It was only a few seconds later that I finally identified Basilio. It’s not that I really forgot that Lady Sotofa turned our monster into a young lady last night, it’s just that this knowledge still remained purely theoretical. I have not yet had time to truly comprehend the fact that there is now one more person in my house. And one less conventional basilisk. Which, strictly speaking, is even a little annoying; I had just finally gotten used to his nightmarish appearance. And then suddenly - hello, please start over. But it is usually much more difficult to get used to a person than to the most terrible monster. At least for me.
Why are not you sleeping? - I finally asked.
And then I realized how stupid this question was. If they had turned me from a monster into a man, at first I would not only have been able to sleep, but even be unable to sit quietly in a chair. I would probably run across the ceiling screaming, mixed with excitement and panic.
However, Basilio had no chance to run: Armstrong and Ella were sitting on her lap, and you won’t get out from under such a load, I don’t know.
When I appeared, she beamed, as if she had seen a good wizard.
However, if you look at it, I am a wizard. In a sense, even kind. Sometimes. But at that moment I was so confused by her joy that I asked another stupid question:
Maybe you're hungry?
Like a caring grandmother, honestly.
The former monster shook his red head negatively.
On the contrary, she said. - Before leaving, Sir Juffin warned Tricky and Melamori: “Don’t get carried away with cakes, otherwise your poor child will eat himself to the point of complete amazement.” It seems that this is exactly what happened to me. Perhaps Sir Juffin is endowed with a prophetic gift.
“You can’t take that away from him,” I agreed. - Where, exactly, are your breadwinners?
Let's go sleep. Actually, they put me to bed first. And they even sat with me for a little while. I saw that they were very tired, and I pretended to fall asleep so as not to detain them. True, I regretted it later. For some reason I felt scared alone. Although I was not completely alone, but with cats. But it's still scary.
Scary - what exactly?
That's all! - Basilio admitted in a fallen voice. “I’ve never slept in human form before.” Perhaps I should now have a real human dream? It's terribly interesting how it is, but still scary. Because for the first time. But I’m much more afraid that in my sleep I’ll turn back...
I understand,” I nodded. - If I were you, I would be afraid too. But in reality this is out of the question. Lady Sotofa Hanemer never slacks. If she bewitched, then she bewitched, period.
Lady Sotofa Hanemer,” Basilio repeated dreamily. - Such an amazing, beautiful lady! Will she ever come here again?
“I don’t know,” I said honestly. - Actually, she has a lot to do. On the other hand, just last night she said that without friendship, life loses all meaning. So you and I have a chance to see her here again. Well, or getting an invitation to a cup of camra in her garden is also nice.
That would be amazing. I have never in my life... never gone to visit. And listen, it turns out I’ve never done almost anything in my life! Well, the kind that people usually do. And now I’m terribly afraid that I won’t be able to cope.
Still?!
Of course it still is. For example, I have never in my life told about myself to a monster who has just turned into a beauty. It wasn't like that, I swear! You are my first.
Basilio smiled uncertainly. I realized that I had to continue.
And a couple of hours ago, for the first time in my life, I watched how one amazing house turns into another, even more amazing one. Before this, for the first time in my life, I accompanied Lady Sotofu home - usually she goes down the Dark Path, or disappears in some other way. And this afternoon, for the first time in my life, I fell into the clutches of a street fortune teller and saw a Prophetic dream. How do you like this list? And keep in mind, it was, by my standards, a very calm day, filled exclusively with pleasures and friendly chatter.
So, usually things are even more amazing for you? - Basilio admired.
Yes,” I admitted.
And he didn’t lie.
What do you do to not worry too much? - she asked. - So that you can sleep. And generally speaking…
However, you can always just tell the truth.
The thing is that I'm usually very tired. When you fall asleep on the move, there is no time to worry just to get to the pillow. So don't rush to bed now. Sit here, or in the office - wherever you want, settle in there. I would love to keep you company, but I don’t have the strength anymore, I’m sorry. So do something interesting. Read it, for example.
Exactly! - she beamed. - Tricky left me a book. About how to make miracles. I can learn to do magic.
I shuddered internally, imagining the possible consequences. But he didn’t show it, because showing distrust of a newcomer is the worst thing an elder can do. Boudreau said:
Great plan. Just read everything very carefully first. And re-read so you don't miss anything. Better yet, learn it by heart. Real sorcerers always know all the necessary spells by heart, but why are you any worse?
Nothing? - Basilio asked timidly.
Correct answer, well done. Here's to the bison until you collapse from fatigue. Sooner or later it will happen, believe me. For example, it has already happened to me. Just now, right before your eyes.
With these words, I dramatically staggered and plopped down on the carpet.
But sometimes circumstances force us to become heroes.
Okay,” I said, crawling from the carpet to the sofa. - I'll sleep here. But only on one condition. Or rather, there are three conditions. Firstly, this will not always be the case, but only today. In honor of your first human day. Then I'll move back to my bedroom, okay?
Of course,” Basilio agreed. - I'll probably get used to it quickly. I will try!
And secondly, you will bring me some kind of blanket. Because I no longer have the strength to follow him. Honestly.
I'm coming now! - she exclaimed.
There was a dissatisfied meow from Armstrong and Ella, who for this occasion were pushed from their knees to the floor. Literally a minute later I felt that I was being carefully wrapped up like a baby. It was so great that I immediately came to terms with the size of the sofa and all the other troubles that had already come and were coming - in advance, about six months in advance.
Mengu-Temir was the son of Tukan and the grandson of Batu Khan. He went down in the history of the Golden Horde as the first ruler of an independent state. By that time, the Golden Horde had separated from the Mongol Empire. This was manifested in the fact that Mengu-Temir began to mint money with his own name, independently issue labels and appoint governors in his own domains.
Already at the beginning of his reign, Mengu-Temir appointed one of the sons of Tok-Temir as the ruler of Crimea. He then issued a label to Genoa for possession of the city of Cafa (modern Feodosia). Thus, the Golden Horde ruler seemed to indicate that his policy was aimed at establishing profitable trade relations with other countries. It was in this that the genius of Mengu-Temir manifested itself most clearly, although he was not deprived of military talent.
In those years, the most influential person in the Golden Horde was Temnik Nogai. He wandered from the mouth of the Danube to the banks of the Dnieper. His responsibilities included control over the Russian principalities, Bulgaria and Moldavia. Nogai also exerted his influence on Byzantium. Temnik ensured calm in the west of the Golden Horde, and in 1266 Mengu-Temir made a campaign against the Bulgar Khanate, where he asserted his power for two years.
Then in 1268 Mengu-Temir started a war with Il-Khan Abaka for Azerbaijan. In this war, the ruler of the Golden Horde was supported by the Mamluk Sultan Baybars. A year later, a peace treaty was concluded between Mengu-Temir and Abaka.
Soon after this, the Novgorod Chronicle and the Sofia Vremennik record the arrival of the Vladimir prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich with his regiments in Novgorod. Along with him came “the great Baskak of Volodymyr named Amragan.” It is quite possible that it was through him that the Golden Horde ruler passed on the label that allowed Novgorod to trade freely in the Suzdal land.
This is the last mention in Russian chronicles of the appearance of the Golden Horde Baskaks in the north of Rus'. Obviously, the rulers of the Golden Horde lost all interest in this troubled province. It is also known that in the 70s of the 13th century a new census was carried out in Rus'. True, written sources do not specify in what year this happened. And there is no direct indication in them of who exactly carried out this action.
The situation is clarified by the khan's label Mengu-Temir. There is such a line in it: “and who will take our Basques and princely scribes and servants and customs officers.” In other words, we are not talking about the khan’s collectors, but about the collectors of the Russian princes. If this is so, then we can say that it was from this time that the Russian princes began to independently conduct their internal politics.
Meanwhile, the Great Khan Kublai Khan concentrated his attention on the war with the Song Empire. He personally led the campaign against the Song, but the war dragged on for several years. This distracted him from the political events taking place in the Mongol Empire itself, and Kaidu, the great-grandson of Ogedei, appeared on the historical stage. He ruled in Bukhara and opposed Kublai, but not yet openly. He needed to gain the support of a powerful ally, and he began to establish ties with the Golden Horde.
Mengu-Temir supported Kaidu in the fight against Kublai. At the same time, the Golden Horde ruler organized a campaign against Byzantium. The reason was the fact that Mikhail Paleologus did his best to prevent the establishment of ties between the Golden Horde and the Mamluk Sultanate. He detained embassies and created other obstacles, but the main thing was that the Byzantine Empire was an ally of the Hulaguid state.
When Il-Khan Abaqa attacked the Mamluks in Syria, Sultan Baybars turned to the Golden Horde for help. In a short time, two alliances were created. One of them included the combined forces of the Golden Horde and the Mamluks, supported by Venice, Jacob of Sicily and Alfonso of Aragon. Another alliance united the Hulaguids and the Genoese with the complicity of the Pope, Louis IX, Charles of Anjou and Michael Palaeologus.
Ibn Khaldun reports that Mengu-Temir’s campaign against Constantinople ended with the Byzantine emperor not accepting the battle and asking for peace. The union was concluded, and it was even sealed by marriage. Mikhail Paleolog gave his illegitimate daughter Efrosinya to Temnik Nogai.
Accompanied by his retinue, Mengu-Temir returned to the capital of the Golden Horde, and he sent Temnik Nogai to Bulgaria against Tsar Constantine Tikh. Thus, Nogai provided an invaluable service to the Byzantine emperor in the fight against his long-time enemy, and after the campaign in Bulgaria, Golden Horde warriors began to travel freely throughout Byzantium, as reported by the chronicler Pachymer. For a long time, local residents looked at foreigners as “God’s punishment.” And this situation remained until the death of Mengu-Temir. Thus, he cut off European ties with the Hulaguid state.
In 1274, the Great Khan Kublai Khan attempted to conquer Japan. However, this military action ended in complete failure. Chinese and Japanese chroniclers report that the “Land of the Rising Sun” was saved by the intervention of external forces. When the Mongol flotilla was already standing off the coast of Japan, a “divine wind” (kamikaze) suddenly flew at the conquerors. He raised such a strong storm that he capsized all the ships of the Great Khan, and tens of thousands of his warriors found themselves at the bottom of the ocean.
As a result, Kublai lost part of his regular army and Kaidu, the ruler of the Ogedei Ulus, took advantage of this. In 1275 he declared his independence and fought for the throne of the Mongol Empire. He was supported by the descendants of Chagatai and the Mongol nobility in Karakurum.
While the war between Kublai and Kaidu was unfolding in the east, the Golden Horde ruler organized a campaign in Lithuania. Soon after this, Grand Duke Vasily Yaroslavovich arrived at Mengu-Temir's headquarters. The Russian historian Tatishchev writes that the ruler of Rus' “brought the khan half a hryvnia from a plow, or from two workers, and that the khan, dissatisfied with the tribute, ordered the people to be re-enumerated in Rus' again.”
Modern researchers usually treat Tatishchev’s information with distrust. However, other historians also report about Vasily Yaroslavovich’s visit to the Khan’s headquarters. Vague evidence of this is also contained in medieval manuscripts. True, what the Russian historian calls “tribute” should in fact be called differently. This was payment for the service that the Golden Horde provided to Rus' in its fight against Lithuania. There is also an explanation for the Khan’s “dissatisfaction” if the payment was low.
Despite this, the following year Temnik Nogai again sent his soldiers to Lev Galitsky, and he marched with them to Lithuania, supported by Gleb Smolensky and Roman Bryansky. However, after the capture of Novogorod, the allies quarreled and refused to go further. On the way back, Nogai’s warriors plundered Russian lands.
In the same year 1276, changes took place in Rus'. Grand Duke Vasily Yaroslavovich “on his return from the Horde, reposed in Kostroma in the fortieth year of his birth.” His place was taken by Dmitry Alexandrovich, who had previously ruled in Pereyaslavl. It was approved by Khan Mengu-Temir.
A year later, Sultan Baybars died in the Mamluk Sultanate. The loss of such a strong ally did not break the Golden Horde ruler and even forced him to act more decisively. The Golden Horde took an aggressive position and kept its neighbors in constant fear. She only needed an excuse to demonstrate her military might.
Such an opportunity presented itself shortly after the death of the Byzantine Empire’s longtime rival, the ruler of Bulgaria, Constantine Tikh. He was “villainously killed” by a certain Lakhan, “a glorious tramp and swineherd” - this is how the chroniclers described him. He married the dowager queen and began to “receive many people, assuring them that heaven had sent him to free his fatherland from the Mongol yoke.”
Nogai made two raids into Bulgarian lands before he managed to capture Lakhan. He was brought to the camp of the Golden Horde army and there he was deprived of his life. Later, one after another, three principalities of the Balkan Peninsula fell under the influence of Nogai: Tarnovo, Vidin and Branichev. Prince Terenty of Tarnovo was forced to marry his daughter to his son Nogai Choka, and send his son Svetislav as an amanat (hostage) to the Golden Horde prison.
In parallel with the successes of Nogai’s temnik on the Balkan Peninsula, Mengu-Temir made a campaign in the North Caucasus, where he subjugated the Alans. It is noteworthy that Russian princes and their squads took part in this campaign of the Golden Horde ruler. For their military exploits they should have received land plots there, but this is not reported in written sources. However, as subsequent events show, the Russian princes had a constant interest in the North Caucasus, which cannot be called simple curiosity.
Meanwhile, in the east of the Mongol Empire, the Great Khan Kublai captured the capital of the Song Empire - the city of Hangzhou. Following this, he transferred part of his army against Kaidu, and skirmishes broke out between them in Kashgar and Khotan. As a result, Kublai's warriors won, but Kaidu did not admit defeat and, after a short respite, captured the old capital of the Mongol Empire, the city of Karakorum.
In 1278, Kublai recaptured Karakorum and completed his conquest of the Song Empire. True, at that time her throne was still occupied by the young ruler Ti-ping. He ruled for only a year, and already in 1279 his fleet was defeated in the Canton Bay near Guangdong. Only after the death of Emperor Ti-ping did the Song dynasty cease to exist and was replaced by the Yuan dynasty, founded by the Great Khan Kublai Khan.
In 1279, after a short reign of two sultans in the Mamluk Sultanate, Emir Qalaun, nicknamed "Alfi", meaning "Man of a Thousand", came to power. He received this nickname due to the fact that at one time Sultan al-Salih bought young Qalaun at the slave market for a thousand gold dinars. The sum was huge for those times, but the young man was worth the money. According to descriptions of his contemporaries, he was “a stocky and broad-shouldered man with a short neck.”
The new ruler ascended the throne under the name Mansur Seif ad-Din Qalaun. He spoke Turkic and Kabjaki well, but did not know Arabic. According to Egyptian chroniclers, Kalaun was from the city of Sudak, which was located on the territory of the Golden Horde.
On this occasion, Al-Makrizi reports: “Baibars was born in Kipchakia in the city of Sudak, his brother Salmish and Sultan Qalaun were from there.” Throughout his reign, Qalaun maintained contact with his homeland and even helped in the construction of a mosque.
In 1281, Il-Khan Abaqa died. Ahmed became the new ruler of the Hulaguid state. This freed the hands of Mengu-Temir, who had previously been bound by a peace treaty with Abaka.
The Golden Horde Khan sent an army of eighty thousand against Ahmed, led by Tukai and Turkenai. They were defeated in the “heights of Karabagh”. According to chronicles, upon learning of the defeat, Mengu-Temir “was extremely upset and died.” Moreover, almost all Egyptian chroniclers report that Mengu-Temir died from some kind of malignant abscess in the throat.
* * *
So, three important events in the history of the Golden Horde were associated with Mengu-Temir. Firstly, a Genoese trading colony appeared in Cafe, which played a huge role in the history of Crimea. Secondly, the khan granted more independence to the Russian princes, that is, he “freed the Russians from the violence of the Khazar tax farmers,” as the Russian historian N.M. Karamzin. And thirdly, it was under Mengu-Temir that the Nogai temnik strengthened, which later enjoyed undivided power in the west of the Golden Horde, but this will be discussed in the next article.
Reviews
When the Arats, that is, the Mongols, found out that they had a great past, they found some hill in Mongolia and announced that all their commanders were buried there. They guard it and do not allow excavations to be carried out. If Genghis Khan had not been buried in the steppe like a dog, then he too would lie under this hill. But where did all the looted goods go? Emir Timur has a sparkling capital, Samarkand, his tomb, and the Mongols, as poor steppe herders, remained so.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke was not at all the same as it was described for a long time by domestic historians, and the real Mongol-Tatars were different from the ones we can see in the new series “Golden Horde”
We remember from school that there was a long and difficult period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in the history of Rus'. But how things really were in those days is a complex question. Three consultants worked on one of the main television premieres of the season, the Channel One series “Golden Horde,” and each of them told completely different things about the Mongol-Tatars. Which, however, is not surprising: the period of the Horde yoke is one of the most controversial in the history of Rus'. Researchers have been unable to come to a common point of view for many years; some even doubt whether the yoke actually existed.
Golden Horde in cinema and in reality
The action of “The Golden Horde” takes place at the end of the 13th century - at the very height of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the starting point for which is considered to be 1237, the beginning of the global campaign of the Mongol-Tatars against Rus'. The creators of the series admitted on the eve of the premiere that their project was not a historical reconstruction, but a fairy tale, fantasy film. Therefore, there is no point in looking for parallels between real-life characters and the heroes of the Golden Horde. So, the main character of the picture, Prince Yaroslav(played by Alexander Ustyugov) has no historical prototype - it is a collective image.
As the director of the series said Timur Alpatov, the historical part of the picture was especially difficult. We prepared for filming for several months. Each of the three consultants had his own point of view on what the Mongol-Tatars looked like and how they behaved, and on the impact this period had on the Russian lands.
As a result, after four months of studying the material, the director came to the conclusion that it was simply impossible to get to the bottom of the truth - and decided not to chase historical correspondences, but to shoot historical fantasy.
Descendants of Genghis Khan
However, the names of some historical characters that we hear in the film are also found in the chronicles. Khan featured in the picture Berke(actor Ramil Sabinov) was a grandson Genghis Khan, ruled the Horde from 1257 until his death in 1266. And in the first episode of The Golden Horde, an envoy, the handsome Khan, arrives in Rus' Mengu-Temir(played by actor Sanzhar Madiev). Real Mengu-Temir ( Timur) lived at the end of the 13th century, was the grandson of the khan Batu, the successor of Khan Berke and had good relations with Russia and many of its princes.
In particular, it is believed that thanks to him the historical reconciliation of the Grand Duke of Tver took place Yaroslav Yaroslavovich with the Novgorodians. Mengu-Temir introduced significant tax breaks for the Russian Orthodox Church and actively supported Orthodoxy.
And here is the plot with the wife of the Russian prince “given” to him ( Ustinho played Yulia Peresild) does not appear in historical sources in any way - but it is a well-known fact: the Horde often took Russian women not only as concubines, but also married them.
Whether the khan was as good-looking as shown in the series is also not mentioned in the sources. The appearance of the heroes of the Golden Horde, of course, was rather embellished by the creators of the series - the clothes fit too well to the figure, the men’s haircuts are too neat and the women’s hairstyles are too neat, and the beautiful and rich jewelry still looks too modern.
All women, both from the Golden Horde and from the Russian lands, are like a choice of beauty, although there are a sufficient number of references to the fact that many representatives of the Golden Horde were frankly not good-looking. But the filmmakers have their own view: who wants to watch ugly women in movies?
And the young khan and other Horde soldiers look too fresh, while the lifestyle and years spent on campaigns and the steppes clearly had to leave their mark. However, the genre of historical fantasy allows such liberties.
By the way : The actors participating in the filming had to actively engage in physical training. So, swords weighed about 8 kilograms, and chain mail weighed about 20; some armor of Mongol warriors was even heavier. In total, about 2,000 historical costumes were created for the Golden Horde.
Was there a yoke?
Everyone has heard about how difficult it was in Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar yoke. But how much can you trust this information? What’s interesting is that this term cannot be found in early Russian chronicles and testimonies of contemporaries - they started talking about the Horde yoke only at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, the first mentions of the yoke are found in Polish historical literature - and it was beneficial for the Poles, who at that time were striving for dominance over Russia present her story in the most “black” color possible. Perhaps it was then that the idea of the Mongols as uneducated, dirty savages arose, which was completely untrue.
According to most modern historians, stories about the horrors and hardships of this period, and about many events, starting from the ruin of Rus' by Batu Khan, are greatly exaggerated - and since over the years, real events have become overgrown with many legends, it is quite difficult to get to the truth today. Some researchers believe that in fact there were almost no Mongols among the Mongol-Tatars - there were Tatars.
There is a version that in fact there was no yoke, the Mongols were very loyal to the Russians, and what later came to be called tribute was actually a payment for certain services. There is quite a lot of evidence that the size of the tribute, even if it did exist, was greatly exaggerated in subsequent centuries. And Rus' was ravaged by the civil strife of the princes, who raided and robbed their neighbors, and also attracted numerous allies to divide the lands - be it Tatars, or Poles, or highway robbers. And the raids of the Crimean khans, which began after the Tatar yoke, devastated the Russian lands much more severely.
What’s interesting is that there is information that the khans of the Golden Horde were forced to pay tribute to the Russian river pirates-ushkuiniks operating on the Volga, and even asked the Russian princes for protection from them - this really doesn’t fit well with the images of the conquerors.
Be that as it may, this period in Russian history also had its advantages. Since the khans were very loyal to Orthodoxy, this contributed to the spread of the influence of the Russian church.
Contrary to the stereotype that the Horde was ignorant, closed and alien to enlightenment, which is completely untrue, this period contributed to the development of geography and other sciences. In addition, the Golden Horde involved Rus' in extensive international trade. So modern historians avoid asserting that the absence of the “yoke” would benefit the historical development of the country, as some previously asserted.
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