Activities of the Bolshevik leadership in the socio-economic sphere. Social policy measures What measures in socio-economic

The article is devoted to a current topic - the study of event tourism and, in particular, such a type as exhibitions. A study of the role of exhibitions as event tourism in the life of a modern city is presented. Event tourism is becoming an increasingly popular type of urban tourism. As event tourism activities, it is necessary to note sporting events, incl. Olympics, Universiade, World Championships; city festivals and carnivals; business and scientific forums and congresses. Exhibitions occupy a special place in event tourism. There are many classifications of exhibitions - by topic, by territorial coverage, by time, by frequency, etc. Exhibitions, especially international ones, have a long history and currently remain relevant for the socio-economic development of the city. Exhibitions as event tourism events help attract tourists and investors to the city and, accordingly, provide the city with a tourism brand, inclusion in the international economy, job creation, construction of modern exhibition complexes, infrastructure development, knowledge transfer and socio-economic development.

socio-economic development

event tourism

Exhibitions

2. Khusntdinova S. R. The most important factors in the development of urban tourism // Economic Bulletin of the Republic of Tatarstan. - 2011. - No. 3. - P. 23-30.

3. Linar Yakupov is looking for a billion dollars for a “smart city” // Business Online: business electronic newspaper of Tatarstan [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.business-gazeta.ru/article/55210/, free (access date 03/15/2012).

4. Project “Visiting Santa Claus” [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.dedmorozz.ru/?m=3&n=544, free (access date 03/25/2012).

5. Facts and figures // Official website of the World Tourism Organization UNWTO [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://unwto.org, free (access date 03/15/2012).

6. Official website of BIT (Borsa internazionale del turismo) [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.bit.fieramilano.it/en/content/facts-and-figures, free (access date 04/18/2012).

7. Official website of FITUR (Feria Internacional de Turismo) [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.ifema.es/web/ferias/fitur/default_i.html, free (access date 04/18/2012).

8. Official website of ITB (Internationale Tourismus-Börse Berlin) [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.itb-berlin.de/en/MediaCentre/PressReleasesAndNews/index.jsp?lang=en&id=191552, free (access date 04/18/2012).

9. Global Exhibition Industry Statistics 2011 // Official website of the World Association of the Exhibition Industry [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.ufi.org/Medias/pdf/thetradefairsector/2011_exhibiton_industry_statistics.pdf, free (access date 04/20/2012).

10. What will you achieve at EIBTM? Official website of the EIBTM exhibition [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.eibtm.com/page.cfm/Link=14/t=m/goSection=3, free (access date 04/15/2012).

Recent decades have been marked by two independent, seemingly very interesting trends - the growing importance of cities in the socio-economic development of the world and the growth of the tourism industry. Tourism is an activity that involves a wide range of services within its sphere of influence, from accommodation and transport to entertainment and information technology. Moreover, the type of activity is dynamically developing, so, according to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), in 2011 the number of tourist arrivals increased by more than 4% and amounted to 980 million; an increase of 3-4% is also predicted for 2012.

Undoubtedly, tourism and its component areas belong to the service economy or post-industrial industries, and, as is known, the world economy and its vanguard in the form of large and major cities are moving to this stage of development. Therefore, it is not surprising that modern cities are striving to develop the tourism sector. At the same time, cities compete with each other as for investors who are ready to invest in the development of the city, incl. its tourist infrastructure, and for the tourists themselves, trying to create competitive tourist advantages that distinguish the city from other tourist destinations. In this regard, the issue of urban tourism, its essence and forms, becomes very relevant both from the point of view of setting strategic goals for the development of the city, and from the point of view of involving and distributing the necessary resources for creating tourist infrastructure, which naturally only a few will be enough to create all types of urban tourism. tourism.

The specificity of urban tourism is that it includes several segments that intersect, complement and influence each other: educational (visiting museums, historical and cultural heritage sites); business or business tourism; “weekend” in the city; cultural and sports events; shopping; visiting friends and family; visiting religious sites. In cities developing tourism, one or more segments may be represented. The priority of choosing a specific segment depends on the goals that the city sets for itself, as well as on the opportunities - many factors that together attract the flow of tourists.

Promotion of any product, incl. tourism, the market, especially the international one, is impossible without implementing a complex of marketing communications. Despite the relative novelty of the entire complex of marketing strategies for our economy, we can note already established, “traditional” marketing communications, such as advertising, public relations (PR), product sales and personal selling. The younger ones include workshops - professional meetings, seminars, for a small circle of people interested in a thorough, in-depth discussion of a particular problem.

Each business structure, to one degree or another, uses these marketing communications both to promote its product or service, and to promote its brand. Exhibitions are unique in that all of the specified marketing communications are used on one territorial site for a limited time, which undoubtedly gives a synergistic effect and allows you to get greater returns than using each of the communications separately. Exhibitions are events that attract truly interested people, from industry professionals to ordinary people who can become consumers of exhibition goods and services in the future.

Exhibitions can be counted among the areas of event tourism that have been actively developing in recent decades, not only in the world, but also in our country. Event tourism is a type of tourism whose purpose is to attend events. Events can be organized for a variety of purposes, financed from a variety of sources - private and public, target a variety of target consumer groups and be held regularly or only once. In all cases, such events share such characteristics as mass participation, entertainment, and attracting tourists.

According to the significance and level of territorial coverage, event tourism can be classified as follows: international; National; regional; local. According to the purpose of holding events, they can be divided into the following main groups: sporting events - Olympics, Universiade, World Championships in football, tennis, etc.; international exhibitions; business congresses, scientific conferences; cultural events (festivals, concerts); city events.

The term “city events” can be used to combine events held in open areas of the city that involve citizens and attract tourists. City events can be local in nature, for example, City Day. Moreover, the same City Day of a regional capital may already have a regional scale, because attracts visitors from all over the region. City events such as the carnival in Rio de Janeiro or Venice have a strong international significance, attracting thousands of tourists from all over the world.

It should be noted that event tourism is a unique type of tourism, since it is inexhaustible in content, almost any territory, any city, using the creative potential of residents and interested parties; which can be the authorities, businessmen, stakeholders of the urban community, can organize an event of an event nature of one or another level of coverage and make this event the starting point for the development of tourism. So, an example is the city of Veliky Ustyug, which uses the wonderful New Year event. Thanks to the project “Veliky Ustyug - the Homeland of Father Frost,” the tourist flow increased from 3 thousand people in 2006 to 165 thousand in 2007.

From the point of view of international event tourism, the most attractive events are sports competitions such as the Olympic Games or World Championships. Preparing and presenting such events requires significant effort and investment, but it also allows the city to occupy a high level in the rank of tourist destinations. The most striking successful examples are the European cities of Barcelona and Turin. The history of both cities is amazing and similar in that their “recent” history, associated with the development of tourism, has the Olympic Games as a base event or starting point.

International exhibitions are event tourism events, no less significant than sports. A separate area of activity has been formed for the organization, support, and holding of various kinds of exhibitions, congresses, and incentive tours - MICE. The name MICE comes from the capital letters of the English terms - Meetings (meetings), Incentives (incentive events), Congress (congresses), Exhibitions & Events (exhibitions and events).

Interest in exhibitions has been increasing in recent years. This is evidenced by the following figures: according to the World Association of the Exhibition Industry, 5 countries - the USA, China, Germany, Italy and France - account for 59% of the global indoor exhibition space. Moreover, over the 5 years from 2006 to 2011, the area of indoor exhibition spaces (minimum 5000 sq.m) grew in all 15 countries - leaders in the area of indoor exhibition spaces (USA, China, Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Brazil, UK, Canada, Russia, Switzerland, Belgium, Turkey and Mexico); but the best results were demonstrated by China with 48% growth, followed by Turkey in second place (25%) and Russia in third (17%).

Taking into account the increasing scale of globalization, the strengthening role of international contacts in the activities of business structures of various levels and profiles, the development of their own travel program (travel (English) - travel), i.e. a program dedicated to employee travel for business purposes, including tasks, deadlines, and travel budget, becomes an urgent necessity, and visiting exhibitions, perhaps, can be placed in the first place of such a program.

When choosing an exhibition, prospective exhibitors should begin by answering three basic questions:

exhibition location;
transport accessibility;
level of infrastructure development.

It is important to note that the priority is precisely the sequence of questions that is indicated - the most important question: “Where?” The location of the exhibition is the city and participation in the exhibition includes working and free time, which means it is a cultural program at the city’s venues and just walks. In an effort to succeed in competition, cities can provide similar conditions in terms of transport or information security, that is, on the second and third of these issues, but what really distinguishes cities from each other is their environment, including open spaces - streets, squares, parks ; architectural appearance; cafes and restaurants; theaters and concert venues, other places of recreation and, of course, historical and cultural heritage - museums, architectural and other monuments, art galleries, places associated with outstanding scientists, writers, artists, politicians. All this gives the city uniqueness, a good mood and a desire to return, which is an undoubted competitive advantage and allows us to attract guests, including participation in exhibitions. For example, the organizers of one of the largest tourism exhibitions EIBTM (The Global Meetings & Events Exhibition) in Barcelona, among such traditional advertising answers to the question (“what will participants achieve by visiting the exhibition?”), such as “opening new destinations, products and services; development of your professional knowledge; latest industry trends; establishing contacts, etc.”, especially highlight - “visit Barcelona - an exciting city, one of the world's main centers of business meetings and events.”

A special place among exhibitions is occupied by exhibitions dedicated to tourism. They bring together industry professionals - businessmen and representatives of ministries and departments involved in the development of tourism in a particular destination, as well as consumers who want to learn more about travel and recreation opportunities. Examples of leading European tourism exhibitions already held in 2012 and their general characteristics are given in Table 1.

Table 1

Leading international tourism exhibitions in Europe

Exhibition title; venue - city, country; official site	Main statistical characteristics, according to the official website of the exhibition
FITUR (Feria Internacional de Turismo); Madrid, Spain; http://www.ifema.es	In 2012, the exhibition confirmed the trend towards recovery of the industry after the global financial crisis - 9,506 exhibiting companies from 167 countries, 119,322 professional participants and 91,555 ordinary visitors met at the exhibition to “transform leisure into business, and business into development.”
BIT (Borsa internazionale del turismo); Milan, Italy; http://www.bit.fieramilano.it/	In 2012, 2,287 exhibitors represented more than 5,000 travel companies from 130 countries and 100 thousand visitors from 130 countries. The exhibition occupied 6 pavilions with an area of 100 thousand square meters.
ITB (Internationale Tourismus-Börse Berlin); Berlin, Germany; http://www.itb-berlin.de/	In 2012, the exhibition was visited by more than 113 thousand professional visitors (about 40% foreign), 10,644 exhibitors representing 187 countries. 59,127 residents of Berlin and Brandenburg visited the exhibition over the weekend to discover new tourism offers.

As can be seen from the table, each of these exhibitions is a significant event that attracts thousands of visitors; accordingly, cities as venues for exhibitions receive a significant influx of tourists, including those of a business nature. Modern exhibitions, just like their historical predecessors, strive to attract as many interested visitors as possible and use all possible means for this, including the advantages of the destination where they are held. It is obvious that the preferences of visitors from different parts of the world will be given, first of all, to attractive cities. At the same time, cities are trying to use all their existing potential and create attractive, unique offers to attract major exhibitions. After all, holding a major exhibition allows the city, namely its business and community, to achieve several goals:

create jobs for holding and servicing exhibition events;
develop a modern type of business - the MICE industry;
construct and then rent out space to organizers;
create and develop appropriate infrastructure;
promote the “spillover of knowledge” and thereby raise the city’s territory to a qualitatively new level of development, keep abreast of current trends in various areas of business;
to introduce exhibition guests to the city, thereby promoting the city’s brand as a tourist destination and a center attractive for investment.

Holding exhibitions affects the city, its appearance, and the number of tourists not only during the exhibition event itself, but also has long-term consequences. Suffice it to recall one of the most striking symbols of Paris - the Eiffel Tower. It is well known that the tower was created for the opening of the World Exhibition in Paris in 1889 as an arch on the way to the exhibition pavilions and, moreover, it was planned to be demolished 20 years later, but for more than 100 years it has been a symbol of the country's capital and attracts millions of tourists every year.

Exhibitions continue to act as an important factor in the development of the city, shaping its territory and appearance in the post-industrial era. The experience of such world-recognized leading cities in the exhibition business as Milan, Barcelona, and Hanover is also used in our country. Thus, it is planned that by 2020 a Smart City will appear near Kazan, one of the most important goals of the creation of which, judging by the plans, is to hold MICE industry events - exhibitions and congresses.

Thus, tourism is becoming one of the promising areas of economic development, incl. such types as event tourism. Modern cities seeking to develop the tourism sector must, after analyzing the available advantages and resources, formulate strategic goals and concentrate on the type of urban tourism for the development of which there are competitive advantages. One of the most promising types of urban event tourism are exhibitions of various sizes, attracting both professionals and ordinary visitors; thereby creating jobs for holding and servicing the exhibition, stimulating the construction of modern exhibition complexes and infrastructure; promoting the “spillover of knowledge” and promoting the city’s brand as a tourist destination.

Reviewers:

Rodionova Irina Aleksandrovna, Doctor of Geography, Professor, Professor of the Department of Regional Economics and Geography, Faculty of Economics, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow.
Rubtsov Vladimir Anatolyevich, Doctor of Geography, Professor, Head of the Department of Social and Cultural Service and Tourism, Institute of Ecology and Geography, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kazan.

Bibliographic link

Khusnutdinova S.R. EXHIBITIONS AS EVENT TOURISM EVENTS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY // Modern problems of science and education. – 2012. – No. 3.;
URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=6214 (access date: 02/01/2020). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

Socio-economic measures to ensure labor safety

"...Socio-economic measures - include measures of state incentives for employers and workers to increase the level of labor protection (benefits and compensation when performing hard work and work in harmful and dangerous working conditions; mandatory social and payment of compensation in the event of accidents, increased wages pay, additional holidays, shortened working hours, restrictions on lifting and moving heavy objects and a whole range of other benefits and compensation)..."

Source:

"Occupational safety manual for road foreman" (approved by Order of the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation dated January 29, 2003 N OS-37-r)

Official terminology. Akademik.ru. 2012.

See what “Socio-economic measures to ensure labor safety” are in other dictionaries:

GOST R 12.0.007-2009: System of occupational safety standards. Occupational safety management system in the organization. General requirements for development, application, evaluation and improvement- Terminology GOST R 12.0.007 2009: System of occupational safety standards. Occupational safety management system in the organization. General requirements for development, application, evaluation and improvement original document: 3.1 safe working conditions,... ...

Labor market- (Labor market) The labor market is the sphere of formation of demand and supply for labor. Definition of the labor market, definition of the labor force, structure of the labor market, subjects of the labor market, labor market conditions, the essence of the open and hidden market... ... Investor Encyclopedia

Occupational Safety and Health- 8 Occupational safety D. Arbeitsschutz E. Protection of labor F. Protection du travail System of legislative acts, as well as preventive and regulating social, economic, organizational, technical, sanitary and hygienic and medical... ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

Occupational Safety and Health- Labor protection is a system for preserving the life and health of workers in the process of work, including legal, socio-economic, organizational and technical, sanitary and hygienic, medical and preventive, ... ... Wikipedia

Labor productivity- (Labor productivity) Determination of labor productivity, labor productivity indicators, labor efficiency Information on the determination of labor productivity, labor productivity indicators, labor efficiency Contents Contents ... Investor Encyclopedia

Occupational Safety and Health- (employment protection) Protection of the rights of an employee in accordance with his position. Under the Occupational Safety and Health (Consolidation) Act 1978, an employer is required to provide a copy of the employee's employment record within 13 weeks of a new employee starting work... Dictionary of business terms

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH- a system for ensuring the safety of life and health of workers in the process of work, including legal, socio-economic, organizational and technical, sanitary and hygienic, medical and preventive, rehabilitation and other... ... Encyclopedia of Labor Law

SP 12-133-2000: Occupational safety in construction. Regulations on the procedure for certification of workplaces for working conditions in construction and housing and communal services- Terminology SP 12 133 2000: Occupational safety in construction. Regulations on the procedure for certification of workplaces for working conditions in construction and housing and communal services: Certification of workplaces for working conditions Analysis procedure and... ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic- RSFSR. I. General information The RSFSR was founded on October 25 (November 7), 1917. It borders on the north-west with Norway and Finland, on the west with Poland, on the south-east with China, the MPR and the DPRK, as well as on the union republics included to the USSR: to the west with... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Government program- (Government program) A state program is an instrument of state regulation of the economy, ensuring the achievement of long-term goals. The concept of a state program, types of state federal and municipal programs, ... ... Investor Encyclopedia

Note 1

The implementation of the strategic goals of the long-term development of socio-economic activities of the Russian Federation requires achieving social harmony, as well as assistance in developing a mechanism of social support, adaptation and minimizing social inequality. Activities that ensure the solution of the above tasks should be aimed at harmonizing the actions of the state, markets and family in the field of quality and level of life support.

This may require the development of the social services sector and its modernization, as well as the implementation of targeted programs to help the poor and the creation of various benefits. To do this, it is necessary to ensure the formation of a structure of social support and adaptation that will meet the needs of the current society, as well as to implement the functions of social development and accessible mechanisms of social development for vulnerable groups of the population.

Main goals of social policy

Today, the main targets of social policy by 2020 are:

minimizing the level of relative or absolute poverty (low-income part of the population), as well as increasing the middle class of citizens to half the total population;
reducing the classification of population groups by income level (the ratio of the richest and poorest 10% of people) from 17 times in 2007 to 20 times in 2020;
increasing the size of social and pension payments to military personnel to a level that would correspond to the importance and value of this type of activity in the field of state defense capability;
bringing social payments to targeting, which are tied to the level of income of the population, to 80% by 2012, and by 2020, the coverage of the poor by social programs should reach 100%;
solve by 2020 the main problem of the elderly part of the population - full satisfaction of their need for regular care and support;
to achieve by 2020 the employment of people with disabilities to 40% of the total number of disabled people.

Main social policy measures

The long-term policy of social support for Russian citizens consists of implementing many priority areas. The primary focus is improving the social atmosphere in society, minimizing differentiation of citizens according to their income level, as well as reducing poverty.

Note 2

The main measures to combat poverty and improve the well-being of citizens are rapid economic growth, increasing wages and creating new jobs. Changes in the educational sphere and the healthcare system have a significant impact on improving social policy by improving the quality of accessibility of these services, reducing informal payments, as well as through the positive impact of the updated educational system on the opportunities for effective economic activity of citizens.

But despite this, economic growth cannot automatically lead to the minimization of poverty, and may be accompanied by increased social instability and increased inequality. To reduce the poverty of the population by income level, it is necessary to implement a set of social policy measures that would be aimed at:

increasing the minimum wage and labor compensation for employees of budgetary organizations, these measures will help reduce poverty among working citizens;
increasing the average size of old-age labor pension payments to a level that can provide a minimum consumer budget;
increasing the effectiveness of social support for certain segments of the population by strengthening the targeting of social projects, improving the procedures for determining the needs of the population, as well as introducing new technologies for the provision of social assistance and contracts;
improving the qualifications of the tax system on the problems of income regulation through the expansion of tax deductions and the introduction of a tax on real estate, which depends on its market value (thanks to this, the burden can be evenly distributed between population groups with different income levels).

An important social policy measure is to increase the effectiveness of family support at the social level. These measures include the development and improvement of the system for providing payments in connection with the birth and upbringing of a child. It is also possible to strengthen the stimulating role of additional government support measures for families with minor children, including the development and expansion of the market for educational services, and the construction of affordable housing for them.

The effectiveness of state support can be increased by developing programs for social support of families in the upbringing of preschool children by opening child care institutions and minimizing family dysfunction. Another effective measure of social policy is strengthening the system of homelessness, consolidating the actions of regional, federal and local social institutions that are aimed at solving the problem of homelessness. A special role in this issue will be played by increasing the efficiency of social services, whose activities are related to minimizing family troubles and providing psychological and social assistance to those children who are in a socially dangerous situation.

The next activity that can increase the effectiveness of social policy is the social integration and rehabilitation of people with disabilities. It includes:

institutional and organizational improvement of the system of medical and social examination, as well as rehabilitation of disabled people;
developing the level of social inclusion of people with disabilities and implementing measures to provide transport, infrastructure, and living quarters for people with disabilities;
creation of the necessary infrastructure in rehabilitation centers that provide comprehensive rehabilitation of disabled people and guarantee a return to a full social life.

A special place in state social policy is given to the social security of elderly citizens. Measures to improve and improve social policy in this direction include:

making social assistance and services available to all elderly people in need through the development of a network of institutions of various legal forms that will provide social services;
development of various forms of social services for elderly citizens and people with disabilities in order to maintain the ability of these citizens to move or self-care, as well as providing social assistance to those families who provide related care at home to elderly and disabled people;
providing elderly citizens and disabled people who need help from outsiders with places, necessary needs, as well as stationary social service institutions.

Figure 1. Social policy measures. Author24 - online exchange of student work

The implementation of social policy measures requires the achievement of social harmony, as well as the development of mechanisms of social support and adaptation of the population. This may require modernization and improvement of the social services sector, development of targeted programs and preferential categories of citizens.

The implementation of the dictatorship of the proletariat (the political power of the workers), proclaimed by the proletariat, and the task of strengthening their power required the creation of a new state machine. All old government institutions were liquidated, the previous legal system and the principles of the formation and functioning of the army were rejected. Real political power belonged to the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars (SNK), which assumed executive and legislative power. In December 1917, under the Council of People's Commissars, it was created All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (VChK) to combat counter-revolution and sabotage, led by Dzerzhinsky. She received unlimited powers: from arrest and investigation to sentencing and its execution. The Cheka was separated from state control and coordinated its actions only with the highest party leadership of the country. Revolutionary committees were created to control local government, people's courts consisting of a chairman and people's assessors. Political cases were tried in revolutionary tribunals subordinate to the People's Commissariat of Justice. In November-December, the Council of People's Commissars subjugated the leadership of the army and dismissed more than 1,000 generals and officers who did not accept Soviet power. In January 18, decrees were adopted on the creation of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (RKKA) and the Workers' and Peasants' Red Fleet.

Opened on January 5, 18 constituent Assembly it was dominated by the Socialist Revolutionaries - 40%, the Bolsheviks - 22.5% of the votes, i.e. the elections showed that the Bolsheviks were the second party in terms of influence. The Constituent Assembly refused to approve the “Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People” introduced by the Bolsheviks. They confirmed the first legislative acts of the Soviet government, proclaimed the destruction of the exploitation of man by man and the course towards building socialism. Thus, the Constituent Assembly rejected the idea of a socialist choice and the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat. In this regard, on the night of January 6-7, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee decided to dissolve it. A week later, the Third All-Russian Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies merged with a similar Congress of Soviets of Peasants' Deputies into a single legislative body - III All-Russian Congress of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies. The congress approved the “Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People,” approved the project on the socialization of the land, proclaimed the federal principle of government of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and instructed the All-Russian Central Executive Committee to develop the main provisions of the country’s Constitution. On July 10, 18, the Congress of Soviets approved the first Constitution of the RSFSR. She proclaimed the proletarian character of the Soviet state. Representatives of the former exploited classes, priests, officers and police agents were deprived of voting rights. 1 worker's vote was equal to 5 peasant votes. The elections were not direct, not universal, not secret and not equal. She declared the introduction of political freedom (speech, press, meetings, rallies and processions). However, in practice this had no real confirmation. Moreover, the Constitution of 18 did not provide for the participation of the propertied classes and their parties in political life. Economic and social policy. In economic policy, the Bolsheviks pursued a line towards the complete destruction of private property. It was planned to gradually socialize production and create centralized economic management. Banks, railway transport, and communications were nationalized. State-owned enterprises were placed under state control. Large enterprises and industries were nationalized, thereby marking the beginning of the creation public sector in the economy. He was led Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh). The transfer of enterprises to state control removed workers from participation in production management and laid the foundations “state socialism).

The slogan “factories to workers” turned out to be social demagoguery. In the spring of 18, the implementation of the Decree on Land began. The peasants were supposed to receive 150 million dessiatines of land free of charge, and were freed from debt by banks from rent payments. When distributing land, the Soviet government supported the poor, which caused discontent and resistance from the kulaks. They began to hold the bread. There was a threat of famine in the cities. In this regard, the Council of People's Commissars switched to a policy of harsh pressure on the villages. In May '18 it was introduced food dictatorship. This meant prohibiting the trade in grain and confiscating surplus grain from wealthy peasants by sending food detachments (food detachments) to the villages. They relied on the help of committees of the poor (kombeda). The functions of the Local Councils were transferred to the Pobeda Committees, since kulaks predominated in the Local Councils.

These measures gave rise to dissatisfaction among wealthy peasants with the Bolshevik government and were one of the causes of the civil war. The Soviet government destroyed the class system, abolished pre-revolutionary ranks, titles, and awards. Free education and medical care were established. Women had equal rights with men. The Decree on Marriage and Family introduced the institution of civil marriage. A law on an 8-hour working day and a Labor Code were adopted, which prohibited child labor, guaranteed a system of labor protection for women and adolescents, and payment of unemployment and sickness benefits. Freedom of conscience was proclaimed. The church was separated from the state and the education system. Most of the church property was confiscated. Patriarch Tikhon fought against this. National policy was determined by the “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia”, adopted by the Council of People's Commissars on November 2, 17. It proclaimed the equality of the peoples of Russia, their right to self-determination and the formation of independent states. In December Soviet

the government recognized the independence of Ukraine and Finland, in August 18 - Poland, in December - Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, in February 19 - Belarus. But the government sought to overcome the further disintegration of Russia. It contributed to the establishment of Soviet power in national regions and provided financial assistance to the Soviet republics in the Baltic states and Belarus.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies. On December 3, 1917, a truce was concluded and peace negotiations began. The Soviet delegation made a proposal to conclude peace without territorial annexations and indemnities. Germany put forward claims to vast territories of the former Russian Empire - Poland, part of the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus. In this regard, negotiations were interrupted. Lenin insisted on the unconditional acceptance of these conditions, because The army's combat effectiveness was lost. The Left SRs considered these conditions treacherous and insisted on continuing military action to defend the revolution. They refused to participate in the negotiations. “Left” communists (Bukharin) proposed not to enter into negotiations and continue the struggle for the victory of the world revolution. Trotsky, the leader of the Soviet delegation, proposed “neither war, nor peace.” The truce was interrupted and Germany again launched an offensive and captured large territories of the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Belarus. In this regard, negotiations were resumed in February 1918. At the same time, the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree “The Fatherland is in danger!” and on February 23, the Red Army stopped the Germans near Pskov. Germany presented an ultimatum with new territorial claims, demanded to demobilize the army and pay a large indemnity. On March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was signed. According to it, Poland, the Baltic states, part of Belarus, /Batumi, Kars, Ardagan - were torn away from Russia in favor of Turkey/.

The Soviet government pledged to withdraw its troops from Ukraine, pay 3 billion rubles in reparations and stop revolutionary propaganda in Central European countries. In mid-March, the 1st Extraordinary Congress of Soviets ratified the Brest-Litovsk Treaty by a majority. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries were against it and left the Council of People's Commissars. Since that time it has been established one-party system in the system of executive power of Soviet Russia. The November Revolution of 1918 in Germany swept away the Kaiser's empire. This made it possible to break the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and return most of the territory. German troops left the territory of Ukraine. In Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Belarus, Soviet authority.

April 1985- at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, a course was proclaimed to “accelerate” social and economic development (rapid implementation of scientific and technological advances, increased labor productivity through increased material incentives; fight against leveling; purchase of advanced equipment abroad; increased investment in the production of consumer goods; improvement product quality due to the introduction of state acceptance).

Result: an attempt to reform the economy without affecting the foundations of the command-administrative system ended in failure largely due to inept leadership and bureaucracy (for example, the introduction of state acceptance only led to the growth of the bureaucratic apparatus; purchased equipment often stood idle due to the lack of qualified personnel).

1986– the anti-alcohol campaign and the Chernobyl disaster further undermined the financial stability of the USSR economy;

1987-88- Abalkin’s economic reform project (transfer of state-owned enterprises to self-financing; expansion of cooperation; admission of the private sector into the economy; reduction and streamlining of the activities of ministries).

1989- the law on state enterprises was adopted(they got the opportunity to keep part of the profit for themselves and freely dispose of it; create subsidiaries - cooperatives) and law on cooperation (actual permission of the private sector in trade and services); attempt introduction of rental contracts in the village(but only 2% of collective farmers switched to rental relations, and even then they mostly sold the land they received or subleased it for non-agricultural needs).

Result: 1990-91– severe economic crisis; actual loss of control over sectors of the economy due to extremely incompetent leadership; a rapid decline in production with an increase in the monetary income of the population - as a consequence - a total shortage of consumer goods and the introduction of a card system; the budget deficit amounted to 100 billion rubles (10% of GNP); at the same time a rapid criminalization of the economy due to the extremely unsuccessful law on cooperation, which led to the legalization of the “shadow economy” and an increase in crime several times. By mid-1991 the country was on the verge of economic disaster.

Events in the political sphere.

1985– at the April Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, a course was taken to implement openness and democratization in the socio-political sphere and a revision of the assessment of many events in Russian history (confirmed at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU in February 1986) - the beginning of a broad rehabilitation of the victims of Stalin’s repressions and criticism of the “era of stagnation”.

The consequence of this is the activation of public opinion, the beginning of democratization of society while simultaneously undermining the authority of the ruling regime.

1988. – XIX Party Conference- a decision is made on political reform, on changing the entire structure of power, the introduction of “Soviet parliamentarism” - the announcement of alternative elections to the new highest body of legislative power - the Congress of People's Deputies.

1989. - Beginning of work Congress of People's Deputies The USSR and the emergence of the legal opposition and the first parties and movements alternative to the CPSU

March 1990–III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR; repeal of Article 6 of the Constitution on the leading role of the CPSU ( which meant the legalization of a multi-party system) and the establishment of the post of President of the USSR (Gorbachev became it, but he was elected by the Congress, and not by the entire population; which gave his opponents a reason to talk about the lack of legitimacy of his power).

All these events happened against the backdrop of a sharp aggravation of the national question and separatism(interethnic clashes in Nagorno-Karabakh since 1988; pogroms of Armenians in Sumgait and Baku in 1988-89, separatist movements in the Baltic republics, clashes in Transnistria).

At the same time, the central authorities, led by Gorbachev, were virtually inactive, which further aggravated the situation.

Result: by mid-1991 – the situation is actually out of Gorbachev's control; with the proclamation of the Declaration of Independence of the RSFSR and the election of Boris Yeltsin as President of Russia, the transfer of power from the Union Center to the republics began.

No. 53. Foreign policy of the USSR in 1985-1991.

April 1985– Gorbachev’s proclamation of a new foreign policy course – "new thinking"(essence: rejection of the old thesis about the irreconcilable split of the world into 2 camps; recognition of the world as whole and indivisible; rejection of forceful methods of resolving conflicts; initiative in holding negotiations with the United States on disarmament).

Based on the new doctrine, the foreign policy of the USSR faced the following tasks: 1) to achieve a breakthrough in the international isolation of the country; 2) by normalizing relations with the United States and the capitalist bloc, create conditions that will make it possible to stop the arms race that was ruinous for the USSR; 3) expand economic ties with all states, no longer giving preference to states with a socialist orientation. In achieving these goals, special attention was paid to the priority of peaceful means in solving global problems and recognition of universal human values.

Central location in the foreign policy of the USSR occupied relations with the USA. The main efforts of Soviet diplomacy in this direction were aimed at ending the arms race and detente. In the summer of 1985, the USSR unilaterally stopped nuclear explosions and confirmed a unilateral moratorium on testing anti-satellite weapons, which created a solid basis for the start of negotiations between the heads of the USSR M. S. Gorbachev and US President R. Reagan.

After a series of summit meetings between the leaders of the two countries in Geneva (1985) And Reykjavik (1986) the Soviet and American sides signed December 8, 1987 in Washington, an agreement on the destruction of an entire class of missiles - medium and short range. The Soviet side committed itself to dismantling and destroying 1,752 missiles within three years, and the American side – 869. In 1991. The Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms was signed in Moscow (OSNV – 1), which provided for the new elimination of some nuclear weapons.

Almost simultaneously, the Soviet Union put forward a program that provided for the phased elimination of nuclear weapons by 2000. In 1987, during negotiations between M. S. Gorbachev and R. Reagan, an agreement was reached to end the participation of the two sides in the Afghan war, which had become one of the main lines of confrontation between the two world powers in the Cold War. The United States pledged to stop providing assistance to the mujahideen in Afghanistan (a promise that was not kept), and the Soviet Union withdrew its troops from that country. Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan (1988 – 1989) became the most important foreign policy act of the USSR. In general, this was the right decision, since the war was extremely unpopular in the USSR. The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan made it possible to resume dialogue between the USSR and China, for which the end of Soviet intervention was one of the three main obstacles to normalizing relations with its neighbor. Soviet diplomacy paid significant attention to to the European direction. The Soviet leadership hoped, by normalizing relations with developed Western European countries (France, Germany, Italy, Great Britain), to receive from them the economic assistance necessary for carrying out reforms within the country, as well as massive supplies of modern equipment and technologies. To this end, it made unprecedented unilateral concessions to the West, agreeing to withdraw its troops from a number of Eastern European countries, and also actually refusing to provide assistance to its ally the GDR. In 1990, the USSR approved the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany into a single state. The policy of concessions objectively contributed to the weakening of the USSR’s position in Europe, although M. S. Gorbachev’s personal popularity among the population of Western European countries increased significantly.

If the USSR pursued a more or less clear policy in relation to the countries of Western Europe, then in relation to the socialist camp and the countries of Eastern Europe there was no such clarity. Most leaders of socialist countries did not accept the “new political thinking,” believing that this course would lead to a change in the socio-political system in their states. The ongoing confrontation between these countries and the leadership of the USSR led to the fact that the Soviet Union stopped providing them with full support. At the same time, the totalitarian regimes of Eastern European countries tried to limit the development of democratic processes in their countries. The result of this policy was a decline in the authority of the ruling parties of socialist countries, and the growth of anti-Soviet and anti-communist sentiment among the population. From 1989 to 1990 V Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria passed "velvet revolutions"(bloodless), which resulted in the collapse of the communist system of power. The national democratic forces of the countries of Eastern Europe that came to power set a course for the Western European path of development and gradual entry into NATO. Spring 1991 The USSR agreed to the dissolution of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact Organization and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territories of Eastern European countries. The era of military and political dominance of the USSR in Eastern Europe has come to an end.

Conclusion: “New political thinking” in foreign policy was an attempt by the government of M. S. Gorbachev to implement the “ideas of perestroika” in the international arena. The implementation of this policy had some success, as it contributed to the end of the period of military confrontation between the USSR and the USA and a change in the image of our country as an “evil empire” in the eyes of Europeans. The destruction of the Iron Curtain allowed Soviet citizens to essentially rediscover the world around them. The process of eliminating nuclear weapons was begun.

At the same time, the doctrine of new political thinking, on which the foreign policy of the USSR was based, was quite vague and did not have clear strategic goals. The desire of the government of M. S. Gorbachev to establish friendly relations with the West at any cost caused irreparable harm to the positions of the USSR in the international arena. The result of this policy was the destruction of the bipolar world(two world powers - the USSR and the USA). In the international arena, the position of the United States, the only remaining superpower, has sharply strengthened .

Since the second half of 1989, the economic crisis in the USSR acquired the features of stagnation: The disintegration of economic ties intensified, leading to the cessation of an increasing number of industries. The financial system completely collapsed. Problems arose with providing the population with food and everyday goods.

Against the background of the deteriorating economic situation in the USSR, centrifugal tendencies sharply intensified. Their growth was especially noticeable in 1990 when a real one swept across the country "parade of sovereignties" accompanied by the adoption by a number of union republics of unilateral decisions on self-determination and the creation of independent national states. Gathered on June 12 1990. I Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR accepted Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation. Its adoption ultimately predetermined the collapse of the USSR, which could exist only as long as Russia served as its unifying principle. In the spring and summer of the same year, the Baltic and other republics of the USSR adopted declarations of national sovereignty. Following national sovereignty, individual republics began to accept state sovereignty, declaring the priority of their legislation over that of the union.

Under these conditions, the Union leadership lost the opportunity to manage the resources of the republics and effectively govern the country. It could no longer retain power democratically. Attempts to strengthen their influence with the help of military force, which was used in April 1989 in Tbilisi, in January 1990 in Baku, in January 1991 in Vilnius And Riga, ended in failure. The only possible way to hold back the process of collapse of the Soviet Union that had begun was the use of economic ties. However, the leadership of M. S. Gorbachev was unable to use it effectively.

Meeting in March 1990 Extraordinary III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR made a last attempt to strengthen the executive power by creating the post President of the USSR, to which M. S. Gorbachev was elected. On March 17, 1991, an all-Union referendum was held on the fate of the USSR, in which the majority of citizens spoke in favor of preserving the Union and for the desire to live in one state. However, these actions turned out to be largely belated, since the “parade of sovereignties” that had swept by this time had already changed the face of the country beyond recognition.

Under these conditions, M. S. Gorbachev proposed to the leaders of the union republics to conclude a new Union Treaty, since it was clear that the previous Union Treaty of 1922 no longer met the realities. April 23, 1991 in Novo-Ogarevo An agreement was reached with the leaders of nine republics (the Baltic republics and Georgia were absent) to conclude a new Union Treaty, which became known as the “9+1” agreement (nine leaders of the union republics + the President of the USSR). According to this document, the republics received broad autonomy within the new Union, and the center was supposed to perform only a coordinating role, leaving issues of defense, financial policy and internal affairs under its jurisdiction. The renewed Union received the name "Commonwealth of Sovereign States"(SSG). The signing of the new Union Treaty, scheduled for August 20, 1991, was sharply negatively received by conservative forces, since it deprived the leadership of the CPSU of real power. They tried to prevent his imprisonment by force. August 19, 1991 Taking advantage of M. S. Gorbachev’s vacation, a group of senior party leaders led with Vice-President of the USSR G. I. Yanaev undertook coup d'etat. On August 18, KGB troops loyal to the conspirators blocked a man who was on vacation at his dacha. in Foros(Crimea) USSR President M. S. Gorbachev. On August 19, the conspirators announced that the President of the USSR was unable to perform his functions due to health reasons. All power for an indefinite period passed to State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR(GKChP) of 8 people. All those included in the State Emergency Committee were members of the CPSU Central Committee. The State Emergency Committee announced its intention to restore order in the country and prevent the collapse of the USSR. In a number of regions of the country (mainly on the territory of the RSFSR), a state of emergency was introduced; administrative power in them was supposed to pass to military leadership. The activities of democratic parties and organizations, the publication of opposition newspapers were suspended, rallies, demonstrations and strikes were prohibited. Troops were sent to Moscow and some other large cities.

The progressive public immediately declared the unconstitutional nature of the actions of the State Emergency Committee. Some free radio stations immediately named the events in Moscow putsch. President of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin openly condemned the coup and called on the population to openly resist the actions of the putschists. Thousands of protesting Muscovites took to the streets of the capital. Some of the troops went over to the side of the Russian government. Under these conditions, the State Emergency Committee did not dare to suppress the masses by armed means. By the evening of August 21, 1991. The putsch failed. On August 22, its members were accused of attempting a coup and arrested. The next day, USSR President M.S. Gorbachev was returned to Moscow. The putsch led to a radical change in the socio-political situation in the country. Even during the putsch on August 19, by the Decree of the President of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin, the activities of the Communist Party of the RSFSR were suspended. In fact, the CPSU was outlawed. The party began to leave the political arena. Despite the fact that the coup essentially ended with the collapse of totalitarianism, the situation in the country continued to remain extremely acute. The process of collapse of the USSR accelerated sharply.

Immediately after the suppression of the August putsch, the three Baltic republics announced their secession from the USSR. In September 1991, the President of the USSR signed decrees recognizing this withdrawal. Somewhat later, on December 1, 1991, at a referendum in the largest republic after the RSFSR - Ukraine, the population voted overwhelmingly for the independence of their republic. In this situation, unification with other republics lost its meaning. December 8, 1991 in Belovezhskaya Pushcha near Minsk in secret from the President of the USSR, the leaders of three republics: President of the RSFSR B. N. Yeltsin, President of Ukraine L. M. Kravchuk and Chairman of the Supreme Council of the BSSR S. S. Shushkevich - signed an agreement on formation Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS). December 21, 1991 in Almaty The Belovezhskaya Agreement was signed by eight more former Soviet republics. With the signing of these treaties, the USSR as a subject of international law ceased to exist. The next day, M. S. Gorbachev was forced to resign as President of the USSR.

No. 55. October events of 1993. Political change in the state system of Russia.

From the end of August 1991 to December 1993, the issue of power was resolved, which took the form of a clash between two models of its organization: presidential And parliamentary republics. The events of August 1991 and the liquidation of the USSR put forward the task of forming the foundations of a new statehood. First of all, presidential structures began to be created - the Security Council and the Presidential Council. The institution of representatives of the President was introduced locally. They exercised powers bypassing local Soviets. The government of Russia was formed directly by the President; management was carried out on the basis of decrees of B.N. Yeltsin. The changes carried out came into conflict with the provisions of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1978, which stated that all power in the center and locally belongs to the Councils of People's Deputies. Since 1990, the official supreme body of power has been the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR. During 1992-1993 the conflict between the legislative and executive powers grew rapidly. An attempt by deputies in the spring of 1993 to remove the President failed. The referendum held on April 25, 1993 showed that the majority of citizens approved of the policies of Yeltsin and the government, while simultaneously opposing early elections of the President and people's deputies. Russian society has demonstrated a desire to stabilize the country's political life. The confrontation between the authorities in the fall of 1993 resulted in a bloody conflict. By this time, Yeltsin's advisers had prepared a draft of a new Constitution of the Russian Federation, which was rejected by parliament deputies. In response to this September 21, 1993. Yeltsin dissolved representative bodies of power by an unconstitutional decree - Supreme Council of the Russian Federation and Congress of People's Deputies, calling new elections. The next day, deputies by a majority vote Yeltsin was removed from office and entrusted the powers of the President to Vice-President Rutsky. Attempts at negotiations and searches for compromise failed. The parliament building was blocked by security agencies subordinate to Yeltsin . October 3 Armed supporters of the parliament, together with nationalist detachments, crushed the police cordon around the White House, seized the Moscow City Hall building and tried to storm the Ostankino television complex. The result of these events was human casualties. Generals Rutskoy and Makashov called for the seizure of the television center. There was a threat of civil war. On October 4, the government took active action. The assault on the White House has begun where the so-called “irreconcilable” deputies of the Supreme Council remained. The building was shelled by direct fire from tanks, and then it was captured by fighters from the Alpha group. The leadership of parliament and its defenders were sent to prison. According to official data, 145 people died during the tragic events. December 12, 1993 A referendum was held on the new Constitution. 58% of those voting voted for her. The Constitution established the principle of separation of powers legislative, executive and judicial, each of which became independent. Head state was proclaimed The president, elected for 4 years and determining the main directions of domestic and foreign policy. The President of the Russian Federation is the guarantor of the Constitution and acts as an arbiter and mediator between various branches of government and state institutions. In essence, it mediates between the state and society.

Thus, according to the 1993 Constitution, Russia turned into a presidential republic. The Constitution provided for the election of a legislative body - The Federal Assembly consists of two chambers - the State Duma and the Federation Council. The President received the right to dissolve the State Duma if it three times rejected the candidacy of the Prime Minister proposed by the President. He can pass decrees that have the force of a normative act. The President is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, all “security” ministers and the Minister of Foreign Affairs, as well as the Security Council, are directly subordinate to him.

In conditions of concentration of the main powers of power in the hands of the President, the role of his administration has objectively increased. The support of power and the conductor of the President’s policy became the state apparatus, which included some former union departments. On December 22, 1993, Yeltsin signed a decree by which federal officials were allocated to a special category with their own charter and preferential system of financial, medical, household and other support.

No. 56. Socio-economic development of Russia in the post-Soviet period.

One of the most difficult and controversial areas of economic policy of the 1990s. became privatization of state property. The concept of privatization in our country was developed by the State Property Committee of Russia, headed by A.B. Chubais. Formally, it primarily pursued the goal of creating a class of private owners. As of January 1, 1992, all property of Russian enterprises was valued at 1 trillion 260.5 billion rubles. Dividing this amount by the population of Russia (148.7 million), the government believed that it was able to determine the share of property of each citizen at 10 thousand rubles, thanks to which, from September 1, 1992, every Russian received his share of state property in the form of a privatization receipt (voucher). From January 1, 1993, it was possible to purchase shares of any enterprise using a voucher. To achieve this, state-owned enterprises were corporatized: 51% of the shares were distributed among enterprise employees, and the rest went on open sale. Since the vast majority of Russians did not know how to manage the vouchers themselves, check investment funds (CHIFs) were created throughout the country. They were supposed to exchange the population's vouchers for shares in the most efficient privatized enterprises. However, most of the 2 thousand CHIFs who collected vouchers from the population disappeared without a trace within one or two years, greatly enriching the fraudulent, as Chubais himself admitted, “semi-criminal leadership.” The majority of ordinary shareholders in enterprises were also left with nothing: as a result of various frauds, their shares ended up in the hands of management and their entourage. In addition, due to inflation, the vouchers have become completely worthless. Second- monetary - the stage of privatization began in 1995. Its goal was to create an effective owner. As a result of the so-called "shares auctions" large profitable state-owned enterprises with export potential were transferred to private owners who were closest to state power, and at symbolic prices. As a result of privatization, two thirds of the country's wealth became the property of 6% of the population. Modern Russian oligarchs did not earn their fortune, but received it from the hands of the state.

Other government measures to artificially create a thin layer of large owners in the country were the administrative distribution of quotas and licenses for export and import; selective exemption of privileged structures from customs duties on tobacco, alcohol, medicines, cars, etc.; interest-free government loans to private banks. Financial crisis of 1998 and its consequences After privatization in 1992-1998. The main task of the Russian leadership was financial stabilization and reduction budget deficit.

The main method of this struggle was a comprehensive reduction in the money supply. In 1995, a “currency corridor” was introduced (the exchange rate of the ruble against the dollar was fixed within certain limits). The reduction in the budget deficit was also achieved due to the state's refusal of obligations in the field of medicine, education, science, and the social sphere. At the same time, the economy was gripped by the deepest investment crisis (outflow of money from the production sector). Money was increasingly replaced by direct exchange in kind (barter), mutual non-payments, offsets, etc. As a result, during these years, only about 20% of the economy was provided with “real” money, and 80% of transactions were carried out without their participation. Industrial production fell by 56%.

To cover the budget deficit, the state constantly borrowed funds both domestically and abroad. “Life on loan” began through the financial pyramid of GKOs (state short-term obligations). In the spring of 1998, Yeltsin appointed S.V. as Prime Minister. Kiriyenko, who worked as Minister of Fuel and Energy for only a few months. The new government tried to rely on stabilizing financial markets and resolving the budget crisis. On August 17, 1998, the government announced a three-month moratorium (deferment) on banks' repayment of debts to foreign creditors. An acute financial crisis erupted, which was called "default"(refusal to pay debts). The result of the crisis was the collapse of most large private banks, the ruin of thousands of small enterprises, and the confusion of the emerging “middle class” and private owners. Prices were rising rapidly. Russians' ruble savings suddenly depreciated again. The default led to a loss of public and investor confidence in the Russian authorities. The crisis demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the reform course pursued since 1992 and dealt a powerful blow to the political authority of those who stood behind it.

In this situation, the government, headed EAT. Primakov , as part of its policy of “calming” the country, consciously moved away from the extremes of liberalism. The government allowed a certain expansion of money emission (issue of paper money and securities). A course was announced to strengthen state regulation in the economy and to decisively combat economic crimes and corruption. For the first time in a number of years, a small budget surplus (the excess of revenues over expenses) was expected.

As a result of the financial crisis, the ruble became significantly cheaper in relation to foreign currencies, imports decreased, and this objectively strengthened the position of domestic producers. In other words, the financial crisis led to a certain improvement in the economy and served as an impetus for the development of Russian industry. But this did not improve the consumer's situation. All analysts agreed that the economic situation in Russia is extremely difficult and getting out of this situation under the most favorable conditions will take a long time.

The main economic achievement of the reforms, despite all the negative consequences, is that the country earned money. The state no longer controlled or set prices for goods or limited wages. Russia has embarked on the path of integration into the world economy, its economy has become open. The Russian market began to attract the attention of foreign investors and commodity producers. In the 1990s. A layer of businessmen arose, the process of the emergence of a new middle class, which included representatives of various professions, is underway. All types of markets were created in the country: real estate, goods, services, labor, capital, loans, etc. At least a third of the employed population worked in the sharply expanded service sector.

To the negative results of economic reforms of the 1990s. It should be noted that the gradual formation of a market infrastructure is taking place against the background of the rapid impoverishment of a significant part of the population, the emergence of sharp social contrasts, the destruction of a huge number of enterprises, the emergence of unemployment and other diseases of the market economy. A hasty attempt to introduce farming into the Russian village ended in failure. In 2000, peasant farms produced only 3% of the country's agricultural output. Farming did not take root due to the lack of material resources and skills for running an individual farm. Many farms went bankrupt and lost their material resources. The liberalization of foreign trade has led to a massive invasion of Russian markets by cheap agricultural products from abroad.

No. 57. Political development of Russia in 1993-2008.

One of the most pressing tasks that the new Russian government had to solve was the preservation of the territorial integrity of Russia. In 1991, the threat of Russia's collapse arose. The Russian leadership, based on the new political situation, encouraged the processes of “sovereignization” of the republics. Yeltsin encouraged the regions to take as much independence as they could take. In 1990, the republics that were part of the RSFSR declared their sovereignty and renounced the status of autonomies. Autonomous regions (except Jewish) also declared themselves sovereign. Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, the Republic of Sokha (Yakutia), and Chechnya have headed towards secession from the Federation. As a result of negotiations, on March 31, 1992, an agreement was signed in Moscow that defined the relationship between the subjects of the Federation and the borders of the state. It was of a compromise nature, but made it possible to stop the process of state disintegration. Only two years later an agreement was signed between the Russian Federation and Tatarstan on special conditions. History of Russia in the 90s. marked by major political campaigns - elections of the President of the Russian Federation, elections to the State Duma, as well as elections of governors and presidents in all subjects of the Federation. In December 1993, in the elections to the country's new parliament - the State Duma - an unexpected success (which could be seen as a reaction to the rejection of the government's policies) was won by the LDPR (leader - V.V. Zhirinovsky), receiving 24% of the votes. The Communists and the Agrarian Party received a total of 22% of the votes. Other opposition-minded parties (including G. A. Yavlinsky’s Yabloko) collectively received a little more than 28%. Government Party E.T. Gaidar - Democratic Choice of Russia (DCR) - gained only 15.4%. Thus, the majority in the State Duma began to belong to the opposition, and the representative of the farmers, I.P., was elected as its chairman. Rybkin.

Unsuccessful military operations in the North Caucasus, the government's economic policy, and the increasing stratification of society caused the growth of opposition in the country, which was convincingly shown by the results of the 1995 State Duma elections.

Since the relative majority in the State Duma were communists, she was nicknamed “red”. The socio-economic and political situation in Russia was greatly influenced by 1996 presidential elections It seemed to many that with such a baggage of problems, failures and unfulfilled promises, B.N. Yeltsin will not be able to win. His popularity among voters decreased to 6%, and the victory of his rival, the leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation G.A. Zyuganov seemed very likely. Thanks to foreign loans, partial repayment of government debts to public sector employees began. The government announced the development of a new program for transforming the country's economy. Yeltsin removed unpopular figures from the government - Foreign Minister Kozyrev and Deputy Prime Minister Chubais, who was responsible for privatization. The government announced a rapprochement with Belarus. Energetic steps were taken to resolve the Chechen problem - from developing a plan for a peaceful settlement to the physical removal of Dudayev and the cessation of military operations. Yeltsin himself, who had recently seemed sick and lethargic, showed energy and activity. He visited 24 cities and regions - more than in all the years of his presidency. Many people who voted for Yeltsin were not his supporters, but they remained opponents of the communists and did not want them to return to power. At the end of the 90s. The political process is characterized by “personnel ministerial leapfrog.” E.M. became Prime Minister in October 1998. Primakov. He rather supported the position of the Duma rather than the President.

The State Duma's attempt to hold impeachment(removal from office) The President gave Yeltsin a reason for the early resignation of the government of E.M. Primakova. In May of the same year, S.K. became the head of the government. Stepashin, who manages to stay in power for only three months.

Yeltsin focused on the problem of finding his successor. Yeltsin named him on August 9, 1999 after signing the decree on the appointment Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin And. O. Prime Minister. Yeltsin chose a man who at that time was very little known not only among the people, but also among the nomenklatura. The growth of V.V.’s authority Putin took place against the backdrop of another Chechen crisis. On March 26, 2000, early presidential elections took place, where V.V. Putin was elected. An important step towards creating a strong state was an administrative reform. In May 2000 it was established seven federal districts : Central, Northwestern, Southern, Volga, Ural, Siberian and Far Eastern. The districts acted as intermediate and at the same time connecting links between the center and 89 regions of Russia. Plenipotentiary representatives of the President were appointed to each of the districts. In a short time, we managed to solve an extremely important task: to bring local laws into compliance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal legislation. Another political reform in 2000 was reorganization of the Federation Council. The upper house of the Federal Assembly began to be formed not from governors, but from representatives of regions (two from each), elected by local legislative bodies and appointed by heads of administrations. To ensure the constant participation of regional heads in the development of public policy, in August 2000, a State Council - advisory body of power under the head of state. There has been a change in the Russian multi-party system. In 2001, the State Duma adopted a law "About political parties." As a result, instead of approximately 300 political organizations that participated in the 1999 elections, only 26 parties were allowed to participate in the elections to the State Duma, which took place on December 7, 2003.

Has been completed judicial reform. It provided for the introduction of jury trials throughout the country since 2003, the introduction of the institution of justices of the peace, the arrest of citizens only by court decision, the transfer of correctional institutions from the Ministry of Internal Affairs to the Ministry of Justice, etc. The parliamentary elections of 2003 demonstrated the desire of Russian society for stability. The pro-presidential “party of power” “United Russia” won an impressive victory, receiving 37.57% of the votes and 2/3 of the deputy mandates in the Duma. The outcome of the presidential elections held on March 14, 2004 was predictable. Despite the presence of six candidates, alternatives to the Path