Methods of psychology and pedagogy. Methodology of psychology (pedagogy): definition, tasks, levels and functions Methods of psychology and pedagogy
Response Plan:
Method problem. 1
Correlation of the concepts “methodology”, “method”, “methodology”. 1
Methods of educational psychology. 2
Classification of methods. 6
Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the psychological problems of teaching and upbringing.
Method problem.
The problem of method in psychology, despite its ancient origin, is still relevant at the present stage of development of psychological knowledge. The problem of method is closely related to the problem of the subject of science. There are several positions when defining the subject and, accordingly, the method.
A number of domestic scientists believe that psychology has a special subject of knowledge and the method should take into account the specificity. There is also an opposite point of view, that the phenomena of mental life are just as real objects and can well be studied using general scientific methods. Experimental psychology, in a sense (historical), is the fruit of this confrontation. It is the problem of selecting and using a method adequate to the object being studied that is one of the key problems of all empirical psychology.
Correlation of the concepts “methodology”, “method”, “methodology”.
A method in its most general sense is a way of achieving a goal, a specially ordered activity. In philosophy, method as a means of cognition is a way of reproducing the subject being studied in thinking.
The doctrine of method constitutes a special field of knowledge, methodology, which is defined as a system of principles and methods of organizing, constructing the theoretical and practical activities of a researcher, as well as the doctrine of this system. There are three levels of scientific methodology.
1. general methodology: provides the most accurate understanding of the most general laws of development of the objective world, its uniqueness and constituent components, as well as the place and role in it of those phenomena that psychology studies.
2. special methodology, or the methodology of a specific science, allows the latter to formulate its own laws and patterns related to the uniqueness of the formation, development and functioning of the phenomena that it studies.
3. private methodology: is a set of techniques and methods for studying various phenomena by psychology.
Methodology is the broadest concept of the three considered.
A method is a way of organizing an activity. Methods are the main ways and techniques of scientific knowledge of mental phenomena and their patterns. Methods must meet the requirements of validity and reliability. Validity refers to the quality of a method that corresponds to the purposes of studying and evaluating what it is intended for. Reliability refers to the qualities of a research method that make it possible to obtain the same results when using this method multiple times.
Methodology is a system and sequence of research actions, means (tools, devices, furnishings) that allows solving a research problem. That is, a specific embodiment of the method, a way of organizing the interaction of the subject and object of research based on specific material and a specific procedure.
Methods of educational psychology.
Educational psychology has a main arsenal of scientific methods, such as observation, conversation, questioning, experiment, analysis of activity products (creativity), testing, sociometry, etc.
Depending on the level of scientific knowledge - theoretical or empirical - methods are defined as theoretical or empirical. In educational psychology, empirical methods are used predominantly.
1. Observation is the main, most common empirical method in educational psychology (and in educational practice in general) for the purposeful systematic study of a person. The observed person does not know that he is the object of observation, which can be continuous or selective - with recording, for example, the entire course of a lesson or the behavior of only one or several students. Based on observation, an expert assessment can be given. The results of the observation are recorded in special protocols, where the name of the observed person(s), date, time and purpose are noted. Protocol data is subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing.
Self-observation is a method of a person observing himself on the basis of reflexive thinking (the object of self-observation can be goals, motives of behavior, results of activities). This method is the basis of self-reports. It is characterized by sufficient subjectivity and is most often used as an additional one.
2. Conversation is a widespread empirical method in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice) of obtaining information (information) about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. The leader of the conversation does not inform the person being studied about its purpose. The answers are recorded either by tape recording, or in cursive writing, shorthand (if possible, not attracting the attention of the interviewer). A conversation can be either an independent method of studying a person or an auxiliary one, for example, preceding an experiment, therapy, etc.
3. Interview, as a specific form of conversation, can be used to obtain information not only about the interviewee himself, who knows about it, but also about other people, events, etc.
During the conversation or interview, an expert assessment can be given.
4. Questioning is an empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that correspond to the main task of the study. Preparing a questionnaire is a responsible matter that requires professionalism. When compiling the questionnaire, the following are taken into account:
2) their form - open and closed, the latter should be answered “yes” or “no”,
3) their wording (clarity, no answer prompt, etc.),
4) the number and order of questions. In pedagogical practice, no more than 30-40 minutes are allocated for questioning. The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method.
Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group, but in any case it must meet two requirements - representativeness and homogeneity of the sample. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.
5. Experiment is the central empirical method of scientific research, which has become widespread in educational psychology. There are laboratory experiments (in special conditions, with equipment, etc.) and natural experiments, conducted under normal conditions of learning, life, and work, but with a special organization, the influence of which is studied. One of the most effective and widespread forms of natural experiment in recent decades (especially in domestic educational psychology) is the formative experiment. During its course, changes in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and in the level of mental and personal development of students under targeted educational and educational influence are studied.
6. Analysis of products of activity (creativity) - a method of indirect empirical study of a person through deobjectification, analysis, interpretation of material and ideal (texts, music, painting, etc.) products of his activity. This method is widely (and often intuitively) used in pedagogical practice in the form of analysis of student presentations, essays, notes, comments, speeches, drawings, etc. However, in the course of scientific research, the method of analyzing the products of activity (creativity) presupposes a specific goal, hypothesis and methods of analyzing each specific product (for example, text, drawing, piece of music).
Due to the specifics of the subject of educational psychology, some of the above methods are widely used in it more often, others less often. Analysis of the products of students’ activities, their creativity (analysis of the results of solving problems, notes, essays, products of labor, visual creativity of students, etc.), conversation, questioning, formative (educational) experiment, along with observation, are the most accessible and used methods in educational psychology.
7. At the same time, the testing method is becoming more widespread in educational psychology.
Analyzing testing in education, A. Anastasi notes that all types of existing tests are used in this process, however, among all standardized tests, the most achievement tests are used. They were created to determine the effectiveness of programs and the learning process. They “usually provide a final assessment of an individual's achievements at the end of the course, with the main focus being on what the individual can do to date.
All of the above means that the use of testing in educational psychology is a responsible, ethical, highly professional matter that requires special training and a person’s compliance with the requirements of the ethical code of a diagnostic psychologist.
8. Another important research method in educational psychology is sociometry - an empirical method for studying intragroup interpersonal connections, developed by Ya. Moreno. This method, using answers to questions about the preferred choice of group members, allows you to determine its cohesion, the leader of the group, etc. It is widely used in pedagogical practice to form and regroup educational teams and determine intra-group interaction.
“Research procedures” and their types.
1) Analysis of existing mental phenomena or types of activity (some “slice”).
L.S. Vygotsky criticized this procedure, because the phenomenon had become stereotyped by the time the analysis was carried out and turned into a “fossil”. In order to identify the specifics of mental phenomena, it is necessary to turn to the process of their formation. In the course of analyzing this process, it is possible to identify the essential features of a mental phenomenon at the highest stage of its formation and explain them.
2) Genetic (experimental genetic, genetic modeling).
Formative or educational experiment:
There is a goal setting: to obtain a mental process with desirable characteristics;
The researcher finds a system of conditions under which this goal can be achieved;
The identified conditions are considered normative, corresponding to the nature of the phenomenon under study.
Most of all, L.S. was involved in this. Vygotsky, P.Ya. Galperin, A.N. Leontyev.
P.Ya. Halperin sufficiently substantiated this method, characterized its capabilities and methods of implementation - “The method of stage-by-stage or systematic formation.”
V.F. Talyzin described two ways that this method can be used:
1. theoretical-experimental: the researcher carries out a theoretical analysis of solving problems that implement activities and identify difficulties that students have when solving them.
The constructed theoretical model is tested in experiment.
2. analysis of existing activities: people who successfully perform this activity are identified. This success is taken as an indicator of the adequacy of its composition, which is subject to research.
Limitation: successful completion of any activity by subjects does not give grounds to believe that its given composition is optimal. The researcher can make a conclusion about optimality.
3) Slicing (for example, the method of transverse sections) is a study of an existing phenomenon with its division into parts and their detailed description. This method involves the study of participants of different ages, large enough groups to obtain reliable statistical data.
Measurements are taken over the same period of time.
But this method does not provide tracing of the true genesis of phenomena. At the same time, with corrective application, it may turn out to be adequate for studying the characteristics of the psyche of people of different ages.
Method of longitudinal sections (longitude) - the same areas of research are used, and it is possible to trace real transitions from one stage to another.
Sections are made sequentially throughout the entire genesis.
When using this method, as a rule, all kinds of deviations from the norm (standards), various types of defects are recorded.
Classification of methods.
All research methods can be grouped on the following grounds.
The level of scientific knowledge is theoretical or empirical. Accordingly, methods of theoretical research (approximation, axiomatization, extrapolation, modeling, etc.) and methods of empirical research (observation, conversation, experiment, test, etc.) can be distinguished.
The nature of the researcher-teacher’s actions with the object. It could be:
a) study of the object (all listed methods of theoretical and empirical research);
b) processing of the obtained data (qualitative and quantitative, where methods of correlation, factor, cluster analysis, etc. are distinguished), different levels of mathematical and statistical processing. To obtain reliable research results, the nature of data processing turns out to be important, especially in the context of quantitative (statistical) analysis.
However, it is important to note that, despite the importance of mathematical processing of research results in any science in general and in educational psychology in particular, qualitative, i.e. interpretative, substantive analysis is paramount and indispensable.
The purpose and duration of the study: a) obtain data on the current state of an object, process, phenomenon or b) trace the dynamics of their changes over time. In educational psychology, as in other branches of psychological knowledge, the study of an object, carried out by different methods, can be short-term, pursuing ascertaining, diagnostic purposes. But it can also be very long-term (up to several years, for example, diary entries of a child’s development), aimed at identifying the development, genesis (genetic method itself) of any psychological formation of the individual, its properties, etc. On this basis, two methods are distinguished - the method cross-sectional and longitudinal method. Using the first method, a teacher, based on a large amount of material, can obtain, for example, a general characteristic of learning, its dependence on the average, “norm” and deviations from it, distribution curves of students on various grounds (for example, age, learning success, etc.). The longitudinal method allows us to trace the evolution of a phenomenon, its formation and formation. The advantage of this method over the cross-sectional method occurs in solving two problems. I) foreseeing the further course of mental evolution, scientific substantiation of psychological prognosis; 2) determination of genetic connections between phases of mental development. For example, studying the effectiveness of a new training program over several years of teaching the same person, group, class, stream, etc. Widely used in educational psychology, the formative experiment, which often lasts several years, is also a longitudinal research method in form.
Features of the object of study itself, which depend on what specifically acts in this capacity, a) the people themselves, their mental processes, states, psychological traits, their activities, i.e. the phenomenon itself; b) products of human activity, or c) some characteristics, assessments, indicators of human activity and behavior, its organization, management. Naturally, all these objects are inextricably linked and the differentiation of methods on this basis is very arbitrary, but for analyzing the scope of application of each of them in the practical work of a teacher, such differentiation is advisable. In general, in pedagogical practice, in relation to studying, for example, a student, it is advisable to use observation methods (in particular, the diary method), conversations (questionnaires, interviews) and testing. To study the relationships of students in a class, in a group (for example, group differentiation), along with long-term observation, sociometric and referentometric methods can be successfully used. In relation to the study of products of activity, in particular educational activities, i.e. of what it is embodied and materialized in, the method of analyzing the products of activity is the most common. Purposeful, systematic analysis of essays, presentations, texts of oral and written communications (responses) of students, i.e. the content and form of these messages contributes to the teacher’s understanding of the personal and educational orientation of students, the depth and accuracy of their mastery of the academic subject, their attitude towards learning, the educational institution, the academic subject itself and teachers. In relation to the study of personal, individual psychological characteristics of students or their activities, the method of generalization of independent variables is used, which requires, for example, generalization of data about one student obtained from different teachers. Only data obtained under equal conditions when studying personality in various types of activities can and should be generalized.
Analyzing research methods according to the nature of the researcher’s action, B.G. Ananyev identifies four groups of them:
1) organizational methods (comparative, longitudinal, complex);
2) empirical, which includes
a) observational methods (observation and self-observation);
b) experimental methods (laboratory, field, natural, formative or psychological-pedagogical);
c) psychodiagnostic methods (standardized and projective tests, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews and conversations);
d) praximetric methods (chronometry, cyclography, professional description, work evaluation);
e) modeling method (mathematical, cybernetic, etc.);
f) biographical methods (analysis of facts, dates, events, evidence of a person’s life);
3) data processing, i.e. methods of quantitative (mathematical and statistical) and qualitative analysis;
4) interpretive methods, including genetic and structural methods.
Based on the methodological principles of psychology, such as systematicity, complexity, the principle of development, as well as the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, educational psychology in each specific study uses a set of methods (particular methods and research procedures). However, one of the methods always acts as the main one, and the others are additional. Most often, in targeted research in educational psychology, the main one is, as already noted, a formative (educational) experiment, and additional to it are observation, introspection, conversation, product analysis activities, testing. In the practical activities of each individual teacher, the main ones are observation and conversation, followed by analysis of the products of the students’ educational activities.
Pedagogy is similar to psychology in that the object of study is general. This is a man. Of course, anatomy also comes into contact with them here, but this science already considers a person from a completely different perspective. But it is the human psyche, his personality and the manifestation of all personal qualities in a team that are studied by the first two sciences. Therefore, in many ways, their research methods are similar. All information - both information about the abilities of the brain and information about the paths of personality development, which is enormous in volume, is obtained through research.
There are quite a few research methods, but there are only three initial, basic ones. They are the basis for all other research. These are longitudinal, comprehensive and comparative research methods. Longitudinal is a method of longitudinal sections known in historical science. In order to conduct such a study, it takes more than one year - well, or a year, at least. The point is that an individual or a group of people is studied over a period of time, and all the changes that occur in their behavior, psyche, mode of action, and actions are recorded. This method allows us to determine what exactly affects human development and how much.
The comparative method is convenient when you need to study people who are in the same group, but react differently to common stimuli. It becomes clear what exactly causes these differences, what should be given more “votes” - environmental factors or heredity. By the way, the comparative method is quite effective when it is necessary to study twins who are similar in genotype, but may develop differently.
An integrated research method implies that the object of study is approached from different angles and. The main thing is various specialists. Let’s say, when some “unformatted” child is considered - either a defective child, or, on the contrary, a gifted one, the goal of scientists and teachers is to find out the reasons why his development took a different path than that of his peers. To do this, not only teachers are involved, but also psychologists, sociologists, and doctors. After all, the reason could be anything. The resulting data is added and analyzed.
After these methods have been used (or, depending on the need, one of them), empirical research methods are used directly, which are used by teachers on the spot, in the learning process. This is observation, experiment, analysis. These are the three pillars on which pedagogical research rests.
Observation is a passive method. It does not involve interference in the student’s activities; on the contrary, it is the preserved learning conditions that help to obtain a cleaner result. Observation is the purposeful perception of a student over a period of time, with regular recording of the data obtained. The observation method is used both in groups and in individual studies.
The second main research method is experiment. Unlike the previous one, this is already an active method. It represents a targeted intervention in the activities and activity of students, with the aim of adjusting it and, again, recording the results. Why is this necessary? Observation reveals the most general features of human development. The experiment is used when it is necessary to demonstrate certain abilities of a person, to form an opinion about a specific character trait. To make this trait manifest, you need to shape events by creating artificial situations. In psychology, an experiment is most often used that the subject is unaware of - in order to make the result more objective. After all, when a person does not know that he is being watched, he behaves more naturally, more relaxed. However, in pedagogy the leader is an experiment that the subjects know about. This is due to the fact that the abilities that are tested in them most often relate to the strength and quality of mental activity, and in order to demonstrate it to the maximum, a person must concentrate and have the right mindset. For example, the simplest experiment is testing in class, when you need to, say, put in writing what was said in class over the last half hour. This shows how observant, attentive, and how good the student is. Perhaps the experiment is the most effective and popular research method in schools and universities.
If the previous method is valid precisely in the process of activity of the object being studied, then the next one is based on the analysis of the results of this activity. That’s what it’s called - analysis of activities and products of activity. Thus, there is an assessment system that allows you to monitor a student’s progress throughout the quarter, trimester, half-year, and year. Also, a huge help in this matter is the work of students, which is submitted for reporting - these are not only tests. These include coursework, graduation projects, and even dissertations. Analysis of labor results helps to compare the goals and content of training, training programs, with a person’s actual performance. In addition, this method not only identifies inconsistencies on this item (if any), but also helps to detect in which direction deviations occur and why.
Perhaps some people focus on the humanities, others on the exact sciences. Some are more sensitive to homework, others to classwork, or exams in general. In addition to these methods, there are also such methods as expert assessments and the psychodiagnostic method, but they are used much less frequently. The second is needed, for example, only in the case when pedagogy by itself cannot cope with the problem, and the object of observation clearly needs professional advice.
In educational psychology, the same methods are used as in other branches of psychological science. The main methods are observation and experiment.
Observation - one of the methods of collecting data through direct visual and auditory contact with the object of study. A specific feature of this method is that when using it, the researcher does not influence the subject of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to him, but waits for their natural manifestation.
The main characteristics of the observation method are purposefulness and systematicity. Observation is carried out using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure. Its main points are as follows:
a) selection of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;
b) observation program: a list of those aspects and properties of the object that will be recorded.
In principle, two types of goals can be distinguished. In exploratory research, the goal is to obtain as much information as possible about the object of interest. For example, recording the behavior of six-year-olds who entered school, in class, during recess, at home; in communication with teachers, parents, class students, etc. Collecting broad information makes it possible to identify problems that require special research.
In other cases, surveillance is very selective. Thus, the famous Swiss researcher J. Piaget, when studying children's thinking, observed only games in which children from two objects seemed to get one (one object was inside the other). This formed the child’s understanding of a certain relationship between objects.
c) a method of recording the information received.
A special problem is the observer himself: his presence can change the behavior of the person of interest. This problem can be solved in two ways: the observer must become a familiar member of the team where he intends to observe. Another way is to observe while remaining invisible to the object of observation. This path has limitations, primarily moral ones.
With an activity approach to the subject of psychology, which is the indicative part of the activity, such direct observation is not always possible: the indicative part of the activity, as a rule, occurs in an internal, mental form. Consequently, direct observation of it is excluded (FOOTNOTE: In the history of psychology there was a period when the method of direct observation of the course of mental processes was used - the method of introspection (“looking inside oneself”). In this case, the observer had to observe his own mental phenomena. This method did not justify.). In this case, observation is aimed at important components of a given activity, which allow us to judge the part that interests us indirectly. This means that correct use of this method requires professional training.
LUGANSK VNU 2000
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
EASTERN UKRAINIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
TO PRACTICAL LESSONS IN DISCIPLINE
“FUNDAMENTALS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY”
Topics 1-4
(for full-time students of all specialties)
U T V E R J D E N O
at a department meeting
psychology and pedagogy.
Protocol No. 1 of 08/31/2000
Lugansk VNU 2000
UDC 159.9.072
Guidelines for practical classes in the discipline: “Fundamentals of Psychology and Pedagogy” for full-time students of all specialties, topics 1-4 / Compiled by: V.V. Tretyachenko, O.N. Zadorozhnaya, Yu.A. Bokhonkova. -Lugansk: Publishing house Vostochnoukr. national Univ., 2000. 52 p.
These guidelines are intended for use by students in preparation for practical classes in the discipline “Fundamentals of Psychology and Pedagogy”. The instructions contain plans for practical lessons, assignments for independent work, practical tasks and tests, lists of literary sources necessary for a more in-depth study of a specific topic, and questions for self-control are offered.
Compiled by: V.V. Tretyachenko, prof.
O.N. Zadorozhnaya, assist.,
Yu.A. Bokhonkova, assistant.
Rep. for the release of O.N. Zadorozhna, assistant.
Reviewer S.D. Ivanova, associate professor.
Topic 1. SUBJECT AND METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY
Target: gain theoretical knowledge on the topic, have an understanding of the procedure and research techniques and methods of analyzing the results obtained.
Progress of the lesson
1.1. Subject of psychology and pedagogy.
1.2. General concept of the psyche.
1.3. Principles, tasks, areas of psychology that are relevant to pedagogy.
1.4. Method, technique, methodology.
1.5. Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research (main and auxiliary).
Note: prepare for the test on the above questions.
2.1. The concept of method, methodology // Philosophical Encyclopedia. - G.: Soviet Encyclopedia. T.3 - P.408.
2.2. Vikova and pedagogical psychology / Ed. Gamezo M.V., Matyukhinoi M.V., Mikhalchik G.S. - K.: Nauk.dumka, 1984, pp. 14-25.
2.3. Piaget J. Experimental psychology (issue 2). - G.: Mysl, 1956.
2.4. Lyublinskaya A.A. Child psychology. - G.: Progress, 1971, pp. 17-30 (section “Methods”).
2.5. Rogovin M.S. Introduction to Psychology. - G.: Nauka, 1969, pp. 147-162, pp. 169-179.
2.6. Workshop on general psychology / Ed. Shcherbakova A.I. - M.: Nauka, 1979, p. 19-29 (Topic 27).
2.7. Gilbukh Yu.Z. Method of psychological tests: essence and significance // Questions of psychology. -1986. - No. 2, pp. 30-40.
2.8. Gurevich K.M. Modern psychological diagnostics: ways of development // Questions of psychology. - 1982. - No. 1.
2.9. Gurevich K.M. What is psychological diagnostics // Series “Knowledge” (pedagogy and psychology). -1985. - No. 4, pp. 10-14.
2.10. Dzhuzha N.F. Application of nonparametric statistics methods in psychological and pedagogical research // Questions of psychology. - 1987. - No. 4, pp. 145-151.
2.11. Rutenberg D. Psychodiagnostics as a necessary component of a teacher’s pedagogical skill // Questions of psychology. -1984. - No. 4, pp. 149-152.
III. Experimental study
3.1. Eysenck's method for determining the type of temperament (performed in class).
3.2. Methodology “Are you a good psychologist?” (see Vereina L.V., Tretyachenko V.V., Fedorov V.G. Know yourself. - Lugansk: VUGU Publishing House, 1993, pp. 45-47.)
3.3. Methodology “Did you make a mistake in choosing your profession?” (see Vereina L.V., Tretyachenko V.V., Fedorov V.G. Know yourself. - Lugansk: VUGU Publishing House, 1993, pp. 56-60.)
IV. Main literature
4.1. For primary sources, see paragraph II.
4.2. Lecture notes on this topic.
4.3. General psychology: Textbook. For students of higher educational institutions / Ed. S.D. Maksimenko - K.: Forum, 2000. - 543 p.
4.4. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
4.5. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Textbook for higher education. ped. textbook establishments. In 3 books. - 4th ed. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2000. Book 1: General fundamentals of psychology. -688 pp.
4.6. Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy: Textbook. - 6th ed. - Mn.: Universitetskaya, 2000. - 560 p.
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE TOPIC
Basic Concepts: psychology, pedagogy, education, psyche, consciousness, unconscious, reflection, principle, method, technique, methodology.
Problems that pedagogy explores
1. Study of the essence and patterns of development and formation of personality and their influence on education.
2. Determining the goals of education.
3. Development of educational content.
4. Study of educational methods.
General concept of the psyche
Psyche– a property of highly organized living beings that exists in various forms and the product of their vital activity, ensuring their orientation and activity (Dictionary of a practical psychologist / Edited by Golovin S.Yu.).
Psyche- This is an integral property of living things.
Psyche is the subjective imagination of the objective world.
Psyche is a systemic quality of the brain.
The psyche of both humans and animals- this is the highest form of relationship between living beings and the objective world, expressed in their ability to realize their motives and act on the basis of information about it.
A person’s psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that his biological nature is transformed by sociocultural factors, thanks to which an internal plan of life activity—consciousness—emerges, and the individual becomes a personality.
The psyche of both humans and animals includes many subjective phenomena.
Psychic phenomena– these are the brain’s responses to external (environment) and internal (body conditions) influences. At the same time, the human psyche manifests itself, is formed and develops in its activities.
Psychology studies mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the individual.
Mental process– these are individual forms or types of mental activity. With the help of, for example, sensations and perceptions, attention and memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person understands the world. Therefore they are often called cognitive processes.
Mental properties of personality– the most significant and stable mental characteristics of a person (his needs, interests, abilities, temperament, character, etc.). In other words, the mental properties and characteristics of a person include the quality of the mind, emotional and volitional environment, entrenched in the character, temperament, abilities and behavior of a person.
Mental conditions- this is a special characteristic of a person’s mental activity over a certain period of time. They are caused by the external situation, well-being, individual characteristics of a person and affect his behavior during a certain period (for example, states of fatigue, irritability, activity, etc.).
The concept of “state” characterizes the static nature of a phenomenon (as opposed to processes) and is determined by the manifestation of feelings (moods, affects), attention, will, thinking, etc.
Mental properties, states and processes are closely interconnected and can transform into one another.
The highest form of the psyche, the result of social historical conditions for the formation of a person in the process of his work activity, cognition and communication is consciousness.
Unconscious is a set of mental processes, acts and states caused by various influences, the influence of which a person is not aware of (Fig. 1).
Picture 1. Structure of the psyche
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Figure 2 . Basic functions of the psyche
The problem of the emergence (genesis) of the psyche
“Anthropopsychism” (associated with the name of Descartes) - the emergence of the psyche is associated with the appearance of man, that is, the psyche exists only in man.
“Panpsychism” is the general spirituality of nature (Robinet, Fechner).
“Biopsychism” - psyche is not a property of all matter at all, but a property of only living matter (Hobbes, C. Bernard, Haeckel, Wundt).
“Neuropsychism” - psyche - is a property not of all living matter, but only of those organisms that have a nervous system (Darwin, Spencer, many modern physiologists and psychologists).
Each of these views cannot be accepted unconditionally.
The problem of the emergence of the psyche is still considered unresolved.
Principles of Psychology
1. The principle of determinism.
2. Genetic principle.
3. Personal approach.
4. Relationships between personality and activity.
Main groups of methods
I. Organizational methods
1.1. Comparative method (comparison of groups by age).
1.2. Longitudinal method (examination of the same individuals over a long period of time).
1.3. Complex method (studying the same objects using different methods from different sciences).
II. Empirical methods.
2.1. Observation.
2.2. Introspection.
2.3. Experimental methods (laboratory, natural, formative, ascertaining).
2.4. Psychodiagnostic methods (conversation, interview, survey, questionnaire, etc.).
2.5. Biographical methods.
III. Data processing methods.
3.1. Quantitative (statistical).
3.2. Qualitative.
IV. Correction methods.
4.1. Autotraining.
4.2. Group training.
4.3. Education.
4.4. Methods of psychotherapeutic influence.
Basic methods
1. Observation (external, internal, free, standardized, included, outsider).
2. Experiment (laboratory, natural, experimental-genetic, ascertaining, formative).
Helper Methods
1. Survey (oral, written, free, standardized).
2. Psychological and pedagogical test (questionnaire test, task test, projective test).
3. Modeling (mathematical, logical, technical, cybernetic).
4. Psychological and pedagogical analysis of the process and products of activity (drawings, works, technical products, collections).
5. Sociological and pedagogical questionnaires.
6. Sociometry.
PRACTICAL TASK
Eysenck's technique(done independently in class)
Instructions: You are asked several questions. Answer only “Yes” or “No” to each question. Don't waste time discussing questions: there can be no good or bad answers here, as this is not a test of mental ability.
QUESTIONS:
1. Do you often experience a craving for new experiences, to be distracted, to experience strong sensations?
2. Do you often feel that you need friends who can understand, encourage, and sympathize with you?
3. Do you consider yourself a carefree person?
4. Is it very difficult for you to give up your intentions?
5. Do you think about your affairs slowly and prefer to wait before acting?
6. Do you always keep your promises, even if it is not beneficial for you?
7. Do you often have ups and downs in your mood?
8. Do you usually act and speak quickly?
9. Have you ever had the feeling that you are unhappy, although there was no serious reason for this?
10. Is it true that you are ready to do anything in a dispute?
11. Do you feel embarrassed when you want to meet someone of the opposite sex who you like?
12. Does it ever happen that when you get angry, you lose your temper?
13. Does it often happen that you act thoughtlessly, on the spur of the moment?
14. Do you often worry about the idea that you shouldn't have done or said something?
15. Do you prefer reading books to meeting people?
16. Is it true that you are easily offended?
17. Do you often like to be in company?
18. Do you ever have thoughts that you would not like to share with others?
19. Is it true that sometimes you are so full of energy that everything in your hands burns, and sometimes you feel tired?
20. Do you try to limit your circle of acquaintances to a small number of your closest friends?
21. Do you dream a lot?
22. When people shout at you, do you respond in kind?
23. Do you consider all your habits to be good?
24. Do you often have the feeling that you are to blame for something?
25. Are you sometimes able to give free rein to your feelings and have carefree fun in a cheerful company?
26. Can we say that your nerves are often stretched to the limit?
27. Are you known as a lively and cheerful person?
28. After something is done, do you often mentally return to it and think that you could have done it better?
29. Do you feel restless when in a large company?
30. Does it happen that you spread rumors?
31. Does it happen that you can’t sleep because different thoughts come into your head?
32. If you want to know something, do you prefer to find it in a book or ask your friends?
33. Do you have palpitations?
34. Do you like work that requires concentration?
35. Do you have tremors?
36. Do you always tell the truth?
37. Do you find it unpleasant to be in a company where they make fun of each other?
38. Are you irritable?
39. Do you like work that requires speed?
40. Is it true that you are often haunted by thoughts about various troubles and horrors that could happen, although everything ended well?
41. Is it true that you are leisurely in your movements and somewhat slow?
42. Have you ever been late for work or a meeting with someone?
43. Do you often have nightmares?
44. Is it true that you love to talk so much that you don’t miss any opportunity to talk with a new person?
45. Do you have any pain?
46. Would you be upset if you couldn’t see your friends for a long time?
47. Are you a nervous person?
48. Are there people you know that you clearly don’t like?
49. Are you a confident person?
50. Are you easily offended by criticism of your shortcomings or your work?
51. Do you find it difficult to really enjoy events that involve a lot of people?
52. Does the feeling that you are somehow worse than others bother you?
53. Would you be able to bring some life into a boring company?
54. Does it happen that you talk about things that you don’t understand at all?
55. Are you worried about your health?
56. Do you like to make fun of others?
57. Do you suffer from insomnia?
Processing the results:
EXTRAVERSION - is the sum of “yes” answers in questions: 1, 3, 8, 10, 13, 17, 22, 25, 27, 39, 44, 46, 49, 53, 56
and “no” answers to questions 5, 15, 20, 29, 32, 37, 41, 51.
If the sum of the points is 0-10, then you are an introvert, closed within yourself.
If 15-24, then you are an extrovert, sociable, facing the outside world.
If 11-14, then you are an ambivert, you communicate when you need it.
NEUROTICISM - is the number of “yes” answers in questions 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23, 26, 28, 31, 33, 35, 38, 40, 43, 45, 47, 50, 52, 55, 57
If the number of “yes” answers is 0-10, then you are emotionally stable.
If 11-16, then you are emotionally impressionable.
If 17-22, then you have individual signs of a weakened nervous system.
If 23-24, then you have neuroticism bordering on pathology, a breakdown or neurosis is possible.
FALSE - find the sum of points for “yes” answers in questions 12,13,30,42,48,54.
If the number scored is 0-3 - the norm of human lies, the answers can be trusted.
If 4-5, then it is doubtful.
If 6-9, then the answers are unreliable.
If the answers can be trusted, then a graph is built based on the data received.
SANGUINE-EXTROVERT: stable personality, social, outward-oriented, sociable, sometimes talkative, carefree, cheerful, loves leadership, has many friends, cheerful.
CHOLERICA-EXTROVERT: unstable personality, touchy, excited, unrestrained, aggressive, impulsive, optimistic, active, but performance and mood are unstable and cyclical. In a situation of stress - a tendency to hysterical-psychopathic reactions.
PHLEGMATIC INTROVERT: stable personality, slow, calm, passive, calm, cautious, thoughtful, peaceful, restrained, reliable, calm in relationships, able to withstand long-term adversity without disruptions to health and mood.
MELANCHOLIC INTROVERT: unstable personality, anxious, pessimistic, very reserved on the outside, but sensitive and emotional on the inside, intellectual, prone to thinking. In a situation of stress - a tendency to internal anxiety, depression, breakdown or deterioration in performance (rabbit stress).
Self-test questions
1. What is the subject of psychology as a science?
2. What is the subject of pedagogy as a science?
3. List and give a brief description of the main views on the psyche and its role.
4. List the main functions of the psyche?
5. Name the tasks of psychology in relation to pedagogy.
6. Define the concepts: “method”, “methodology”, “methodology”.
7. What research methods are used in psychology and pedagogy?
Topic 2. PERSONALITY
Target: will become familiar with the topic and diagnostic techniques for studying the structural components of personality.
Progress of the lesson
I. Self-study questions
1.1. Individual, personality, individuality.
1.2. The concept of personality as a set of social relations.
1.3. Formation and development of personality. Socialization of personality.
1.4. Personality structure.
1.5. Personal activity. Freudian and neo-Freudian concepts of activity.
1.6. Perspectives on personality and frustration.
1.7. Personality and activity.
Note: prepare for a test on this topic.
II. Prepare an annotation for one of the works:
2.1. Dodonov B.I. About the “Personality” system // Questions of psychology. – 1985. - No. 5, pp. 36-45.
2.2. Kovalev A.G. Psychology of Personality. –M.: Education, 1970.
2.3. Petrovsky A.V. Possibilities and ways of constructing a general psychological theory of personality // Questions of psychology. – 1987. - No. 4, pp. 30-45.
2.4. Krupnov A.I. Psychological problems in the study of human activity // Questions of psychology. – 1984. - No. 3, pp. 25-33.
2.5. Petrovsky A.V. Problems of personality development from the perspective of social psychology // Questions of psychology. – 1984. - No. 4, pp. 15-29.
2.6. Feldshtein D.I. Psychological patterns of personality development and solving current problems of education // Questions of psychology. – 1984. - No. 2, pp. 43-51.
2.7. Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. –M.: Knowledge, 1977, p. 159-206.
2.8. Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality // Reader “Psychology of Personality”. – M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982, p.20-28.
2.9. Rubinshtein S.L. Theoretical questions of psychology and the problem of personality // Reader “Psychology of Personality”. –M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982, p.28-35.
2.10. Myasishchev V.N. The structure of personality and a person’s attitude to reality // Reader “Psychology of Personality”. –M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982, p.35-39.
2.11. Ananyev B.G. Some features of the psychological structure of personality // Reader “Psychology of Personality”. –M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982, pp. 39-42.
III. Experimental study.
3.1. Psychogeometric test (done independently in class).
3.2. Method “How do you laugh?” (See Know Thyself, pp. 10-11).
3.3. Method “What is your character?” (See Know Thyself, pp. 63-68).
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE TOPIC.
Basic concepts: individual, personality, individuality, personality structure, ontogenesis, phylogenesis, personality activity, frustration, orientation, social experience, driving forces of development.
“The people, the slave, and the ruler - everyone recognizes that the highest happiness can only be found in the individual”
Johann Goethe
Personality structure
Personality structure- a holistic systemic formation, a set of socially significant mental properties, relationships and actions of an individual that have developed in the process of ontogenesis and determine his treatment as a conscious subject of activity and communication.
Self-esteem- a person’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people. It is one of the most important processes in the self-government mechanism.
Level of aspiration- the level of a person’s desire to achieve something, own something, receive something, exercise rights to something.
There are various views on personality structure
Theory about the biological and social in the structure of personality
1. Biological: endopsyche - expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions. The internal mechanism of personality, identified from the neuropsychic organization of a person (susceptibility, peculiarities of thinking, memory, imagination, ability to exert volition, impulsiveness, etc.) has a natural basis.
2. Social: exopsyche - determined by the relationship of the individual to the external environment - to the entire sphere of what confronts the individual and to which the individual can relate in one way or another (the system of relationships between the individual and his experience, that is, interests, inclinations, ideals, feelings, knowledge and etc.) - determined by social factors.
The theory of three components in personality structure
1. The structure of a personality includes the systemic organization of its individuality, intra-individual (intra-individual) a subsystem represented in the structure of a person’s temperament, character, and abilities.
2. The personality in the system of its “real relations” finds its own special existence, which differs from the bodily existence of the individual, and therefore one of the characteristics of the personality structure should be sought in “space” outside the limitations of the individual’s body, which constitutes interindividual (inter-individual) personality subsystem.
3. Personality is taken beyond the limitations of the individual’s body and moves beyond his existing “here and now” connections with other individuals (“investments” in other people through his activities). All this constitutes the third subsystem of personality - meta-individual (supra-individual).
Personality structure according to S. Freud:
1. “It” (id) - localized in the unconscious of the original instincts and drives (nutrition, sexuality, avoidance of danger and death), which strives for immediate satisfaction of desires regardless of the relationship of the subject and objective reality and is absolutely illogical and immoral. The two main innate instincts are eros (libido) and thanatos (the desire for death and destruction).
2. “I” (ego) – consciousness and self-awareness of the individual, which carries the functions of perception, evaluation and understanding of the external world and adaptation to it in accordance with the principles of reality and rationality.
3. “Super-ego” (superego) - the highest authority in the structure of the mental life of the individual, formed in the process of assimilating the norms and values of culture, playing the role of an internal censor and guided by the principles of conscience and duty, and moral requirements.
Personality structure according to K.K. Platonov
2. Components of experience (knowledge, skill, habits).
3. Component forms of reflection (covers individual characteristics of mental processes that are formed in the process of social life).
4. The biologically determined side of the mental functions of the individual (combines the typological properties of the individual, gender and age characteristics).
Personalization- the process and result of the reflection of the subject in other people, its ideal representation and continuation in them.
Personality and activity
People's activities are diverse, but at the same time they can be reduced to three main types: educational, play, and work.
Labor– the main activity – results in the creation of a socially useful product.
Educational- a specific human activity with the goal of learning.
Gaming– a form of activity in conditional situations aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience, fixed in socially fixed ways of carrying out objective actions, in the subjects of science and culture.
Activity components:
- perceptual, associated with sensations and perceptions;
- mnemonic– storing and reproducing information;
- mental– solving problems that arise in the course of activities;
- imaginative– generating various ideas, projects, technologies;
- motor– implementation of ideas in diagrams, drawings, etc.
PRACTICAL TASK
Methodology "Psychogeometric test"
From the figures shown below, choose the one you like best.
SQUARE - hard work, diligence, the need to complete the work started, perseverance, which allows you to achieve the completion of the work - this is what the famous true squares are for. Endurance, patience and methodicality usually make Squares highly qualified specialists in their field. Square loves established order once and for all: everything should be in its place and happen in its own time. The ideal of the Square is a planned, planned life; he does not like “surprises” and changes in the usual course of events.
RECTANGLE - a temporary form of personality that can be worn by other persistent figures at certain periods of life. These are people who are dissatisfied with the lifestyle they currently lead and are therefore busy looking for a better position. Therefore, the main qualities of a rectangle are curiosity, curiosity, keen interest in everything that happens and courage. They are open to new ideas, values, ways of thinking and living, and easily learn everything new.
TRIANGLE - this figure symbolizes leadership. The most characteristic feature of a true Triangle is the ability to concentrate on the main goal. Triangles are energetic, unstoppable, strong personalities who set clear goals for themselves and, as a rule, achieve them. They are ambitious and pragmatic, and they know how to convey to senior management the importance of their own work and the work of their subordinates. The strong need to be right and control the state of affairs makes the Triangle a person who constantly competes with others.
CIRCLE is the most benevolent of the five figures. She has high sensitivity, developed empathy, the ability to sympathize, respond emotionally to the experience of another person, feels someone else's joy and feels someone else's pain as her own. A circle is happy when everyone gets along with each other. Therefore, when he has a conflict with someone, it is most likely that the Circle will be the first to give in. He tries to find commonality even in opposing points of view.
ZIGZAG is a figure that symbolizes creativity. Combining various ideas and creating something new and original based on this is what Zigzags like. They are never satisfied with the way things are currently done or have been done in the past. Zigzag is the most enthusiastic, the most excitable of the five signs. When he has a new and interesting idea, he is ready to tell it to the whole world! Zigzags are tireless preachers of their ideas and are capable of captivating many with them.
Self-test questions
1. What unites and what distinguishes one from another the concepts of “person”, “personality”, “individuality”, “individual”?
2. What is the social essence of the individual?
3. What about personality is determined by its biological structure?
4. What does the personality structure consist of?
5. How does the socialization of the individual proceed? What influences the formation of personality?
6. What is personality orientation?
7. How are self-esteem and level of aspiration related?
8. What is the source and driving force of personality development?
9. Can a person with more adequate self-esteem experience a state of frustration? Justify the answer.
Topic 3. Motivational-need
SPHERE OF PERSONALITY
Target: deepen theoretical knowledge of individual psychological properties of the individual, master methods for diagnosing the motivational-need sphere of the individual.
Progress of the lesson
I. Questions for self-preparation:
1.1. The concept of need. Types of needs.
1.2. The concept of motive, incentive.
1.4. Motivation, its influence on the success of educational activities.
1.5. Professional motivation
Note: prepare for independent work .
II. Make an annotation for one of the works:
2.1. Leontyev A.N. Individual and personality. - G.: Nauka, 1982, p. 140-146.
2.2. Rubinshtein S.L. Personality orientation. -M.: Pedagogy, 1976, p. 152-155.
2.3. Kon I.S. Personality constancy: myth or reality? -M.: Politizdat, 1978, p. 161-169.
2.4. Petrovsky A.V. Be an individual. -M.: Politizdat, 1982, p. 155-161.
2.5. Reader on Psychology / Ed. Petrovsky A.V. -M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1977 (one of the works on the topic).
2.6. Psychology of Personality. Texts. -M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982 (one of the works on the topic).
2.7. Ananyev B.G. Selected psychological works. -M.: Pedagogy, 1980, T1.
2.8. Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy. Textbook for universities - St. Petersburg: Publishing house "Peter", 2000. -P.183-188.
III. Experimental study:
3.1. Methodology "Personality Orientation" (performed in class under the guidance of a teacher).
3.2. MUN technique (motivation for success, failure) - performed independently by students (see practical task at the end of the topic).
3.3. Differential diagnostic support test by E.A. Klimova - performed independently by students (see practical task at the end of the topic).
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE TOPIC
Basic concepts: need motive, incentive, direction, self-actualization, activity, motivation, professional motivation.
The motivational sphere of an individual is a set of stable motives that have a certain hierarchy and express the orientation of the individual.
The concept of motive, incentive
Motives- these are incentives for one or another type of activity (activity, communication, behavior) associated with the satisfaction of a certain need.
Stimulus(from the Latin stimulus - a pointed stick that was used to drive animals, a goad) - an influence that predetermines the dynamics of an individual’s mental states (denoted as a reaction) and relates to it as cause and effect.
Motives differ from one another in the type of needs that manifest themselves, the forms they take, and the specific content of the activity in which they are realized (motives for work, educational activities).
 |
Conscious motives- a person is aware of what motivates him to act, what is the content of his needs (interests, beliefs, aspirations).
Unconscious motives- a person is not aware of what motivates him to activity (attitudes and drives).
A motive is always, in one way or another, connected with the processes of cognition: perception, thinking, memory and language.
A motive is an object that meets an actual need, that is, it acts as a way to satisfy and organize it, and in a certain way directs behavior (according to A.N. Leontiev).
A perceived need becomes a motive for behavior. In general, a motive is a reflection of a need.
A set of persistent motives that guide an individual’s activity and are relatively independent of existing situations is called personality orientation.
The orientation of the individual is always socially determined and formed through education.
Personality orientation
Focus- these are attitudes that have become personality traits.
Setting your identity– this is a position taken, which consists in a certain attitude towards the goals or objectives at hand and is expressed in selective mobilization and readiness for activities aimed at their implementation.
Orientation includes several related hierarchical forms: drives, desires, interests, aspirations, inclinations, ideals, worldviews, beliefs.
Attraction– the most primitive biological form of orientation.
Wish- a conscious need and attraction to something very specific.
Pursuit– occurs when a volitional component is included in the structure of desire.
Interest– a cognitive form of focusing on objects.
Addiction– arises when an act of will is included in the interest.
Ideal– the objective goal of inclination, specified in an image or representation.
Worldview– a system of philosophical, aesthetic, natural science and other views on the world around us.
Belief– the highest form of orientation is a system of individual motives that encourages her to act in accordance with her views, principles, and worldview.
Characteristics of interests
| Interests ® | Emotional appearances of human cognitive needs; they express the motivating power of significant objects of activity | |
| Content: interests are characterized by a certain orientation. You can define material, socio-political, professional, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. | ||
| Target: interest is direct and indirect. Direct- this is an interest in the process of activity itself Indirect– this is an interest in the results of activities. | ||
| Latitude: interests can be concentrated in one area or distributed between them | ||
| Stability: characterized by varying duration and preservation. The stability of interests is expressed in the duration of preservation. | ||
There are different directions:
For interaction;
On task (business orientation);
On oneself (personal focus).
Professional motivation
The problem associated with studying students’ attitudes towards their chosen profession combines a number of questions:
1. Satisfaction with the profession.
2. Dynamics of satisfaction from course to course.
3. Factors influencing the formation of satisfaction: socio-psychological, psychological-pedagogical, differential psychological, including gender and age.
4. Problems of professional motivation, or, in other words, the system and hierarchy of motives that determine a positive or negative attitude towards the chosen profession.
Types of professions
Observation- the main, most widespread in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) empirical method of studying a person. Under observation is understood as a purposeful, organized and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study. The results of recording observation data are called a description of the object’s behavior. Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio and video equipment, surveillance maps, etc.). However, with the help of observation it is possible to detect only phenomena that occur under ordinary, “normal” conditions, and to understand the essential properties of an object it is necessary to create special conditions different from “normal” ones.
direct connection between the observer and the observed object;
bias (emotional coloring) of observation;
difficulty (sometimes impossibility) of repeated observation.
The main features of the observation method are (see animation):
There are several types of observations (see Fig. 6). Depending on the observer's position, open And hidden observation. The first means that the subjects know the fact of their scientific control, and the researcher’s activities are perceived visually. Covert observation presupposes the fact of covert monitoring of the actions of the subject. The difference between the first and second is the comparison of data on the course of psychological and pedagogical processes and the behavior of participants in educational interaction under conditions of a feeling of supervision and freedom from the eyes of strangers. Further highlighted are solid And selective observation. The first covers processes in their entirety: from their beginning to the end, to completion. The second is a dotted, selective recording of certain phenomena and processes being studied. For example, when studying the labor intensity of teacher and student work in a lesson, the entire learning cycle is observed from its start at the beginning of the lesson to the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in teacher-student relationships, the researcher waits, as it were, observing these events from the side, in order to then describe in detail the reasons for their occurrence, the behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. teacher and student. The result of a study that uses the observation method largely depends on the researcher himself, on his “culture of observation.” It is necessary to take into account the specific requirements for the procedure for obtaining and interpreting information in observation. Among them, the following stand out: 1. Only external facts that have speech and motor manifestations are accessible to observation. What you can observe is not intelligence, but how a person solves problems; not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc. 2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, behavior, be defined operationally, in terms of real behavior, i.e. The characteristics recorded should be as descriptive and as less explanatory as possible. 3. The most important moments of behavior (critical cases) should be highlighted for observation. 4. The observer must be able to record the behavior of the person being assessed over a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations. 5. The reliability of observation increases if the testimony of several observers coincides. 6. Role relationships between the observer and the observed must be eliminated. For example, a student's behavior will be different in the presence of parents, teachers, and peers. Therefore, external assessments given to the same person for the same set of qualities by people occupying different positions in relation to him may turn out to be different. 7. Assessments in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (likes and dislikes, transfers of attitudes from parents to the student, from the student’s performance to his behavior, etc.). Conversation- widespread in educational psychology empirical method obtaining information (information) about the student in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. This is a method specific to educational psychology for studying student behavior. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is calledconversation method . Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to name Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of “depth” psychology, etc. IN conversations, dialogues, discussions, the attitudes of students, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions are revealed. Researchers of all times in conversations received information that was impossible to obtain in any other way. Psychological and pedagogical conversation as a research method is distinguished by the researcher’s purposeful attempts to penetrate into the inner world of the subjects of the educational process, to identify the reasons for certain actions. Information about the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attitude to the problems of interest to the researcher is also obtained through conversations. But conversations are a very complex and not always reliable method. Therefore, it is most often used as an additional method - to obtain the necessary clarifications and clarifications about what was not clear enough during observation or the use of other methods.
the presence of a clear conversation plan, thought out taking into account the characteristics of the student’s personality and steadily implemented;
discussion of issues of interest to the researcher from various angles and connections of school life;
varying questions, posing them in a form convenient for the interlocutor;
ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in questions and answers.
For increase reliability results of the conversation and removing the inevitable shade of subjectivity, special measures should be used. These include:
Conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of a psychological and pedagogical experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the student, teacher, gives them instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview. Interview called targeted questioning. An interview is defined as a “pseudo-conversation”: the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, do not lose sight of the plan and conduct the conversation in the direction he needs. Questionnaire- an empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that meet the main objective of the study that make up the questionnaire. Questioning is a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires called questionnaires. Questioning is based on the assumption that the person answers the questions asked to him frankly. However, as recent research into the effectiveness of this method shows, these expectations are met by approximately half. This circumstance sharply narrows the range of application of the questionnaire and undermines confidence in the objectivity of the results obtained (Yadov V.A., 1995; abstract). Teachers and psychologists were attracted to the survey by the possibility of quick mass surveys of students, teachers, and parents, the low cost of the methodology, and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material. 
open, requiring independent construction of an answer;
closed, in which students have to choose one of ready-made answers;
personal, requiring the subject's surname to be indicated;
anonymous, doing without it, etc.
form of questions - open or closed;
wording of questions (clarity, no prompted answers, etc.);
number and order of questions. In psychological and pedagogical practice, the number of questions usually corresponds to no more than 30-40 minutes of work using the questionnaire method; The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method.
Nowadays, various types of questionnaires are widely used in psychological and pedagogical research:
When compiling the questionnaire, the following are taken into account:
Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group, but in any case it must meet two requirements - representativeness and homogeneity of the sample. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing. Testing method. Due to the specifics of the subject of educational psychology, some of the above methods are used to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. However, the testing method is becoming increasingly widespread in educational psychology. Test (English test - sample, test, check) - in psychology - a time-fixed test designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences(Burlachuk, 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is made.
accuracy;
simplicity;
accessibility;
possibility of automation.
Testing differs from other examination methods:
(http://www.voppy.ru/journals_all/issues/1998/985/985126.htm; see the article by Borisova E.M. “Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics”).
Testing is far from a new method of research, but it is underused in educational psychology (Burlachuk, 2000, p. 325; abstract). Back in the 80-90s. XIX century researchers began to study individual differences in people. This led to the emergence of the so-called test experiment - research using tests (A. Dalton, A. Cattell, etc.). Application tests served as an impetus for the development psychometric method, the foundations of which were laid by B. Henri and A. Binet. Measuring school success, intellectual development, and the degree of formation of many other qualities with the help of tests has become an integral part of broad educational practice. Psychology, having provided pedagogy with a tool for analysis, closely connected with it (it is sometimes impossible to separate pedagogical testing from psychological testing) (http://psychology.net.ru/articles/d20020106230736.html; see psychological tests). If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we will point out, first of all, the use of achievement tests. Tests of skills such as reading, writing, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of training - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge and skills in all academic subjects are widely used. Typically, testing as a method of psychological and pedagogical research merges with practical testing of current performance, identifying the level of training, and monitoring the quality of learning material. The most complete and systematized description of the tests is presented in the work of A. Anastasi “Psychological Testing”. Analyzing testing in education, the scientist notes that all types of existing tests are used in this process, but among all types of standardized tests, achievement tests are numerically superior to all others. They were created to measure the objectivity of training programs and processes. They typically "provide a final assessment of an individual's achievements at the end of training and focus on what the individual can do to date" ( Anastasi A., 1982. P. 36-37). (http://www.psy.msu.ru/about/lab/ht.html; see Center for Psychological and Career Guidance Testing "Humanitarian Technologies" MSU). 
basic principles of normative testing;
types of tests and areas of their application;
basics of psychometrics (i.e. in what units are psychological qualities measured in the system);
test quality criteria (methods for determining the validity and reliability of the test);
ethical standards for psychological testing (Erofeev A.K., 1987).
A.K. Erofeev, analyzing the basic requirements for testing, identifies the following main groups of knowledge that a testologist must have:
All of the above means that the use of testing in educational psychology requires special training, high qualifications and responsibility. Experiment- one of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. Differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables(factors) and registration of accompanying changes in the behavior of the studied object (see Fig. 7). A properly conducted experiment allows you to check hypotheses in cause-and-effect causal relationships, not limited to stating the connection ( correlations) between variables. There are traditional and factorial experimental designs (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html; see group for the study of personality formation factors PI RAO). At traditional planning only one thing changes independent variable, at factorial - some. The advantage of the latter is the ability to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. To statistically process the experimental results in this case, we use analysis of variance(R. Fisher). If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then they talk about a pilot experiment, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis. When there are two competing hypotheses and an experiment allows us to choose one of them, we speak of a decisive experiment. A control experiment is carried out to check any dependencies. The use of experiment, however, encounters fundamental limitations associated with the impossibility in some cases of arbitrarily changing variables. Thus, in differential psychology and personality psychology, empirical dependencies mostly have the status of correlations (i.e., probabilistic and statistical dependencies) and, as a rule, do not always allow drawing conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. One of the difficulties of using an experiment in psychology is that the researcher often finds himself involved in a situation of communication with the person being examined (subject) and can unwittingly influence his behavior (Fig. 8). Formative, or educational, experiments form a special category of methods of psychological research and influence. They allow you to purposefully form the characteristics of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.
Procedure experiment consists in the targeted creation or selection of conditions that ensure reliable identification of the factor being studied, and in recording changes associated with its influence. Most often, in psychological and pedagogical experiments, they deal with 2 groups: an experimental group, in which the factor being studied is included, and a control group, in which it is absent. The experimenter, at his own discretion, can modify the conditions of the experiment and observe the consequences of such a change. This, in particular, makes it possible to find the most rational methods in educational work with students. For example, by changing the conditions for learning one or another educational material, it is possible to establish under what conditions memorization will be the fastest, most durable and accurate. By conducting research under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter can establish the age and individual characteristics of the course of mental processes in each of them.
according to the form of conduct;
number of variables;
the nature of the research organization.
Psychological and pedagogical experiments differ:
According to the form of conduct, there are two main types of experiments - laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment
carried out in specially organized artificial conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. To achieve this, the side effects of all simultaneously occurring processes are eliminated. A laboratory experiment allows, with the help of recording instruments, to accurately measure the time of occurrence of mental processes, for example, the speed of a person’s reaction, the speed of formation of educational and work skills. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable indicators under strictly defined conditions. Has more limited use laboratory experiment when studying manifestations of personality and character. On the one hand, the object of research here is complex and multifaceted, on the other, the well-known artificiality of the laboratory situation presents great difficulties. When examining the manifestations of a personality in artificially created special conditions, in a private, limited situation, we do not always have reason to conclude that similar manifestations will be characteristic of the same personality in natural life circumstances. The artificiality of the experimental setting is a significant drawback of this method. It may lead to disruption of the natural course of the processes under study. For example, by memorizing important and interesting educational material, in natural conditions a student achieves different results than when he is asked to memorize experimental material under unusual conditions that is not directly of interest to the child. Therefore, a laboratory experiment should be carefully organized and, if possible, combined with other, more natural methods. The data from the laboratory experiment are mainly of theoretical value; conclusions drawn on their basis can be extended to real life practice with known limitations (Milgram St., 2000; abstract). Natural experiment
. The indicated disadvantages of a laboratory experiment are to some extent eliminated when organizing a natural experiment. This method was first proposed in 1910 by A.F. Lazursky at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions as part of an activity that is familiar to the subjects, such as training sessions or games. Often the situation created by the experimenter may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; in this case, a positive factor for the study is the complete naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing teaching methods, school equipment, daily routine, etc.), an experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves become participants in its creation. Such research requires particularly careful planning and preparation. It makes sense to use it when data needs to be obtained in an extremely short time and without interfering with the main activities of the subjects. Significant disadvantage natural experiment- the inevitable presence of uncontrolled interference, i.e. factors whose influence has not been established and cannot be measured quantitatively. A.F. himself Lazursky expressed the essence of a natural experiment as follows: “In the natural-experimental study of personality, we do not use artificial methods, do not conduct experiments in artificial laboratory conditions, do not isolate the child from the usual environment of his life, but experiment with natural forms of the external environment. We study the personality by life itself and therefore all the influences of both the individual on the environment and the environment on the individual become available for examination. This is where the experiment comes into life. We are not studying individual mental processes, as is usually done (for example, memory is studied by memorizing meaningless syllables, attention by crossing out icons on tables), but we study both mental functions and the personality as a whole. At the same time, we do not use artificial material, but school subjects" (Lazursky A.F., 1997; abstract). By number of variables studied There are one-dimensional and multi-dimensional experiments. One-dimensional experiment
involves identifying one dependent and one independent variable in the study. It is most often implemented in laboratory experiment.
Multidimensional experiment
. A natural experiment affirms the idea of studying phenomena not in isolation, but in their interconnection and interdependence. Therefore, a multidimensional experiment is most often implemented here. It requires the simultaneous measurement of many related characteristics, the independence of which is not known in advance. Analysis of connections between many studied characteristics, identification of the structure of these connections, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main goal of a multidimensional experiment. The results of an experimental study often do not represent an identified pattern, a stable dependence, but a series of more or less fully recorded empirical facts. These are, for example, descriptions of children's play activities obtained as a result of an experiment, experimental data on the influence on any activity of such factors as the presence of other people and the associated motive of competition. These data, which are often descriptive in nature, do not yet reveal the psychological mechanism of the phenomena and represent only more specific material that narrows the further scope of the search. Therefore, the results of experiments in pedagogy and psychology should often be considered as intermediate material and the initial basis for further research work (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html; see laboratory of theoretical and experimental experimental problems of developmental psychology PI RAO). 
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