Moscow State University from the 19th century. The situation of Russian students at the end of the 19th-20th centuries Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia...

The image of a Russian student at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries

Unlike closed educational institutions, which were attended mainly by nobles, a significant number of students at universities were people of low nobility and poor wealth. To make ends meet, students were often forced to work part-time. It was in the 19th century that the familiar image of a Russian student took shape, renting a cheap room and earning a living by giving private lessons or translations. True, the social status of the students was quite high.

But poverty and homelessness have always been the companions of Russian students, who largely came from a multi-class democratic environment. According to the inspection data of Moscow University, in the 1899/1900 academic year it had more than 50% “insufficient” students. The student census of 1912 in St. Petersburg, covering a little more than 2 thousand people, or 5.4% of those studying in higher educational institutions of the capital, recorded 30.7%) needy students, which was also a lot. If we take this indicator as an all-Russian one, for which there is reason, since St. Petersburg was the most populated city with students, then the number of those “in need” in all higher educational institutions of the empire as of 1913/1914 academic year was approximately 40 thousand people (out of 123 thousand students on the payroll high school).

Moscow students, for the most part, since the sixties of the 19th century, consisted of the provincial poor, commoners who had nothing in common with the inhabitants, and huddled in the “Latin Quarter”, between the two Bronny and Palashevsky lanes, where the unpaved streets were filled with wooden construction sites small apartments.

In addition, two large abandoned manor houses of the Chebyshev nobles, with outbuildings, on Kozikha and Bolshaya Bronnaya, were almost entirely occupied by students.

Each room in the student apartments of the Latin Quarter usually housed four people. Four miserable beds, which are also chairs, a table and a shelf of books.

The students dressed in different ways, and often for four lodgers there were two pairs of boots and two pairs of dresses, which established a queue: today two go to lectures, and the other two sit at home; tomorrow they will go to university.

We dined in canteens or ate dry food. Instead of tea, they brewed chicory, a round stick of which, a quarter of a pound, cost three kopecks, and was enough for four people for ten days.

In the seventies of the XIX century. The students did not yet have uniforms, but they still followed fashion, and a student could always be recognized by his manners and his costume. Most of the most radical ones were dressed in the fashion of the sixties: always long hair, a wide-brimmed hat pulled mysteriously over their eyes, and sometimes - the height of panache - a plaid and glasses, which gave the young men a scholarly look and seriousness. This is how students dressed until the early eighties, the time of reaction.

In 1819, the situation of students was formalized by law. Academic degrees of full student, candidate, master and doctor appeared. A valid student was someone who completed a university course and received a certificate. A student who completed the course and submitted a written essay to the faculty received a candidate's degree. An academic degree gave the right to receive the corresponding class in the bureaucratic hierarchy: 14th class for students (which corresponded to the rank of ensign), 10th for candidates (company commander), 9th for masters and 8th for doctors.

According to Art. 39–40 of the Law “On the Organization of Schools” of January 24, 1803 “Every University must have a Teachers’ or Pedagogical Institute. Students admitted to it receive a candidate's degree, coupled with special benefits in content.

The required number of candidates is predominantly filled with government students. They cannot, without important reasons, leave the teaching title without serving in it for at least six years from assignment to position.”

The state tried to interest the nobles in university education. In 1809, on the initiative of M. M. Speransky, a decree was adopted according to which an official could not receive the rank of 7th class (collegiate assessor) and 5th class (state councilor) without presenting a university diploma or passing a special exam. Among the academic disciplines that the official could not live without were Russian and one of the foreign languages, law, state economics, criminal laws, Russian history, geography, mathematics and physics. Thus, graduating from university became a condition for a successful career.

The growing popularity of university education and the increase in the number of students led to the fact that there was again an acute shortage of professors. The government again had to invite teachers from abroad. Of course, the visiting teachers did not know Russian, and the students did not understand Latin, in which they were accustomed to giving lectures. As a result, the teachers had to repeat the explanations twice: in German (for those who did not know French) and in French (for those who did not know German). The teaching of mathematics, which can be mastered with a minimum of words, suffered the least from this.

Having ascended the throne, Alexander III began to establish strict rules. They also affected the university. The new charter of 1884 destroyed professorial autonomy and doubled the fees for listening to lectures in order to deprive the poor of higher education, and, in addition, a new expense was added - students were ordered to wear a new uniform: uniforms, frock coats and coats with coat of arms buttons and caps with blue bands.

The university charter of 1884 constrained university autonomy by giving the Minister of Education the right to appoint rectors (previously elected by the professoriate) and not to take into account the opinion of the professoriate when appointing teachers. However, the level of university education did not suffer. At the beginning of the 20th century. Russian university education was fully consistent with Western European education, and university autonomy was restored in 1905.

The composition of the student body in Russia was much more democratic than, for example, in England or Germany, where almost exclusively children of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie studied at universities. Tuition was low and there were many “scholarship” students. Beginning in the 1860s, “the majority of the student body consisted of disadvantaged and disadvantaged people. In the early 70s. 72% of students at Kazan University lived on scholarships and benefits; at Kiev and Odessa University, 70 and 80% of students were considered insufficient. At Moscow University in 1876, 59% were exempted from fees! At Moscow University in 1899–1900. 1957 students out of 4017 were exempted from fees. In addition, 874 students received scholarships established by private individuals and public organizations. According to the charter of 1884, the tuition fee was 10 rubles. annually, in 1887 it was increased to 50 rubles. Students also contributed from 40 to 50 rubles. annually for professors' fees. In the natural sciences, additional laboratory fees were required.

A.M. Feofanov

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY IN THE 18th - EARLY 19TH CENTURIES (SOCIAL ORIGIN AND LIFE)

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY IN XVIII -ARLY XIX CENTURY (BACKGROUND AND MODE OF LIFE)

Keywords: history of Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, Moscow University, social composition of the population, students, social composition of the population of the Russian Empire.

Key words: history of Russia of late XVIII - early XIX century, Moscow University, social membership of population, students, social membership of population of the Russian Empire.

annotation

The article talks about the existence of the Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence, the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. Such a little-studied issue as the life of students, their social composition, everyday life, cultural life, and participation in public life is touched upon. The living and studying conditions at Moscow University are compared with the conditions that existed in Western, primarily German, universities.

The article tells about Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence (late XVIII - early XIX century). There is touched upon such an insufficiently known problem as students’ life, its social membership, mode of life, cultural life, participation in public life. The conditions of life and education in Moscow University are compared to those of European ones, first of all of German universities.

The formation and development of Moscow University took place with the direct participation of the state, which required trained personnel. University graduates joined the ranks of officials, military officers, became writers, scientists and courtiers, i.e. constituted the elite of society. But university education did not immediately acquire value in the eyes of society. It was the attitude of society towards receiving education that determined the number of students. Of course, society’s view of the university changed depending on the policies pursued by the state, and not only in the field of education, but also social policy. The university itself, as a scientific and social center, had a cultural influence on society.

Number and social composition. Social composition reflects the degree of connection with the university of various sections of society. Until now, the question of the number and social composition of students at Moscow University during the period under review has not received adequate coverage in historiography. Everything was limited to general phrases about the “raznochinsky character” of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century, in order to emphasize its “democratic” direction.

There are several eras in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University. The surge in revenues is associated with increased public attention to

university. The surge was (sometimes) followed by a crash. The sharp increase in the number of students is associated with Ant's renovation of the university, when the number of students tripled.

In the initial period, which lasted until the end of the 1770s, the maximum number of students admitted did not exceed 25 people, and the average was 15 applicants per year.

Since 1780, the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University have felt the effects of the “Novikov decade” that began in 1779. In 1780-1784. The number of student enrollees increased sharply and ranged from 17 to 54 people, with an average of 37 people. A significant number of students in these years were accepted into the maintenance of the Friendly Scientific Society.

Since 1785, there was another decline in student enrollment. Moscow University, as the center of the Masonic circle, aroused concern and distrust of the government of Catherine II, Novikov’s social endeavors were suppressed, and the university itself was not yet able to independently provide for a wide influx of students.

A new period in the dynamics of the number of students opened in 1803, when one of the results of university reforms was to attract public attention to Moscow University. The number of applicants from this moment has been steadily growing: in 1803-1809 it ranged from 28 to 61 people, in 1810-1820 - from 70 to 117 people. All this testifies to a qualitative change in the social status of Moscow University after the adoption of the Charter of 1804 and the new role of students in society, when studying at the university began to be considered necessary for further entry into life. The clear boundary between 1809 and 1810 is also associated with this change. under the influence of the decree on exams for rank adopted on August 6, 1809. This decree established a direct connection between education and promotion to rank, requiring all those wishing to receive 8th and 5th grade ranks to present a certificate received from the university and indicating that they had passed the exams. After the decree was adopted, the number of people wishing to become students increased sharply.

Having started with a modest figure of 30 students and about 15 applicants per year, by 1812 Moscow University reached the milestone of 300 students (students and listeners), which brought it into the ranks of the largest universities in Europe.

Moscow University was an all-class educational institution. Low number of students at Moscow University in the second half of the 18th century. was explained primarily by the insufficient influx here from the leading Russian service class- nobility. In the eyes of the Russian nobles of that time, studying at a university in itself was not a value; studying university sciences was considered a luxury not needed for further service, and “the very word student sounded something unnoble.” The nobles willingly studied at the gymnasium, but instead of continuing their studies at the university, they preferred to enter the cadet corps or directly to military service. Commoners, on the other hand, more often entered the clergy. educational establishments, because they did not have the means to study at the university at their own expense.

In Europe, similarly, the nobles preferred to pave the way to the highest government positions through a military career. Representatives of the noble class “had an insurmountable aversion to exams and diplomas, since, unlike commoners, they did not need to document what was due to them by birthright.” You can remember M.M. Speransky, who spoke sharply about exams for rank, proposing to accept every nobleman into military service as an officer, demanding from them only knowledge of the principles of mathematics and the Russian language.

From the beginning of the 19th century. A stable trend is emerging, according to which nobles made up at least half of those entering. These conclusions make it possible to significantly correct statements about the “raznochinsky” character of Moscow University.

In total, during the period from the founding of Moscow University to the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, we identified, based on various data (indication of class when enrolling in a university gymnasium, title, biographical data), about 500 nobles and more than 400 commoners, from total number about 1,400 people studied at Moscow University at this time. From this we can conclude that the number of nobles was more than a third of total number all students of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, but hardly more than half. It should also be taken into account that many graduates of the Noble boarding school, who were nobles and became visitors to university lectures, remained under the supervision of the boarding authorities, i.e. actually students were not included in the published lists of students.

Let us now consider the main social groups of students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. more details. Commoners. This group includes the children of soldiers, townspeople, merchants, minor officials (clerks, copyists, clerks), less often the children of secretaries (boards, departments and ecclesiastical consistories), doctors (headquarters doctors, doctors and assistant doctors), pharmacists, teachers. The main part of the commoners were the children of the clergy, mainly rural priests, less often deacons, as well as sextons, psalm-readers and other clergy.

Sometimes people from the clergy class could have a close connection with other social groups: these were the children of priests whose ancestors were nobles, but for some reason ordained. For example, the father of Fyodor Petrovich Lubyanovsky was from a noble family descended from a Polish immigrant, but he himself served as a priest. Anton Antonovich Prokopovich-Antonsky was also from a noble family, whose father became a priest in the Chernigov province.

Peasants practically did not study at Moscow University during this period (although the “Project on the Establishment of Moscow University” of 1755 gave them such an opportunity): only the example of Gavrila Zhuravlev, a former serf, is known

University Director Prince M.I. Argamakova. Some serfs could study at Moscow University with the permission of their masters, but without receiving their freedom and, accordingly, without being students. This is how the serf Nikolai Smirnov, who was a servant of the Golitsyn princes, studied at the university.

Nobles. Among the students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th century. The entire spectrum of Russian nobility is represented - from the capital to the provincial, from titled persons to small-scale families. The first titled nobles appeared among the students of Moscow University already in 1760. These were princes Leon Gruzinsky and Timofey Gagarin. We also meet representatives of such families as the Shikhmatovs, Salagins, Kasatkins-Rostovskys, Diveevs. At the same time, the famous memoirist, poet and playwright, Prince I.M. Dolgorukov, studied at Moscow University.

Of course, among the nobles who studied at Moscow University there were representatives not only of aristocratic families, but also of the broad mass of the serving nobility. In 1779, to attract nobles to study, the Noble Boarding School was opened, created on the initiative of M.M. Kheraskova. The boarding house soon acquired a reputation as a leading elite educational institution in Moscow. Students upper classes received the right to attend university lectures. Thus, for students of the Noble boarding school, production as students at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. did not contradict the fact that they continued to be in the boarding house itself: we find such examples in biographies

brothers Turgenev, Grammatin, Odoevsky. At the same time, the nobles willingly studied at the boarding school, but rarely continued their studies at the university itself.

As a result of the activities of trustee M.N. Muravyov at Moscow University and government reforms in the field of education at the beginning of the 19th century. Not only did the number of students increase sharply, but the social composition of the student body also changed. From 1807 to 1812 Titled nobles entered the university every year. The names of not only Russian princes, but also German Baltic barons such as Engelhard, Riediger, Bistrom, Budberg and others appeared on the lists of students.

In Europe, for representatives of the third estate, a university diploma opened the way to government (royal or princely) service1. In response to competition from educated commoners who served in the state apparatus, the need for education also arose among the nobility. In the 18th century “The ruling class, in order to maintain its position, was forced to receive a university education”2. The lectures of professors are listened to by the aristocracy, including princes, counts, barons and princes of the royal house. The titled nobility amounted to in the 18th century. at the universities of Würzburg, Tübingen, Strasburg and Jena about 5%, in Leipzig, Heidelberg and Halle about 7%, and in Göttingen even reached 13%3

Russian nobles of the second half of the 18th century. They considered the university as a stepping stone to the beginning of a future career, and they mainly used the gymnasium for this (where they received the certificates necessary for promotion to rank, which was not the case in Europe), and they rarely enrolled as students. Therefore, initially the student body at Moscow University actually had a heterogeneous character, although the share of nobles in it was about one quarter and was quite significant. Gradually, the social composition of students changed in favor of an increasing proportion of nobles, which indicated the strengthening of public recognition of the university and its role in obtaining an education for the service class.

Age of students enrolled at the university. An accurate answer is significantly difficult due to the imperfection of our source data. In the absence of an archive for the second half of the 18th - first decade of the 19th century. In our reconstructed lists of students, we can establish the year of their birth only if we have any additional data. These are, firstly, statements preserved in the RGADA about the successes of students who studied in 1764-1768, in which, along with other data, the age of the students was given. Also, the year of birth is known for those students who became writers, statesmen and public figures, and then student lists can be supplemented with data from biographical dictionaries.

Most students upon admission to Moscow University were between 15 and 19 years old. An absolute record for the second half of the 18th century. recorded in the case of Evgeniy Syreyshchikov (in the future - a teacher at the university gymnasium, who received the title of extraordinary professor of philosophy there): he was promoted to student from the gymnasium at the age of 11 in 1768, when the student body was significantly weakened after the removal of several dozen students for work in the Statutory Commission. IN early XIX V. such cases occurred somewhat more often: thus, at the age of 11, Alexander Lykoshin and, apparently, his comrade Griboedov (if we assume the later of the two possible dates of birth of the writer) enrolled as students, and at the age of 13, Griboyedov had already graduated from the literature department of his university with a degree candidate, and later continued to listen to lectures from the ethical and political department.

In general, in the 18th century. students were older (16-18 years old) than at the beginning of the 19th century, and even older (usually 19 years old and above) were seminary graduates entering the university (as D.N. Sverbeev wrote, they had already “shaved their beards” ). In connection with the desire of noble families to accelerate the advancement of their offspring through the ranks at the beginning of the 19th century. the phenomenon of “boy students” appeared.

It was the Charter of 1804, which secured the right to the rank of 14th class for the title of university student, which encouraged noble families to send their children to students as early as possible (a phenomenon akin to how in the 18th century noble children from infancy

were registered in the regiments). The fact that upon enrollment at the university at the beginning of the 19th century. in noble families, the title of student was valued above all, and not the opportunity to comprehend science, S.P.’s diary perfectly conveys. Zhikhareva. “My title is not a trifle and will please my

home,” writes Zhikharev, who became a student in 1805 at the age of 16. “I have a presentiment,” he continues, “that I won’t have to listen to my good professors for long. My father, delighted with my 14th grade, hurries me to work.”

1 Khavanova O.V. Merits of fathers and talents of sons. P. 12.

Paulsen F. German universities. P. 110.

3 A History of the University in Europe. P. 321.

Thus, the “rejuvenation” of Moscow University students at the beginning of the 19th century

V. associated with the influx of young nobles among the students.

The main problems of organizing student life are: whether students stood out as a separate group, and with the help of what attributes this was accomplished. According to clause 21 of the “Project on the Establishment of Moscow University,” the ultimate goal of a student’s studies is to obtain a certificate. This certificate fulfilled a certain social function(which, as a rule, was not the case in Western universities) - provided “protection” when joining the service. Noble students in the 18th century. They sought to obtain a certificate that gave them the right to promotion to the next rank. For commoners, the university had to specifically “petition” for their rank promotion.

Initially, the university was viewed by the state almost exclusively as an educational institution for the training of officials who could be recruited without waiting for their period of study to end. A significant number of students who did not complete the course were assigned to serve in the Senate, etc. government agencies, were appointed teachers. So, in 1767, 42 students were taken to the Statutory Commission, which disrupted the normal course of education, since after that only 5 students remained in the “higher” faculties: 4 in law and 1 in medicine.

The normal course of study for many of the students was interrupted Patriotic War 1812, during which many of them dropped out of school, joined the militia or went to provide medical assistance to the army. Among the reasons for students leaving during this period is the desire to continue their education in other educational institutions. For example, Vasily Matveevich Chernyaev in 1812 moved to the medical faculty of Kharkov University.

The rules of behavior at the university were quite strictly regulated. The first of the intra-university acts regulating the life of students was adopted in 1765. Students were prohibited from quarrels and fights, especially duels and seconds. This project was published in 1765 under the title “Charter, to the observation of which all university students undertake in writing.” To be admitted as a student, a certificate of “good character” was required. Students were required to “dress in a decent manner, avoiding cynical vileness and excessive panache,” “live modestly and in proportion to their income, without entering into any debt.”

The corporate sign of the university was the uniform. “The university had its own uniform, similar to the uniform of the Moscow province,” crimson in color with a blue velvet collar and white buttons. The first mention of the introduction of uniforms at the university dates back to 1782 and is associated with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Empress Catherine II. The uniform of the Moscow province, which both professors and students had to wear, then consisted of a red cloth camisole, knee-length trousers, stockings, shoes and a black triangular hat.

But not all students wore such a uniform. The only exceptions were days of university-wide celebrations. From Timkovsky’s notes it is known that “the students did not have any specific uniform in their attire,” even “not everyone had a university uniform. Everyone, even those on salary, was dressed as he could and as he wanted.” Ilya Fedorovich himself wore a “Novgorod blue and black” uniform.

“Forms,” recalled Poludensky, who studied at the university in the 1790s, “as now, self-employed students did not have; as for government students, they had

frock coats and uniforms. There was a difference in uniforms between commoners and nobles, and, as was said before, they lived separately. “At first, the commoners had a blue uniform with red cuffs, and the nobles had a red uniform with blue cuffs.” In fact, the difference in uniforms between commoners and nobles was only among high school students. “When commoners, high school students, were promoted to students,” points out P.I. Strakhov, - they exchanged their crimson dress for a green noble dress.”

On October 14, 1800, Moscow University’s own uniform was officially approved, different from the uniforms of other departments - a dark green caftan, “the collar and cuffs of the caftan are crimson, the buttons are white, in one half with the coat of arms of the Empire, and in the other with the attributes of scholarship.” On April 9, 1804, the decree “On uniforms for Moscow University and its subordinate schools” approved a new student uniform: “a single-breasted caftan of dark blue cloth, with a stand-up collar and crimson cuffs,” decorated with gold embroidery. But even during the reign of Alexander I, students, especially self-made ones, continued to wear their own dress. According to the memoirs, “students, both official and private, wore private dresses, of course, almost all in frock coats and a few in tails.” And even back in the 1820s, according to Pirogov’s memoirs, “uniforms did not yet exist.”

The situation changed only during the reign of Nicholas I. When inspecting the university, it was noticed that students “do not have a uniform uniform that is defined in all respects.” On May 22, 1826, a decree was issued “On allowing government students of Moscow University to have shoulder straps on their uniforms” “to distinguish them from their own ones,” and on September 6, 1826, a decree “On uniforms for students of Moscow University and for pupils of the noble boarding school and gymnasium” was issued. . According to him, a blue single-breasted student uniform was adopted. The uniform was needed so that “students, having a uniform dress, would be accustomed to order and to their future appointment for public service.”

No less, and even more important, a sign of a student than a uniform was the sword. In § 23 of the Project on the establishment of Moscow University it was stated that the sword was given to students “for encouragement”, “as is common in other places.” The sword was a symbol of personal dignity and was worn by nobles. Thus, non-nobles, receiving the title of students, seemed to have equal rights with the noble class. In addition, in accordance with the Charter of 1804, a university student entering the service was immediately enrolled in the 14th grade, which gave the rights of personal nobility. Therefore, after 1804, the presentation of a sword already had not only a symbolic, but also a real meaning of the former commoner changing his social status. THEM. Snegirev recalled how, after becoming a student in 1807, “with childish admiration, he put on a student’s uniform, a three-cornered hat and hung a sword, which he put on the bed with him... It seemed to me that not only relatives and neighbors, but also people I met and the transverse ones looked at my sword, and what most flattered my childish vanity, the guards and soldiers saluted me.”

Here we see clear similarities with German universities. Paulsen notes that if in the Middle Ages “the scholastics were forced by university regulations to wear clerical dress, from the mid-17th century the student, both in dress and manners, considers himself a model of a nobleman. And along with the sword, this necessary accessory of a noble costume, the duel also penetrated into the university world.” It is characteristic that at the same time fencing teachers appeared at universities (in the Middle Ages, students were prohibited from carrying weapons). Thus, “the forms of life of the nobility acquire the meaning of an ideal; the place of the medieval scholar, cleric-seminarian, takes academic student XVII century, playing the role of a gentleman."

According to § 24 of the “Project on the Establishment of Moscow University,” a university court was established. The appearance of such a university court confirmed

corporate nature of the first Russian university: after all, for any

of a European university, such a court was an integral part and exercised the right of “academic freedom” of the members of the corporation, according to which none of them (professor, student or even university employee) was subject to the jurisdiction of the city authorities, but could only be tried by members like him corporation, and only in accordance with the laws issued by his university. True, at Moscow University this norm took root poorly and strictly applied only to students, while gymnasium teachers in the second half of the 1750s. had several clashes with the Moscow magistrate, trying to prove that they did not have the right to arrest them for misconduct (in particular, for debts). The University Charter of 1804 confirmed the corporate law of the university court.

On the conduct of cases in the university court in the 18th century. present excerpts from the minutes of the University Conference. The trial was carried out by the director of the university together with other members of the Conference. Punishments for students who violated discipline (mainly due to fights) were deprivation of a sword, imprisonment for several days in a punishment cell, dismissal from a government scholarship, and finally, expulsion from the university.

A special type of violation of university regulations was cases of student marriage. Although there was no direct prohibition for a student to marry in any university laws, the curator Adodurov wrote: “I was notified that among those on government pay, student Yudin got married... And just as this does not happen in any Academy or university, and even for students Not only is it indecent, but it also creates a great obstacle in teaching science.” Student Yudin was deprived of his scholarship.

Some students fled the university. The order of the curator Adodurov about the “runaway student” Ivan Popov dated October 30, 1768 describes just such a case. For his act, student Popov was expelled from the university and sent to the Synod office, since he came from the clergy. Thus, the expelled student was deprived of the increase in social status he had achieved, returning back to his class.

Students in the 18th century. begins to realize his own identity, to recognize himself as a certain community, different from other inhabitants of the city. This was manifested, in particular, in clashes between university representatives and city residents. Such skirmishes begin from the very first years of its existence. Already in 1757

A fight between high school students and “titular cadets” (collegium students) was recorded. Its instigator, Pyotr Argamakov, the son of the university director, along with other participants was arrested and punished with rods.

“The city police,” recalled Pirogov, who studied at Moscow University in 1824-1828, “did not have the right to deal with students and had to take those who were guilty to the university.” This privilege was abolished by decree of Nicholas I of

September 4, 1827 “On the assignment of Moscow University students living outside the university to the supervision of the city police.”

Students who were unable to study on their own were admitted to the state kosht on the basis of a petition, subject to good academic performance, good behavior and presentation of a certificate of poverty signed by several persons of noble birth. The first state-funded students received 40 rubles a year. In 1799, their salary, which was paid in thirds, was already 100 rubles. in year. If the number of government students exceeded the established number, they could be paid a student scholarship, i.e. the same as that received by state-funded high school students. Since 1804, the state cost was 200 rubles per year, and for the medical department - 350 rubles. First of all, those students whom the government was preparing for service as doctors or teachers were accepted into the government departments. Upon graduation from university they were required to

as compensation to the state for training, serve for at least 6 years under the Ministry of Public Education.

Some students lived in apartments with friends or relatives. M.A. Dmitriev lived with his uncle. Due to his relationship with Professor Barsov, Poludensky lived in his apartment. Without the help of friends or relatives, it would be quite difficult for self-sufficient students to support themselves.

A favorite place for student gatherings was the Great Britain tavern, where friendly drinking sessions were sometimes held. In general, students often visited taverns. “It happened very often,” Dmitriev recalled, “that, returning at one o’clock in the afternoon from lectures, I had to walk back either to Tverskaya or to Kuznetsky Bridge dine at the restaurateur’s.”

In a letter from Gottingen to his brother, A.I. Turgenev, Nikolai, responding to the reproach of A.F. Merzlyakova, who “was painful to see his friend’s brother often in the coffee shop and with Chebotarev,” writes: “I went there not for pranks, not to drink and fool around there, but for pleasure, which was completely allowed. There I often found acquaintances and friends, talked with them, drank tea, coffee, read newspapers and nothing more.”

“According to Sandunov’s menacing saying, well known at that time: “The samovar is a tavern instrument and is not suitable for school,” a veto was imposed on this instrument, and therefore some had copper teapots and thus consoled themselves by drinking tea. Others fled for this purpose to the Tsaregradsky (in Okhotny Ryad) and Znamensky (not far from the current Treasury Chamber) taverns. In these bright establishments (now there are no traces of them) some of the students were regulars.” In taverns, students drank not only tea, but also stronger drinks. “It happened like this: the policeman served tea, after a few seconds the spoon knocks, the policeman runs in. They say to him: “Give me some more hot water,” he grabs the kettle, which still has a lot of water (and it’s not water that is needed) and brings the same kettle, as if with water, but it contains aqua vitae. Apparently, at that time the conditions of tavern establishments did not allow trading in precious moisture, and the owners were afraid of spies, who were undoubtedly everywhere.” State-funded students managed to visit the tavern even in the morning before lectures.

Zhikharev preferred dinners and balls to other entertainments, and often attended the opera and ballet. University students with less demanding demands had fun in a different way: they took part in fist fights on Neglinnaya, where, according to the recollections of I.M. Snegirev, “the students of the theological academy and university students came together, wall to wall: they started small, they ended big. Neglinsky quilters helped the university students.”

Many students loved holidays walk in Maryina Roshcha or Sokolniki. Lyalikov recalls that the students “didn’t miss the so-called monastic festivities on their temple holidays. Once, I remember, the three of us hired a boat from the Moskvoretsky Bridge (August 6) and sailed to the Novospassky Monastery. We also swam to the Sparrow Hills, feasted on milk and raspberries in Maryina Roshcha and Ostankino.”

Students also visited the theater. The university theater was one of the first in Russia. Students and high school students took part in the preparation of the performances. The theater carried out an educational mission, bringing the university closer to Russian society. In addition to theatrical performances, masquerades were also given at Christmastide or Maslenitsa, and “on Sundays and holidays there were sometimes evening dances or concerts.”

Since 1760, the student troupe became professional and received the name “Russian Theater”. Russian actors such as Troepolskaya, Lapin, Mikhailova and others began their activities in the university theater. In 1776, the entrepreneur Medox created the first permanent public professional theater in Moscow, for which in 1780 Medox built a large building on Petrovka Street - Petrovsky theater. It was here that in 1783 Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor” was shown for the first time in Moscow. The troupe included outstanding actors, including Peter

Alekseevich Plavilshchikov, who graduated from Moscow University in 1779. In 1825, a new building was built on the site of the Petrovsky Theater (now the Bolshoi Theater).

To visit the theater and buy books, students spent the money they saved after paying tuition, as well as the money they earned from translating books and private lessons.

An important role during the students' stay at the university was assigned to their church life. When the university was located in the building of the Apothecary House, students went to services in the Kazan Cathedral. After the university acquired Repnin’s house, “near this place, the parish stone church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, or St., stood nearby on Nikitskaya Street. Dionysius the Areopagite, was renamed university and annexed to it.” On April 5, 1791, a church in the name of St. was consecrated in the left wing of the university building under construction on Mokhovaya. Martyr Tatiana. In September 1817, the church of St. became the home church of the university. George on Krasnaya Gorka, and in 1820 a chapel in honor of St. Martyr Tatiana.

According to the memoirs of Poludensky, at the end of the 18th century. At that time there was no special church at the university, and students were taken one by one to different parish churches.

As Lyalikov recalled, the students “usually fasted in the first week of Lent. The all-night vigil was heard in the large dining room in the always present presence of Sandunov and both sub-inspectors. The choir was one of our own." “We received the Holy Mysteries,” he recalled, “in the St. George Church on Mokhovaya. Imagine (even now it surprises me): during the entire period, quite a long time, of the communion of the students (there were about 40 of us, and three times as many medical students), Sandunov and Mudrov, like inspectors, held the shroud before those approaching the chalice.” Students visited not only the university church, but also other Moscow churches. “In general, we were often told to go to services in our parish (St. George on Krasnaya Gorka) church; but everyone constantly went to the neighboring Nikitsky Monastery or in groups somewhere far away, for example, to Donskoy, Novodevichy.” The reasons for choosing this or that church were both beautiful singing and good preaching in this temple. Zhikharev was a lover of church singing. After mass, however, he can go to see an art gallery (of the late Prince Golitsyn) or horse racing.

Students also showed themselves as part of the literary space of Moscow. In the 18th century The university included a whole complex of institutions. It operated a library, a printing house and a bookshop. It was in the university printing house that the newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti” began to be printed, around which lovers of literature united. High school students and students from Moscow University were involved in the production of this newspaper. “Literary and typographic activity at the university,” writes Shevyrev, “every year became more and more animated. Newspapers stimulated attentive public participation. In 1760 it was impossible to find in a bookstore a complete copy of the newspapers for the previous year.”

In the early 1760s, a new group of periodicals appeared at Moscow University - literary magazines. University publications were conceived as a plan for the education of society through cultural influence on it.

The first four magazines (“Useful Fun”, “Free Hours”, edited by Kheraskov, “Innocent Exercise” (edited by I.F. Bogdanovich), “Good Intention”), published at Moscow University in the early 1760s, were literary publications. They were attended by famous writers- Sumarokov, Kheraskov, Trediakovsky and a large group of young people who began to try their hand at creativity.

In 1771, on the initiative of the curator Melissino, his first official scientific society was formed at Moscow University - the Free “Russian” meeting. It was established “to correct and enrich the Russian language, through the publication of useful, and especially for the instruction of young people, works and translations,

poetry and prose." The chairman of the meeting was Melissino himself, and he was replaced by the director of the university

M.V. Priklonsky. The members of the society included many “notable persons”, such as Princess Dashkova, historian M.M. Shcherbatov, Sumarokov and Prince Potemkin himself. The meetings of the meeting were held very solemnly and magnificently. According to descriptions of contemporaries, Potemkin sat at the table, “flaunting the diamond buckles of his shoes, flaunting them in front of the students who, standing around in uniform, were present at these meetings.” Volnoe Russian meeting attracted the Russian elite to the cause of education, which made it possible to exert a significant influence on society and give rise to many supporters, including Novikov and M.N. Muravyova.

Societies of a somewhat different nature appeared at Moscow University in the 1780s. Their appearance is associated with the activities of the Freemasons, primarily Novikov and Schwartz. Novikov himself was a graduate of Moscow University; Kheraskov attracted him to work at the university. On May 1, 1779, the university entered into a contract with Novikov, under which the university printing house was leased to him for ten years. the main objective Novikov’s goal was to spread enlightenment, “which he understood as nothing other than based on religious and moral principles, mainly in a mystical spirit.” He attracted students to translate foreign books, thereby providing them with significant financial support. Since 1779, he has been publishing the Morning Light magazine in Moscow.

In 1779 Novikov met Schwartz, professor German language at the university. Their common goals were “training teachers in the spirit of Masonic ethics, introducing new rules of education.” Thanks to their efforts, the Teachers' (Pedagogical) Seminary was opened in 1779, and the Translation (Philological) Seminary was opened in 1782. The first of them was intended to prepare students for teaching, and the second was for translating foreign works into Russian. On March 13, 1781, at the university, on the initiative of Schwartz, the first student society was opened under the name “Meeting of University Pets.” The goal of the society was “improvement Russian language and literature" through essays and translations. Many students were active participants in the meeting. M.I. Antonovsky “composed a charter for this society, following the rules of which the members of this society were so well educated that, upon leaving the university and upon entering public service, then they turned out to be the most capable people for it, so that rarely of them now serves without distinction (except for some persecuted by envy and malice), less than 4th class.”

In 1782, on a Masonic basis, a Friendly Scientific Society was formed around the university. It brought together more than 50 people. More than 20 students studied on his behalf, including future metropolitans Seraphim (Glagolevsky) and Mikhail (Desnitsky), professors P.A. Sokhatsky, A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky and P.I. Strakh. It was the circle of Novikov’s comrades in the Friendly Scientific Society that produced literary publications at the university in the 1780s.

In 1781, Novikov published the “Moscow Monthly Edition”, in 1782 the magazine “Evening Dawn” began to be published, and from 1784 - “The Resting Hardworker”. The content of these magazines consisted mainly of poems or “discussions” written by students on moral and philosophical topics. “The Restless Industrious Man” had a clearly expressed occult-mystical orientation, as evidenced by the fact that it contained articles such as “On the science called Cabal,” and also gave a positive assessment of the famous mystic Swedenborg.

Such obvious propaganda of mysticism could not fail to attract the attention of the authorities. In a decree dated December 23, 1785, Catherine II wrote that “many strange books” were printed in Novikov’s printing house and Archbishop Plato was ordered to examine them and test Novikov in the law of God. As a result, Novikov’s circle was persecuted:

in 1786 the Philological Seminary and the Friendly Scientific Society were closed. As a result, student literary activity froze for several years.

Students of Moscow University took an active part in the social and literary life of Russia. Many of them were talented writers and poets; some of them became publishers. Thanks to the translation activities of students, Moscow and all of Russia became acquainted with Western literature. The process of education and upbringing continued outside the walls of university classrooms, in private apartments. Student circles formed new views, laid down a system of values, thus the process of student entry into social life. This is how the university “culturally colonized” urban space.

Thus, the transfer of European university realities to Russia took place, although the local soil created certain specifics. Moscow University, like European ones, was a corporation, the features of which were relative autonomy, its own court, uniform and some other privileges.

The daily life of Moscow University students still bore the imprint of the classes from which they came, and the formation of a single “corporate” denominator during the period under review is still out of the question. At the same time, communication brought together young men from different social groups, formed a single space of ideas. Ultimately, the initial history of Moscow University students at this time testifies to the ongoing process of formation of a student corporation, awareness of common interests and life goals, which in many ways became characteristic of students in the mid-19th century.

The university brought together representatives of different classes through the organization of common forms of life. Although commoners prevailed among students and professors at the university for a long time, it was closely associated with the culture of the nobility.

Beginning of the 19th century - a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. Education system of the first half of the 19th century. The matter of public education in the post-reform period. Students of the sixties and higher education. Spread of private educational institutions.

Higher education in Russia under Alexander I. Teaching staff, its cultural and scientific level. Higher education in the second quarter of the 19th century. General Statute of the Imperial Universities. Education system post-reform Russia.

The struggle for secondary and higher education for women in Russia was integral part a social and pedagogical movement that unfolded in the mid-18th century, when the Molny Institute of Noble Maidens and boarding schools for girls were first created.

Initiative of engineering students. Creation of a university. Scientists and specialists of Odessa Polytechnic University.

Introduction of fees in higher educational institutions. The situation of paying students. Collection of tuition fees. Fellows. Providing for the poor. Housing situation of fellows. Personal scholarships. Ninth conference of the student trade union section.

Political life of Russia at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students as a social stratum. Revolutionary movement in the student environment of St. Petersburg. Organizations and leaders of the revolutionary student movement in St. Petersburg.

Organization of new departments. Student practice. Development of MGSU-MISI.

The history of education in Ukraine is closely connected with the entire history of the Ukrainian people. Centuries of existence in a state of fragmentation, under the yoke of the Mongol-Tatar hordes, Polish, Lithuanian and Hungarian feudal lords had a strong influence on the development of education.

Prerequisites for university education in Italy. Political and intellectual life of the world in antiquity. Early in the 11th century, the clerics discovered a shortage of powerful intellectuals and contributed to a university boom. University of Bologna.

Growth in the number of average secondary schools and their graduates in the 60s. Graduates of specialists with secondary specialized and higher education in the 60s.

Secondary school in recent decades Russian Empire The successes of the post-reform development of secondary education were undoubted. If in 1856 there were only 78 gymnasiums and secondary schools, then by the end of the century there were more than 300, and by the beginning of the First World War - about 700. Now average...

Working conditions of the school during the war. The main contingent of students. Correction curricula. Changes in the composition of teaching staff.

The Decembrist uprising in 1825 had a huge impact on all sides social life Russian Empire, including on education. The new Emperor Nicholas 1 saw one of the reasons for the revolutionary uprisings in the imperfection of the educational system.

TEST Topic: “The education system in the 18th century” CONTENTS: I. Introduction II. Transformations in the education system by Peter I III. University, gymnasium, Academy of Sciences

Control over the direction of lecture courses. The period of internal reaction in Russia, the curtailment of reforms after the war of 1812-1814. The policy of the Ministry of Public Education in relation to the outlying universities was to bring them closer to the Russian order.

Report on the history of a student of class 6 “B” Timoshkina Ekaterina Kratkaya historical reference. century, the world's first higher schools - universities - began to appear in Europe. Some universities, for example in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna, were founded...

Lecture on the topic “The Origin of Higher School in the Russian Empire” Topic 2: The Origin of Higher School in the Russian Empire. Lecture - 2 hours. Study questions:

Russia's rapprochement with the West. The first reforms in the field of education. Opening of the Navigation School. Features of teaching in schools. Opening of a medical school in 1706. Library and press under Peter I. Gymnasiums, university courses and academy in Russia.

The educational system of the Russian state during the period of autocracy and during the period of outstanding scientific discoveries(late 19th – early 20th centuries). The formation of the RSFSR in the first post-October decade, the elimination of illiteracy. Activities of the education system in the USSR.

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries was marked by the emergence of large number students from Russia. This welcome phenomenon was initially greeted with understanding by the European public.

Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
higher professional education
Vyatka State University
Faculty of Humanities
Department of “History of Russia”

COURSE WORK

« Russian STUDENTS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY »

Completed by: student gr. Is-21 N.Yu.Kuritsyna

Scientific supervisor: deputy department

Kirov 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ……………………………………………………… ………………….3
1 Review of university education in the second half of the 19th century...........6
2 University statutes………………………………………………………10
3 Students of Russia in the second half of the 19th century……………………….17
3.1 Social composition and worldview……………………………………...17
3.2 Life and entertainment………………………………………………………..22
3.3 National corporations and student associations …..………………...29
Conclusion ………………………………………………… …………………………34
References……………………………………………………………...36

Introduction

University education has existed in Europe for over 900 years, and in Russia for about 300. The university is one of the most durable and fruitful creations of European genius. He played an outstanding role in the development and establishment of modern science throughout the world.
The system of university education in Russia differed significantly from the Western one, although it was its direct heir. It was the difference from others and the uniqueness of the educational system that attracted scientists to the study of Russian universities.
The first scientific studies in history Russian universities appeared in the second half of the 19th century, first of all, note the publication of Kyiv University professor V. Ikonnikov “Russian universities in connection with the course of social development”, published in the “Bulletin of Europe” (1876, No. 9-11). The author made one of the first attempts to trace the development of the university idea in Russia and its implementation over the course of a century and a half. He viewed the history of universities in close connection with the social life of the country. We should also highlight the essay by P.N. Miliukov “Universities of Russia”, placed in volume 68 of the Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron (St. Petersburg, 1902). This essay described in detail the development of Russian universities until the end of the 19th century and contained rich factual and statistical material.
Of the particular subjects of university history, the greatest attention was paid to the student movement: Vydrin R.I. “The main points of the student movement in Russia”, Melgunov S.P. “From the history of student societies in Russian universities” and others.
After the 1917 revolution, the history of Russian universities was not given due attention for several decades. And only after the 50s. interest in this issue has revived again. The main attention of Soviet historians was paid to the study of individual periods in the history of Russian universities. It is necessary to note the works of A.E. Ivanov, G.I. Shchetinina, R.G. Eymontova. All of them began with the publication of articles, and completed their research with solid monographs, representing a significant contribution to the historiography of Russian universities.
As if summing up some results of the study of domestic higher education until 1917, a team of authors published in 1995 the book “Higher Education in Russia: An Essay on History before 1917.” The monograph contains a lot of interesting factual material; the appendices are of great value.
An independent university system arose and developed in Russia, the role and place of which in the life of Russian society has not yet received comprehensive coverage. And without this, it is impossible to reform universities or bring their activities in line with modern requirements. Considering this and the fact that numerous reforms are currently being implemented in the field of education, this study seems relevant.
When formulating the research topic, it was also taken into account that, being part of the humanities block of sciences, history is actively engaged in the study of the life and way of life of people within a certain historical stage. Based on this, the study of higher education in Russia will be most complete if it is carried out through the study of students.
The higher education system in Russia is not static. Reforms in this area have occurred and are occurring with enviable regularity. Usually the period of most active transformations is associatedwith the accession of Alexander II to the throne, which determined the time frame for this study in the second half of the 19th century.
Thus, the object of study is higher schools (universities) of post-reform Russia, considered in organic connection with the situation of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.
And, therefore, the subject of research becomes historical process reforming Russian higher education (universities) in the period 60 - 90's. XIX century through university statutes, everyday and ideological characteristics of the Russian students of the era in question.
The purpose of the research is to reveal the features of university education and the life of students in a given time frame. From which the following tasks follow:

Summarize information about universities that existed in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Study the regulatory framework of universities and student associations.
Consider the social composition of students in the second half of the 19th century.
To identify the role of students’ origins in the formation of the ideology of the student world.
Describe the daily life of a student in this era.
Consider the activities and functions of student associations.

Chapter I. OVERVIEW OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

The history of Russian universities usually begins on January 28, 1724, when the Senate adopted a Decree establishing the Academy of Sciences with a university and a gymnasium. Although officially St. Petersburg University began functioning as a university only in 1819. The first real higher educational institution in Russia to receive university status was Moscow State University (MSU), opened in 1755.
Usually a new stage in the development of Russian universities is associated with the accession to the throne of Alexander II. However, facts indicate that already in Last year During the reign of Nicholas I, certain changes began in attitudes towards education in general, and universities in particular.
A Committee for the Transformation of Educational Institutions was created under the leadership of D. Bludov. In 1854, a new minister of public education, S.S. Norov (brother of the Decembrist), was appointed, who, together with his unofficial adviser A.V. Nikitenko (professor of the SPU and liberal censor), presented the tsar with a report on the need to improve the situation of universities. If in 1854 Nicholas I did not allow the celebration of the 50th anniversary of Kazan University, then in 1855 the 100th anniversary of the University was celebrated solemnly, and the tsar sent a letter of gratitude to the university on this occasion. In addition, in 1854, after a long break, it was allowed to increase enrollment in some universities, but only in medical faculties.
With the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, the process of change accelerated, and the most restrictive prohibitions of previous years were gradually abolished. Already in 1855, restrictions on the admission of students were lifted, and from 1856, graduates were again sent to foreign universities to prepare for professorships, the rights of universities to elect rectors and deans were restored, and from 1859 it was allowed to subscribe books from abroad without censorship, since 1860 the former departments of philosophy and state law were revived, and new ones were opened in accordance with the requirements of the time. In a short period of time, there was a rapid increase in the number of university students, doubling on average over 8 years. There was a rapid change in the composition of teachers, the professorial staff was renewed by almost 50% in 1855-1862, especially in law faculties.
Many young professors appeared at the departments, including those who were considered politically unreliable, subjected to exile, etc. Thus, N.I. Kostomarov, who had just returned from exile and replaced the conservative Ustryalov, was elected to the department of Russian history of the SPU.
There was a radical change in the heads of universities; military trustees were replaced by civilian officials. For example, an outstanding surgeon, Professor N.I. Pirogov became a trustee of Kyiv University (the first case in the history of Russian universities). Young talented scientists appeared as rectors: Kiev University was headed by 34-year-old Professor N. Bunge (future Minister of Finance of Russia), Kazan University - 32-year-old Prof. chemistry A.M. Butlerov.
Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century developed under more favorable conditions compared to previous times. The abolition of serfdom and other bourgeois reforms contributed to the acceleration of economic progress and the development of the social movement.
By the middle of the 19th century in Russia there were: Moscow (1755), Dorpat (since 1802), Vilna, Kazan, Kharkov (1804), Kiev, St. Petersburg (1819). After the adoption of the University Charter of 1863, two more universities were opened: Novorossiysk in Odessa (1865) and Warsaw (1869).
In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased. Polytechnic institutes were founded in Kyiv, St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk; Technological Institute in Tomsk.
Great strides were made in higher education - the number of universities reached ten by the end of the century. The University Charter of 1863 gave universities almost complete autonomy in a wide variety of fields. But in 1884 the government Alexandra III introduced a new charter that stripped universities of their autonomy and increased oversight over them. In the 70-80s. The beginning of women's higher education was laid - courses were opened in different cities.
The number of students during the reign of Alexander II increased almost two and a half times (in 1854 - 3547 students, in 1880 - 8193 students) 1 .
Under Alexander III, another university was opened - in Tomsk.The grand opening of the first university in Siberia took place on July 27, 1888. new university The Charter of 1884 was distributed. However, Tomsk University allowed the admission of students of theological seminaries; among the 72 freshmen in 1888, there were 30 who graduated from gymnasiums, 40 from theological seminaries, 2 were transferred from other universities. In 1893, 34 people were released from this admission - the first Siberian doctors. Features of Tomsk University: donations and long construction led to the fact that it was immediately well equipped, with many laboratories, a botanical garden, a library with almost 100 thousand books and magazines; among the students there were many expelled from other universities for participating in revolutionary activities, a significant number of them came from low-income families, and in Tomsk there were few opportunities for earning money, so private donations for scholarships played a large role, which allowed many students to receive from 100 to 420 rub. in year. In subsequent years, there was a struggle for the opening of new faculties in Tomsk, and in 1898, admission to the Faculty of Law was announced; out of 142 admitted then, 47 graduated in 1902.
Thus, in the second half of the 19th century in Russia, higher education began to develop even more actively in both qualitative and quantitative indicators.

CHAPTER II. UNIVERSITY STATUTES

Study of university statutes in Russia in the 19th century. can make a significant contribution to understanding the multifaceted process of forming the regulatory framework of universities.
If in the West university life proceeded slowly and measuredly, its organizational forms, which had developed over centuries, practically did not change, and universities existed as separate entities, each with its own charter, then in Russia it revealed very energetic dynamics and proceeded in much more acute and conflicting forms . This is explained by the fact that universities in the West began as private enterprises, run by the founders at their own risk. The state stood apart, as an outside observer or arbitrator.
In Russia, the association of professors never played an independent role, as in the West, since professors were in the service and acted on behalf of the state in relations with students. Universities were created by the state, fully financed by the treasury and called imperial. Therefore, their statutes (the same for all) were carefully developed and adopted, as a rule, during a complex legislative procedure, with the involvement of the best legal experts. Suffice it to recall that such outstanding government and public figures as V.N. took part in the creation of the university system in Russia and the development of its regulatory framework. Karazin and M.M. Speransky. The statutes were approved by the emperor, which gave them the highest legal status and made them a kind of code of university life. During a period of less than a hundred years, the country underwent four charters (1804, 1835, 1863, 1884). Between the statutes of 1804 and 1884 there was a huge distance, in which an entire era fit within the shortest period in history, and each of the statutes, in itself, represented major stages in the construction of a higher school. And each time these were significantly different statutes, reflecting the significantly updated realities of university life. In this case, we are talking about the formation and formation of a highly sensitive and active social community of students, new to Russia, which predetermined considerable problems and features of the law-making process. In the literature, the active role of the state in universities is assessed negatively: “During the 19th century. Reforms and counter-reforms in higher education alternate four times according to the number of reigns of emperors. Tsarism either retreats, then again goes on to attack relatively independent higher education. In an effort to reconcile the irreconcilable statehood and science, higher education was reconstructed four times in the 19th century.” 2
Based chronological framework of this study, we will dwell in more detail on the Charters of 1863 and 1884.
The system for training scientific and pedagogical personnel at Russian universities was finally formed in the second half of the 19th century.
Established in accordance with the new university Charter, adopted on July 18, 1863, the system of training scientific and pedagogical personnel at universities was class-based and selective in nature. The government pursued a dual policy in this regard. On the one hand, it could not help but attract the best scientific and pedagogical forces to universities, but, on the other hand, it constantly sought to select them on a class basis in accordance with the requirement of reliability. At the same time, the second trend clearly prevailed; as a result, universities and other higher education institutions experienced an acute shortage of highly professional scientific and pedagogical personnel.
The government has taken many measures to combat the problem of staff shortages. According to the Charter of 1863, the number of lectures given by professors was not regulated, unlike the Charter of 1835. According to the latter, each professor was required to teach at least eight hours a week. Tenured professors taught as many hours of lectures per week as the faculty assigned to them based on the considerations they presented. As a result, universities were able to increase their teaching staff by 67 percent 3 .
To provide universities with the missing professors and teachers, the Ministry of Public Education in 1862 adopted a decree inviting foreign scientists to universities for the positions of professors and associate professors. The government also authorized the Minister of Education to send young scientists abroad to train them for professorships. For each year of stay abroad, secondees were obliged to serve in the department of the ministry for two years. During the period 1862–1865, for example, 89 people were sent abroad 4 . Similar business trips were carried out to other universities in the country.
The Institute of Candidates was also used to replenish university teaching staff. Students who completed the full course of the university with excellent success and submitted a dissertation approved by the faculty received a candidate's degree and remained at the university to receive master's and professorships. Those left at the university were under the supervision of professors, attended lectures on selected sciences and conducted practical classes.
To acquire a master's degree, new oral examinations and a public defense of a dissertation were required. A candidate could apply for a master's degree in a year. After a year, masters could apply for a doctorate, subject to the submission and public defense of a dissertation. Academic degrees at universities could be awarded to both Russian subjects and foreigners.
The content, forms and methods of training young scientists, both in Russia and abroad, were determined by the universities themselves and presented through the trustee of the educational district at the discretion of the Ministry of Public Education.
In January 1864, a new regulation on tests for academic degrees was approved. In accordance with it, the number of categories of sciences for which doctoral and master's degrees were awarded was increased in all faculties. The new regulation abolished examinations for applicants for the degree of Doctor of Science, requiring only the submission of a dissertation and its public defense (with the exception of Doctor of Medical Sciences).
The introduction of the new university Charter and Regulations contributed to an increase in the number of defended dissertations. During the period 1863–1874, 572 people received a doctorate degree, and 280 people received a master’s degree (while in the 16 previous years these figures were 130 and 184, respectively).
Universities, in accordance with the Charter of 1863, had their own printing houses and bookstores, could publish periodical works, and have their own censorship for theses and other scientific publications. In addition, universities, with the permission of the Minister of Public Education, were given the right to establish learned societies to improve any particular part of the sciences. All this, of course, also created objective opportunities for improving the professionalism of scientific and pedagogical personnel at Russian universities.
According to the charter of 1863, people were admitted to the university from the age of 17,without entrance exams for those who successfully graduate from high school. The student signed to comply with university rules, wearing a uniform was canceled, and outside the university walls the student became subject to the police. The creation of student organizations was not allowed. The transition of a student from course to course became possible only through tests; those who graduated from the university with good grades and submitted dissertations received a candidate's degree, and those who completed satisfactorily and did not submit a dissertation were awarded the title of full student. The category of state-funded students was eliminated and scholarships were introduced for those in need; fees for lectures were charged, set by universities (on average 40-50 rubles per year).
The Charter of 1863, which opened up new opportunities for the development of domestic education and science, lasted only until 1884. After the assassination of Tsar Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya in 1881, the government resumed its attack on university autonomy and strengthened control over teaching. Nevertheless, universities have maintained themselves as centers of advanced scientific knowledge and spiritual life in Russia.
The university counter-reform was carried out in 1884 by the Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanov, who, when asked about the reasons for the dismissal of one of the professors, replied that “he has only thoughts in his head” 5. Appointed to the post of Minister of Public Education in 1882, Delyanov submitted to the State Council for consideration a university reform project developed by Count D.A. Tolstoy. The majority of members of the State Council spoke out against the project, but the opinion of the minority was approved, and on August 23, 1884, the “General Charter of Imperial Russian Universities” was published, which constrained university autonomy by limiting university self-government. The power of county trustees over universities was greatly expanded. The rector was not elected by the council, but was appointed by the Minister of Public Education, who from now on could not take into account the opinion of the professoriate when appointing teachers and could give instructions to professors, make reminders and comments 6 .
The competence of the university council and faculty meetings was largely limited. Deans were appointed by the trustee, the position of vice-rector was abolished, and the university court was abolished. The examination of students who completed the course was carried out in special state commissions; only those students who had received credit for the established number of semesters were allowed to take the tests. Tuition fees have generally doubled.
The Charter of 1884 introduced a number of innovations into the practice of university education that have not lost their relevance today: “examination requirements”, which in a certain sense meant the transition of higher education to unified curricula and programs and the introduction of a state educational standard in modern meaning this phrase; restoration of the actual full-time assistant professorship, abolition of the title of full-time student and candidate, increasing the importance of practical training. Some provisions of the charter, although they were not implemented, were very attractive in academic terms for their formulation: giving the student the right to choose a lecturer, curriculum, and the opportunity to listen to lectures from another faculty.
The new charter, although it limited the scope of university autonomy and academic freedom within the framework of a single statehood, did not abolish them altogether. The election of rectors and professors was maintained, with some practical restrictions.
The above indicates that everything that happened in university life in the 80-90s. The 19th century, after the adoption of the charter of 1884, was more consistent with the modernization of the university system than with fundamental reforms. But the ongoing modernization had a clearly expressed political background: to expel anti-government sentiments and opposition from universities, to turn the teaching staff into conscientious and obedient education officials, and students into “reliable” and organized students.
In general, the analysis of the statutory texts allows us to draw the following conclusions: firstly, about the worthy, if not central, place of students (the main object and subject of legal relations) in the university system and about the energetic dynamics of the statutory norms regulating their legal relations; secondly, about the exclusive role of the state in university construction; thirdly, about the steady increase in legislative activity and the progressive nature of the movement of statutory norms. First of all, the analysis materials indicate a rapid increase in the normative mass itself, as practical experience accumulates, along with an increase in the quality of the legal elaboration of norms.
In conclusion, it must be noted that in general the level of university education in Russia was quite high, and at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries it was quite consistent with Western European education.

CHAPTER III. STUDENTS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

3.1 Social composition and worldview

The social composition of students in Russia was much more democratic than, for example, in England or Germany, where almost exclusively children of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie studied at universities. Tuition was low and there were many "scholars".
The characteristic features of the Russian student partnership, even brotherhood, in comparison with the order prevailing in the famous British universities, were keenly noticed by A.I. Herzen, who was well familiar with the organization of university affairs in Russia and abroad: “Before 1848, the structure of our universities was purely democratic. Their doors were open to anyone who could pass the exam, and was neither a serf, nor a peasant, nor dismissed by his community. The motley youth who came from above and below, from the south and north, quickly fused into a compact mass of camaraderie. Social differences did not have the offensive influence among us that we find in English schools and barracks; I’m not talking about English universities: they exist exclusively for the aristocracy and the rich. A student who would take it into his head to boast about his white bones or wealth would be excommunicated from water and fire, tortured by his comrades” 7.
Unlike closed educational institutions, which were attended mainly by nobles, a significant number of students at universities were people of low nobility and poor wealth. To make ends meet, students were often forced to work part-time. It was in the 19th century that the familiar image of a Russian student took shape, renting a cheap room and earning a living by giving private lessons or translations. True, the social status of the students was quite high. But poverty and homelessness have always been the companions of Russian students.
The bulk of Moscow students, since the sixties of the 19th century, consisted of the provincial poor, commoners who had nothing in common with the inhabitants,
In post-reform times, the number of university students continued to grow, and in 1880 there were already more than 8 thousand. The composition of the student body was changing; there were more students who needed scholarships and earned a living. So, at Kazan University in the early 70s. only 28% of students could exist on their own means, and in Odessa the number of those in need reached 80%. Special scholarships were introduced for a number of categories of students. Thus, in 1863, 150 scholarships were established for former SPU students who studied at other universities and were preparing to become teachers. Cyril and Methodius scholarships were established in 1862 for students studying Slavic philology. They could be received by 4 students each at Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov and Kiev universities (240 rubles per year).
etc.................

Introduction
1. Review of the largest universities in Russia in the second half of the 19th century
2 Reforms in the field of university education
2.1 University statutes
2.2 Legal status students
3 Russian students in the second half of the 19th century
3.1 Social composition and worldview
3.2 Life and entertainment
3.3 Student associations
Conclusion
Bibliography

Introduction

The education reform, which has been constantly taking place in Russia from 1996 to the present, raises a huge number of questions, an order of magnitude more than it can solve with its help. One way or another, the reform is aimed at modernizing our domestic education, which was previously considered the best in the world, on the model of Western Europe. From a historical point of view, this is a return to origins, since higher education in Russia appeared much later than in most European countries and was created according to the Western European model and mainly “by the hands” of Western European (German) scientists. However, those reforms that were carried out later left European scholasticism far behind, and now educational reformers have decided to “catch up” with Europe again. Whether the reform being carried out in today's Russia will really be able to return Russian higher education to its rightful place in the world is still a question. And it is a fact that many traditions, and far from the worst ones, have been thrown overboard during modernization.
In this regard, the relevance of research into the history of the formation of modern Russian higher education, the historical experience of its reform in the era of the “Great Reforms” of Alexander II, when Russia was once again “upside down”, and with it the higher education system, is increasing.
At the same time in beginning of XXI V. Tendencies towards a change in value priorities that determine social development are becoming increasingly obvious. Humanity is moving from an industrial society with a pronounced technocratic thinking to a post-industrial, information society, which involves a revaluation of the role of intelligence and human qualifications. The uniqueness of these processes in modern Russia due to the formation on its territory new system social relations associated with changes in socio-political and economic paradigms. The scale and pace of these transformations are forcing society to increasingly rely on knowledge, so modern stage development of Russia, education, in its inextricable connection with science, is becoming more and more powerful driving force economic growth, efficiency and competitiveness National economy, which makes it one of the most important factors national security.
The object of the study is higher schools (universities) of post-reform Russia, considered in organic connection with the situation of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.
The subject of the study is the historical process of reforming Russian higher education (universities) in the period of the 60s - 90s. XIX century through university statutes, as well as the Russian student body of that era.
The research is based on the analysis of normative sources, journalism and memoirs of the second half of the 19th century.

List of sources used

1. General Statute of the Imperial Universities. June 18, 1863 // Political history of Russia: Reader / Comp. IN AND. Kovalenko, A.N. Medushevsky, E.N. Moshchelkov. M.: Aspect Press, 1996. 624 p.
2. History of university education in pre-revolutionary Russia / Ed. ed. AND I. Savelyeva. M.: Publishing house of the Scientific Research Institute VSh, 1993. 55 p.
3. Eymontova R.G. Russian universities on the verge of two centuries. From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M.: Nauka, 1985. 350 p.
4. Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755–1917: collection / Comp. Yu.N. Emelyanov. M.: Sovremennik, 1989. 735 p.
5. Pushkarev S.G. Russia 1801–1917: power and society. M.: Posev, 2001. 672 p.
6. Russia. encyclopedic Dictionary. L.: Lenizdat, 1991. 922 p.
7. Badaev M.I. Science and culture Russia XIX century. – M.: Mysl, 1978, 327 p.
8. Herzen A.I. Essays. T.5. – M.: Fiction, 1982, 604 pp.
9. Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Meeting 2nd. T. 1-55. from 12 Dec. 1825 to March 1, 1881. St. Petersburg, 1830-1884.
10. Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Meeting 3rd. T. 1-33. St. Petersburg, 1884-Pg. 1916.
11. General charter and temporary staff of imperial Russian universities. St. Petersburg, 1884., 38 p.
12. Russian universities in their charters and memoirs of contemporaries / Comp. THEM. Soloviev. St. Petersburg, 1914. Issue. 1. 572 p.
13. Universities and secondary educational institutions for men and women in 50 provinces European Russia. St. Petersburg, 1888.
14. Georgievsky A.I. A brief historical outline of government measures against student unrest. St. Petersburg, 1890.

Overall volume: 43 pp.

Year: 2011