Morphological norms of the Russian literary language. Morphological norms Lexical and morphological norms of the Russian language

Hello. My name is Kashurina Oksana Evgenievna. I am a Russian language teacher and head. Library of school No. 48, Prioksky district. My task is to tell you about the morphological norms of Russian literary language and show the most common mistakes in the professional speech of teachers.

“Oratorio is dull, poetry is tongue-tied, philosophy is unfounded, history is unpleasant, jurisprudence without grammar is dubious. And although it comes from the general use of language, it nevertheless shows the way to the use itself through rules.” M.V. Lomonosov.

Morphological norms of the Russian literary language are the rules for the formation and use of forms of various parts of speech. Already with primary school We know the main parts of speech well by sight, but for some reason for many years we have been pronouncing and writing many of their grammatical forms with gross errors. So, for example, in a store we are often offered “good shampoo” or “beautiful tulle”, and in a pastry shop they convince us to try pies with jam, because they are tastier today than yesterday. Such errors are very common, and you can encounter them when using all independent parts of speech. Today I want to introduce you to the basic requirements of the Russian language for the formation and use of forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs and service units speech.

Tasks:

Identify the grammatical forms of various parts of speech that cause the greatest difficulty;

Outline the norms for the formation and use of these forms;

Variants of grammatical forms, their use in speech.

USING GRAMMATICAL FORMS OF NOUNS

Usually, using nouns according to their gender does not present much difficulty for us. We know that exam is a noun. Husband. Rhoda, test– female Kind, and the essay is average. At the same time, our knowledge is not based on the relationship between word and object: the division of nouns by gender does not correspond to any real division of objects in the surrounding world, it is based only on tradition. The only exceptions are the names of people and most living beings. Nouns of all three genders differ well in appearance - by the peculiarities of endings during declension.

We begin to ask ourselves questions about the correctness of assigning a particular noun to grammatical gender when we cannot determine its gender by the external, formal features of the word. This happens when we encounter in speech with

Abbreviations

Nouns with suffixes subjective assessment,

In foreign words,

Words that have generic variants.

VTsIOM notified public (this is a noun M.R., because the abbreviation stands for All-Russiancenter studying public opinion.

So,university refers to the masculine gender because it has a zero ending and is declined according to the type of nouns. 2nd declension. Compare: on the website departmentA – on the university websiteA . Although the main word in the abbreviation university - institution - is neuter.

Coat oldoh , mind you, geniusth , in my pocket remained only asand I - it’s a little thing, but it’s creepy on the streetand I dirt.

You can avoid mistakes when determining the gender of a borrowed word by remembering that:

The masculine gender includes the names of male streets or persons in general, the names of animals, winds, languages, and some objects (Spanish th hidalgo, my impresario, snow-white th flamingo, destructive th tornado, literary th Hindi, Black th coffee ), as well as geographical names, if they relate to nouns male, For example:handsome th Nestau – cape (m.r.),sunny th Delhi – city (m.r.);

Feminine nouns include the names of female persons and some animals (handsome and I lady, young and I miss, dangerous and I tsetse, salted and I Ivasi ), in addition, geographical names and - names of inanimate objects correlated with feminine nouns, for example:bugle and I Hadlisau – river (r.),fresh and I salami – sausage (fat);

The neuter gender usually includes nouns denoting various inanimate objects (checkered oh muffler, drink cocoa O ), and to the general gender - nouns that can denote both male and female persons (random th vis-a-vis – pleasant and I counterpart )

An excursion into the past.

For example, inXIXcentury, a familiar and well-known nounhall belonged to the feminine gender. So, A.S. Pushkin, when describing the ball in the novel “Eugene Onegin”, we read: “In a hugehall e everything was shaking..." And even earlier, inXVIIIcentury, this word belonged to the neuter gender and was pronounced ashall O . Thus, this noun changed its gender twice.

If a masculine noun denoting a profession or occupation names a female person, then the verb - predicate agrees with it in the feminine gender, and the adjective acting as a determiner in the masculine gender, for example:

Young Ouch (m.r.)researcher (m.r.)talked enthusiastically A (= person of female gender)about the results of your work .

Experienced th (m.r.)surgeon (m.r.)Kovalev successfully completed A (= person of female gender)surgery .

N.B..

When forming and usingnumber forms of nouns You may also encounter a number of certain difficulties:

It is possible to form the form of a number incorrectly;

Often the mistake is the very fact of forming number forms;

You can use the number form incorrectly if two plural forms are formed from ambiguous nouns.

They belong to different th socially th Wednesday am instead of to different Ouch socially Ouch Wednesday e . Wednesday – an abstract noun and has only a formunits

Compare:depths A meaning and depth s ocean, Adyghe cheese and hard s cheese s , bright th silk and all in silk Oh , first th snow and all around And snow A .

Teachers of our school

Great teachers and philosophers of antiquity

This is interesting!

The category of number in the Russian language has the simplest and most common – binary – structure. However, there are languages that contain dual and triple numbers. Thus, a special form denoting two objects exists in the Slovenian and Serbolugian, Khanty and Vogul languages. The triple number is known in some tribal languages of Australia and New Guinea.

The Russian language also did not always have two forms of number. As many as three such forms existed in the Old Russian language: singular (one subject– sleeve ), dual number (two objects -sleeves ) and plural (more than two items –sleeves ). Later, the dual number was lost and one of the forms became redundant. In some cases, the plural form was preserved, which expanded its meaning and began to denote the number of objects equal to two or more than two. In others, it is the form of a dual number. For example, modern formseyes, knees, shoulders - these are former forms of the dual number that have replaced the old forms of the plural:tow, knee, shoulder .

How to say:

Fish have no teeth

Do fish have no teeth?

OPTIONS FOR FORMATION AND USE OF CASE FORMS OF NOUNS.

Variants exist in genitive forms singular masculine nouns:

On-у(-у) : jar of honey at , not an ounce of sugar at , drink some tea Yu .

On-and I): smell of honey A , sugar production A , taste of cha I .

In the prepositional singular form, masculine nouns combined with the prepositions в and на have variant endings–у(-у) And-e .

Case forms on–у(-у): walk (Where?)in the forest at , lose (Where?)in the snow at , speak (How?)on the move at .

Ending-e : role (in what?)in the forest e » A. Ostrovsky ; character (in what?)in "Hot Snow" e » Yu. Bondareva ; The strength was felt (in what?)in a sedate move e heavyweight .

Some masculine plural nouns have variant forms in the nominative case. Among them, two groups of words stand out:

Nouns whose forms differ in meaning, which are case forms of homonyms; compare:military order A – knightly order s ; school camp I – opposing lagers And ; bright tone A - tone s hearts.

Nouns having forms that are different in their stylistic affiliation, among which equal variants are identified (spotlight s – spotlight A , tractor s - tractor A , Instructor s - Instructor A ) and acceptable options when the form ends–s(s) ( agreement s , mechanic And , editor s ) is used in bookish speech, and the form with the ending-and I) ( agreement A , mechanic I , editor A ), which is also literary, is preferable in colloquial speech.

In the genitive plural form, masculine nouns.

For example:culture of the Tatars, English; the soldiers and hussars are not visible; one hundred watts, ampere; a pair of shoes, boots.

Ending–s(s) : land mongol ov , Yakut ov ; captain photos ov , Colonel ov ; many kilometers ov , hundreds of bytes ov ; sale keychain ov , packing socks ov ; kilogram of tomato ov , banana ov .

N.B..

Nouns ending in a stressed syllable–er(-er), form the shape of the im.p. plural with ending–s , For example:

engineer Er - engineer s , director Yor - director s .

Nouns ending in a syllable–or , form the shape of the im.p. plural..

Happy ending–s , if they denote inanimate objects or animate objects and relate to book vocabulary, for example:

Dogov op – agreement s , detector op – detector s ;

Lect op – lecturer s , novat op – innovator s ;

Happy ending-A , if they denote animate objects and refer to commonly used words, for example:

Direct op - director A , doctor op - doctor A .

N.B..

Nouns denoting a person by type of military service, in the form gender n. plural. have

Ending–s(s) , if individuals are named, for example:

Several hussars ov , three grenadiers ov ;

Zero ending if combined with words naming a military unit, for example:

Squadron of hussars, detachment of dragoons .

Formation of genitive plural forms in feminine nouns.

No candles To her , dollar To her , stat To her ;

Several handfuls To her , ABOUT trasl to her , increase m ABOUT power to her ;

The participation of runners, the smell of pancakes (from noun to–ya ); buying waffles, shoes, earrings; do not try cherries, customs organization , Butmeeting of young ladies, outskirts of villages (from noun to-me ).

Neuter nouns in the genitive plural form:

Apple harvest, no seats, many crafts, towel embroidery, saucer set (from noun with –tse)

Gun butts to her exercise for knees to her

Verkhov ev rivers, found near swamps ev

When declension of nouns that have only a plural form.

Ending –s(s) : wait for frost ov , choice ov ; buy chips ov ; don't wear rags ev .

Ending -to her : two rakes to her , nursery worker to her , heroes of everyday life to her .

Zero ending: don't wear shorts, eat pasta, wait for the holidays.

REMEMBER:

A pair of tights, stockings, boots, sneakers, shorts, leggings, moccasins, sneakers, earrings, shoes, sandals, sandals, sneakers, mittens.

A pair of jeans, clips, knee socks, socks, bracelets, key rings, pendants, breeches.

Assignments and exercises.

Give an example of an error in the use of a word.

Grand dominatrix

Extraordinary power

Light feather

Give an example of an error in the formation of a word.

Historical images

Fluffy and fragrant breads

Sons of the Fatherland

Belt reins (not correct)

Give an example of an error in the formation of the form of a noun.

Quality printers

Wool sweaters

Dear players

Russian passports (not correct)

Choose an example where the norms of shaping are not violated.

Clatter of hooves

Making blankets

Weaving lace (not correct)

Using mirrors

Which sentence contains an erroneously formed form of a noun? Explain what causes the appearance of such forms. Can this form be used in other contexts?

Her debut on the big stage was the piano in “The Cherry Orchard” by A. Chekhov.

In the world, even death is red.

Important conversations don't happen on the fly.

The forest was gloomy and uncomfortable.

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MorphologicalnormsmodernRussianliterarylanguage

morphological norm literary language

1. Namenoun

Although the morphological structure of the Russian literary language has been thoroughly studied from both the historical, descriptive and structural sides, in modern speech practice thousands of questions arise regarding the correct use of certain forms of the word. For example, when you go to buy oranges, what is the correct way to say: a kilogram of oranges or a kilogram of oranges? And if the expert or auditor is a woman, then what should you say: has the auditor arrived or has she arrived? In order to answer such questions, you need to know how to correctly form the grammatical forms of words different parts speech, that is, to have an idea of the morphological norms of the modern Russian literary language.

It is advisable to group morphological norms by parts of speech.

As in the stress system, the main difficulty in studying the category of gender lies in the presence of variable forms.

Rail - rail giraffe - giraffe

Shutter - shutter stack - stack

The number of words with unstable generic (specific) affiliation has now been sufficiently reduced. In most cases, there are differences between the forms: one of the forms is either outdated or characteristic of a certain style of speech.

Hall - hall (obsolete)

Knee - knee (unfolded)

1) Names of persons by profession

In business speech there are more masculine words than feminine words. For most of the names of new professions included in the sphere of official business use, there is no analogue in the feminine gender: broker, manager, broker.

How to use masculine words if in a particular case (they) these concepts correlate with a woman? The predicate verb in the past tense with such a subject noun is used in the masculine gender if we are talking about a man, and in the feminine gender if we are talking about a woman. The adjective definition with such a noun is used in the masculine gender: The famous professor Ivanova gave a report at the conference. - The famous professor Davydov made a report at the conference.

2) Indeclinable nouns have the same form for all cases: I enter the metro, I see the metro, I admire the metro.

Among them there are both common nouns (coffee, radio, coat, highway, dressing table) and proper names (Garibaldi, Goethe, Zola, Sochi, Baku). Indeclinable nouns include:

1. Many nouns of foreign origin with final vowels -о, -е, -и, -у, -у and with final stress -а: radio, metro, pince-nez, stew, menu, boa, (novel) by Dumas, (poem) Heine, (city) Oslo.

2. Foreign language surnames denoting female persons and ending with a consonant: (poems) Aliger, (novel) Voynich.

3. Russian and Ukrainian surnames ending in -o, and -i(s): Durnovo, Franko, Chernykh, Dolgikh.

4. Compound abbreviated words of alphabetic and mixed nature: HPP, VAZ, MSU, SAI. It is important to know the gender of indeclinable nouns in order to avoid mistakes in word agreement.

Indeclinable nouns (inanimate) of foreign language origin belong mainly to the neuter gender: tasty popsicle, woolen muffler, interesting interview. The masculine gender includes, for example, black coffee.

In some cases, gender is associated with grammatical gender, which denotes a specific concept.

Salami (sausage) - f.r., kohlrabi (cabbage) - f.r., penalty (kick) - m.r.

3) Unyielding foreign words, denoting animate objects (animals, birds) are masculine: a small chimpanzee, a colorful cockatoo.

The word hummingbird fluctuates in gender, so the noun can be either masculine or feminine.

Long-winged Hummingbird - Long-winged Hummingbird

4) Indeclinable animate nouns of foreign origin belong to the feminine gender if they denote female persons (Madame, Frau, Lady, Miss), and to the masculine gender if they denote male persons (entertainer, dandy).

The words bigeneric are: vis-a-vis, protégé, incognito.

Their agreement is predetermined by the gender of the person in question: the girl is my counterpart, your protégé (man) has come.

5) The gender of indeclinable nouns - geographical names is determined by the gender of those common nouns with which these names can be replaced: Sukhumi (city) - masculine; Colorado (river) is feminine.

The gender of compound abbreviated words of a mixed type and words composed of initial sounds is most often determined by the gender of the reference word in the phrase when deciphering the abbreviation: ACS (automated control system) is feminine, since the reference word system is feminine.

The gender of the indeclinable names of press organs is determined by the generic name. "Times" - newspaper (feminine).

The grammatical gender of compound terms (cafe-canteen, partner company) is determined by the leading word (more significant in a given combination). Beautiful showcase stand.

Nouns are used in the singular when we are talking about one object (thing, seed, glass), and in the plural when we are talking about several objects (things, seeds, glass) (Table 1). The category of number shows the opposition of a single object to many. This category is expressed using an ending. Some nouns are used either only in the singular or only in the plural, for example:

Table 1

Nouns that have only a singular form	Nouns that have only a plural form
1. Set names	1. Name of compound and paired
identical persons, objects	items: trousers, scales, watches,
(collective nouns):	shorts, abacus.
youth, students, old people.	2. Names of materials or their
2. Names of objects with	waste, residues: whitewash, yeast,
real meaning: milk,	perfumes, canned food.
honey, gasoline.	3. Names of time periods,
3. Quality names or	games: vacation, day, hide and seek.
characteristics: whiteness, anger, blueness.	4. Names of actions and states
4. Action names or	nature: chores, elections,
conditions: mowing, chopping, running.	frosts.
5. Proper names as	5. Some geographical
names of individual items:	names: Carpathians, Sokolniki,
Moscow, Volga, Tsialkovsky.
6. Words: burden, udder, flame,

In the case system, difficulties in using words relate primarily to genitive prepositional cases.

The genitive case is used for the following meanings of the word - subject:

During orientation: no time, lack of signature.

With the relationship between the actor and the object: building a house, drawing up a report.

When denoting “an item in a certain quantity”: a lot of people, a batch of tea.

Variant case endings arise when using masculine words in the first meaning in combinations such as: no show (-y), no wear (-y), no release (-y).

Here both options are valid, the forms decrease by y(th): there is a trimming under general model genitive case for words of the second declension: (no what?) houses, buildings.

When using words in the third meaning, there are more such cases:

1. For nouns with a real meaning: buy (what?) sugar(s), cheese(s), tea(s). In speech practice, the choice of the ending a-y or y-yu is determined by the combination of the word: in verb combinations, preference is given to y-yu (cut off the cheese, pour tea); if there is a definition, the ending a-z (a glass of hot tea) is more accepted; the same ending a-z when combined with other nouns (specific designation of quantity): a ton of sugar, a kilogram of cheese.

2. The option is fixed in stable expressions endings y-yu: to blunder, to get confused, no doubt about it.

In the prepositional case, variant endings also correspond to masculine nouns: in the workshop - in the workshop, in the forest - in the forest.

The ending u-yu is preferable when the word is used in a circumstantial meaning (questions are possible: where? Where? How?): grows in the forest (but about the forest), works in the workshop, left the house, is in the ranks.

Use u-yu shapes more typical of professional speech and has a touch of vernacular; the ending form - e has a bookish character. Compare: on vacation - on vacation; in the workshop - in the workshop

Parallel forms of the genitive plural are observed in nouns of all genders.

Here the norms are more strict: a pair of boots but not boots (this is a gross mistake). This is the so-called zero ending, characteristic of the following nouns:

1. Name of paired items: (pair) boots, felt boots, stockings (but socks);

1. Names of some nationalities: (many) English, Armenians, Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Georgians, Turks (but Kyrgyz, Tajiks);

2. Some names of units of measurement, usually used with numerals: (several) amperes, watts, grams, etc.; here, in some cases, two options are possible: grams - grams, kilograms - kilograms.

For the genitive plural of the plural of some feminine nouns, the normative forms are: poker, gossip, roofing; distances, candles, handfuls (note the difference in emphasis).

2. Pronoun

A pronoun is a part of speech that indicates objects, signs and quantities, but does not name them.

The battle stopped after an hour. It sometimes flared up here and there, then completely died down.

1. When declension of personal pronouns indicating participants in speech or objects that are being spoken or will be spoken about, sometimes completely new words appear in indirect cases (I - me, she - her), sometimes an alternation of sounds occurs at the root (me - me) , but all these are forms of one word.

2. In literary speech, the use of non-normative pronouns is not allowed, for example, their team won - their team won; she has beautiful eyes - she has beautiful eyes.

3. The prepositions before, with, to, about, standing before the indirect case forms of the pronoun I, are used with o: before me, with me, to me.

4. The 3rd person pronouns he, she, it, they after prepositions have n at the beginning: at him, near her, near them.

After prepositions thanks to, outside in spite of, as a result of, contrary to, towards, according to, like n is not used: faster than her, outside of him.

1. After the comparative degree, adjectives and adverbs are not used: faster than her, further than them, closer to him.

2. To use a pronoun correctly, you need to pay attention to which noun it replaces. If a double understanding of the meaning is possible (Vasya gave Marusa a doll, but she(?) soon died, and Pan Tyburtsy took it(?) to Vasya’s father.), then the sentence should be rearranged:

a) repeat the noun or give a synonym without using a pronoun at all (She is Marusya, a girl, sick; ее - a doll, a toy). b) after the pronoun, enter an explanatory word, highlight it with brackets or a dash (She - Marusya - died soon).

7. Relative pronoun which indicates what is closest to it

noun, connected with it in meaning and grammatically. The oak tree that I planted last year has grown in front of the windows of the house.

8. When reconstructing direct speech into indirect speech, the first person pronoun is replaced by the third.

The teacher said: “I’m in a hurry to the teachers’ meeting.” The teacher said that she was in a hurry for the teachers' meeting.

3. Adjective

Difficulties in using adjectives are associated with the formation of a short form and the formation of degrees of comparison.

1. The short form can only be formed from qualitative adjectives. The short form is formed from the base of the adjective and the endings: zero, -а(-я), -о(-е), -ы(-и).

For example, cheerful. The basis of the oars. Short form of cheerful, cheerful, cheerful, cheerful.

If at the end of the stem there is a combination of consonants with K or N, then when the masculine forms are formed, a fluent vowel appears: full - full, bitter - bitter.

For adjectives with the stem ending in -enn (painful, artificial) in the masculine form, N is truncated. For example, painful - painful (painful); Artificial - artificial (artificial); Limited - limited (limited).

Only in some cases is the correct form in -enn: sincere - sincere, base - base, frank - frank.

Some adjectives are used only in a short form: glad, much, must, necessary.

Some qualitative adjectives do not have a corresponding short form: adjectives with the suffixes -sk-, -n-, -ov-, -l- (comradely, efficient, advanced, skillful), denoting color (blue, lilac), color of animals (raven, bay), high degree sign (tiny, thick), adjectives included in terminological names (deep rear, fast train).

2. Qualitative adjectives have a comparative and superlatives comparisons (Table 2).

The comparative degree shows that in one or another subject a characteristic is manifested to a greater or lesser extent than in others, for example:

Conversations became louder, more incoherent, more fun. Comparative degree education:

Table 2.

The initial form of an adjective from which the comparative degree is formed.	Comparative degree means of education.	Adjectives in comparative form.
Spicy Interesting Pointless	Simple form -ee(-ee-)	Sharper(s-) Int. (s) Demon. (-to her)
Adjectives with stems in g, k, x, d, t, st hot, quiet, dear, young, cool, fat	E- + alternation of final consonant stem	hotter, quieter, more expensive, younger, cooler, thicker
Adj. with suf. -k-, -ok- (-ek-) low, high, long, tone.	E- + truncation of suffixes k-, -ok-(-ek-)	lower, higher, longer, thinner
Tall, big	Po- + -she-(-e-)	higher, bigger
The good, the bad, the little	from other bases	better, worse, less
Hard, weak, sweet	SOS. FORM Words more, less	More TV., less weak., more powerful.

Table 3.

The initial form of an adjective from which the superlative degree is formed.	Educational means of superlatives	Adjectives in the superlative form.
Strict, short, quiet, tall	SIMPLE FORM -aysh- + black. con. sog. basics	Art., shortest, quietest, highest
Brave, wonderful		Bravest, most wonderful
Tall, handsome	Nai- + -sh- (truncation of the suffix -ok) nai- + -eysh-	The Highest The Most Beautiful
The good, the bad, the little	From other bases	Best, Worst, Less
Solid, approachable, loyal, funny, sad, smart, interesting	COMPOUND FORM The word most of the words most, least comparative degree of the adjective + genitive case of the pronoun all - all	The most solid, the most accessible, the most faithful, the least cheerful, the saddest of all, the smartest of all, the most interesting of all

4. Numerals

Most errors are due to ignorance of the peculiarities of declension of numerals. To avoid speech errors, you need to know the grammatical features of numerals.

1. Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, change according to cases, numbers and genders: first (entrance), first (entrance), first (entrance). In compound ordinal numbers, only the last word is declined.

I.p. One thousand nine hundred and twelve

R.p. One thousand nine hundred and twelve

D.p. One thousand nine hundred and twelve

V.p. One thousand nine hundred and twelve (or as R.p.)

etc. One thousand nine hundred and twelve

P.p. About one thousand nine hundred and twelve

When specifying a date after an ordinal number, the name of the month is put in R.p.: by the first of January, by the first of September. Ordinal numbers in the names of holidays after the words “holiday”, “date”, “day” are placed in I.p.: K significant date On April 12th, students published a newspaper.

2. Cardinal numbers

Simple cardinal numbers from 5 to 20 and 30 are declined as nouns 3rd declension

Table. I.p. Five Eight Twenty R.p. Five Eight Twenty

			Twenty
			Twenty
			Twenty
			Twenty

Table. The numerals 40, 90, 100 have only two forms

		Ninety
		Ninety
		Ninety
		Ninety
		Ninety
		Ninety

U difficult words Numerals from 50 to 80 and from 200 to 800 are declined by both parts. 50-80 500-800 200, 300, 400

Fifty
Fifty
Fifty	Five hundred	Two hundred
Fifty
Fifty	Five hundred	Two hundred
Fifty	About five hundred	About two hundred

A compound numeral denoting a whole number is declined by all the words of which it is composed.

I.p. One thousand nine hundred eighty five

R.p. thousand nine hundred eighty five

D.p. One thousand nine hundred eighty five

V.p. One thousand nine hundred eighty five

etc. One thousand nine hundred eight ten five

P.p. About one thousand nine hundred eighty five

The numerals one and a half and one and a half hundred have two forms.

I.p., V.p. One and a half hundred

R.p., D.p., T.p., P.p. One and a half hundred

At mixed number the noun is controlled by a fraction and it (noun) is used in R.p. units:

Five and three-fifths meters BUT! Five meters

Collective numbers are combined:

1) with nouns denoting males, children and young animals: three boys, four bear cubs

2) with nouns used only in the plural: three tongs, four sleighs.

3) with personal pronouns, for example: there were five of us.

4) the collective numeral oba (both) in the masculine and neuter gender in the oblique cases has the stem obo-, and in the feminine gender - oba-.

These numerals are used with nouns that have a singular form.

You can't say: at both gates

It is necessary: at both gates.

5. Verb

Errors in the use of verbs are associated with the existence of a group of so-called insufficient verbs and with the possible confusion of the use of parallel forms.

Insufficient verbs are verbs that are limited in the formation of personal forms: they do not have the first person form of the present and future simple tense. This group includes verbs: to dream, to dare, to win, to convince, to wonder, to find oneself, to feel, to have mercy.

You can’t say: I’ll run, I’ll feel (feel) - this is a gross mistake. If necessary, descriptive forms should be used: I can win, I will try to convince, I hope to find myself.

It is possible to use two forms of the verb in parallel with the same meaning: recover - recover; moves - moves; measures - measures. The first form in each pair is bookish (normative), the second is colloquial. In business speech, preference should be given to the former. In the case of the verb move, each of the forms has its own meaning: moves - moves something, moves - encourages (it is driven by direct calculation).

Pairs also form aspectual forms of the verb - perfect and imperfect. During the formation of nes. type of verb with the help of suffixes - ыва-, -iva- in some cases the root vowel o is changed into a. For example, to work out - to work out, to freeze - to freeze. In some cases, in verbs there are no meanings. It would not be a mistake to use two options in pairs: to condition - to condition, to summarize - to summarize. The second forms (with root A) are colloquial in nature, so in business speech it is more natural to use the book version (with root O).

The verbs want, crave, see, hear, go, be able do not have an imperative mood. You cannot say “want” or “could”. Here the imperative forms are formed from synonymous verbs: look, listen. For the verb to go, the literary form of the imperative mood will be: go, go (go, go, go - colloquial forms that are unacceptable in speech). If the action refers to the third person, then the forms of the imperative mood are formed with the help of the particles let and let in combination with verbal forms of 3 l.: let him ride, let them see. It must be remembered that these particles give speech a conversational tone.

Speech errors arise when constructing constructions with words that are similar in meaning or have the same root, but require different controls. To prevent them, it is important to correctly pose the question that determines the case form of the noun in such constructions:

Pay attention (to what?) to facts - pay attention to (what?) personnel selection;

Consult (who?) client - consult (with whom?) with a professor, with a professor;

Demand (what?) explanations - demand (what?) a pass;

Be based (on what?) on facts - substantiate (on what?) with factual data;

Literature

1. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu. Russian language and culture of speech. - Rostov-on-Don, 2001.

2.Oral and culture writing business man: reference book. - M., 2000.

3. Culture of Russian speech / Ed. OK. Graudina, E.N. Shiryaeva. - M., 1999

4. Rosenthal D.E., Dzhanzhakova E.V., Kabanova N.P. Handbook of Spelling and Literary Editing. - M., 2001.

5. Russian language and speech culture: Textbook / Ed. Professor V.I. Maksimov. - M., 2000.

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Rules for the use of nouns

1. Gender of nouns

1) Gender of nouns ending in – ь

2) Common nouns

IN modern language there are over 200 such nouns. The general genus does not represent a special grammatical meaning, similar to the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and is a conventional designation for a group of feminine nouns of a certain semantics, which, depending on the gender of the designated person, are combined with masculine and feminine adjectives: terrible bully And terrible bully, big slob And big slob.

Poor guy, know-it-all, upstart, dirty guy, goofy, smartass, bully, crammer, feisty, gourmet, left-handed, couch potato, good fellow, klutz, fidget, suck-up, cheeky, self-educated, orphan and etc.

3) Gender of indeclinable nouns of foreign origin

Indeclinable nouns reveal their gender syntactically, in phrases (military attache) and proposals ( The press attache of the Ministry of Emergency Situations appeared on TV).

The gender of indeclinable nouns is related to the semantics of the word. First of all, there is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. Most words denoting inanimate objects are neuter (woolen muffler, modern sconce, strict jury). This rule has a number of exceptions related to the influence of various analogies: Russian synonym, gender of a word denoting a generic concept, etc. In such cases, the noun can be used as bigender. For example: euro – Wed R. and m.r.; Esperanto – Wed R. and m.r.; whiskey - Wed R. and m.r. (rarely - female r.); penalty – m.r. and Wed R. Words avenue, salami – and. R.

Animate nouns denoting female persons are feminine, and masculine nouns are masculine. (old lady, rich rentier); denoting both (counterpart, protégé, incognito, croupier) are bigeneric (my protégé is my protégé).

Nouns denoting animals and birds are masculine, regardless of the gender of the animal (funny pony), except in cases where the female is meant (The chimpanzee fed the baby). Words hummingbird And kiwi are bigeneric - m.r. and f. R. (influenced by the word “bird”), ivasi, tsetse – and. R.

The gender of nouns denoting geographical names is determined by the generic name, as well as the names of press organs: Capri attracted tourists(island). The Times wrote(newspaper).

4) Gender of compound words (abbreviations)

Compound abbreviations (abbreviations), formed by combining the initial letters of the words of the full name, determine their gender by the gender of the leading (core) word of the compound name: UN (United Nations)- and. R.; CSKA (Central Sports Club of the Army) – m.r.

Many abbreviations with a hard consonant, which, based on the leading word, are qualified as feminine and neuter nouns, in use acquire the masculine generic form: university, Ministry of Internal Affairs, TASS, DOSAAF, REGISTRY OFFICE and etc.

5) Names of persons by profession, position, academic or military rank

These names retain the masculine form even when they refer to a woman. (geologist, director, associate professor, general), since for a long time only men were the bearers of these professions and titles. To indicate gender in these cases, semantic agreement of the verb - predicate in the past tense is often used (Therapist Nikolaeva finished the appointment).

Parallel names are easily formed if a given specialty (profession, occupation) is equally associated with female and male labor (seller - saleswoman, orderly - nurse), and also if these names relate to the field of sports, art, or are associated with a relationship to a public organization (athlete - athlete, singer - singer, citizen - citizen, communist - communist).

Very often, feminine pair names are not neutral, but have a colloquial stylistic connotation. These are words in – sha, – iha. They have a distinctly disdainful connotation. (librarian, doctor). To officially designate the occupation and professions of women (for example, in a questionnaire), masculine nouns are preferable (graduate student, laboratory assistant).

Nevertheless, fluctuations in the forms of agreement have increased in the language, and in oral speech the following options have become possible: young physicist Yakovleva - young physicist Yakovleva; the first female cosmonaut Tereshkova - Soviet cosmonaut Tereshkova.

2. Nominative-accusative masculine plural

Fluctuations in the norm and cases of double choice are observed in the endings of the nominative-accusative case of the masculine plural. You can or can't say Officer A, engineer ra, turner, doctor, professor, doctor?

In modern Russian there is already a fairly large group of words in which the ending – ы/-и is replaced by the ending – а/-я: address - addresses, shore - shores, doctor - doctors, director - director A, boat - boat A, district - district A, order - order A, passport - passport A, professor - professor A, variety - variety A, gutter – gutter A, skull – skull A, watchman - watchman A, promissory note - promissory note me and others

On the other hand, the Russian literary language allows forms with the ending – ы/-и and with the ending – а/-я in words: inspectors - inspectors, mechanics - mechanics, anchors - anchors, searchlights - searchlights, cruisers - cruisers, camps - camps, vacations - vacations, sectors - sectors, editors - editors, outbuildings - outbuildings, carts - carts and etc.

It should be borne in mind that in book styles preference is given to the ending - ы, while in colloquial styles the ending - a is allowed.

The endings - ы, - and can act as a word-forming device - to distinguish between different words that have the same base: bread in the oven - bread from the fields, electrical wires - farewell to the army, color a (color) – color s (in the flowerbed), etc.

3. Genitive plural of nouns

There are certain difficulties associated with using genitive plural forms of nouns. TO

nouns that raise doubts when choosing endings in the genitive plural include nouns whose stem ends in – in: Georgian, Armenian, Vologda resident.

These nouns denote a person’s nationality, his connection with a certain territory, with a particular city. These words in the genitive plural have a zero ending: a Georgian entered - many Georgians came. In addition, in this form the stem suffix – in may be dropped: an Armenian knows Russian - no Armenians; the southerner spoke with an accent - there are many southerners in the city.

As a rule, neuter nouns also have a zero ending: substance - substances, place - places, matter - affairs, apple - apples, shoulder - shoulders. True, there are exceptions: shoulder - shoulders, bottom - bottoms, log - logs, point - glasses, clouds - clouds.

Those masculine nouns that are difficult to attribute to one classification or another also have a zero ending: one arshin - many arshins, one felt boot - many felt boots, one hussar - many hussars, dragoons, partisans, soldiers, times, shoulder straps, boots, stockings (socks).

In addition, you should remember the forms: one orange - many oranges, one eggplant - many eggplants, tangerines, tomatoes, hectares, grams, kilograms.

And: splashes - splashes, gills - gills, name day - name day, pasta - pasta, mansion - mansion, bloomers - bloomers, everyday life - everyday life, rake - rake, rake, harp - harp, manger - manger.

Standards for using numerals

1. To indicate quantity, they are mainly used quantitative numerals (for example, five rooms, ten little Indians etc.). In some cases, they are used to denote quantity along with cardinal numerals collective(two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine; the last two numerals are practically not used).

Collective numbers used:

a) with masculine and general nouns: two friends, three orphans;

b) with nouns that have only plural forms: two scissors, three days;

c) with nouns children, guys, people, face(meaning “person”): two children, three unknown faces;

d) with personal pronouns we, you, they: There are two of us, there are five of them;

e) with substantivized numerals and adjectives denoting persons: two military men entered; three patients.

In indirect cases with inanimate nouns, cardinal numerals are used: more than three days.

It is necessary to remember that collective numbers cannot be combined with nouns denoting female persons (you cannot say: three students, four friends). They also cannot be combined with masculine nouns denoting animals (you cannot say: three wolves).

2. When using a collective number both - both in combination with feminine nouns in indirect cases the forms are used both, both, both etc. These numerals are not used with nouns that do not have a singular form, since they do not have a gender category. You can't say: at both gates Can: at both gates.

3. B compound cardinal numbers all words forming them are declined, and nouns denoting countable objects agree with numerals in all cases except the nominative and accusative. For example: A series of manuals with three hundred and sixty-seven drawings. But: The manual contains three hundred and sixty-seven drawings.

4. With a mixed number, the noun is governed by a fraction and is used in the singular genitive case: five and three fifths meters, But: five meters; seven and two thirds kilograms, But: seven kilograms.

Standards for using adjectives

1. Full and short forms of adjectives. The short forms are predominantly bookish: The lecture is interesting and instructive. Full forms of adjectives are usually used in colloquial speech: The lecture is interesting and instructive. With the full form of the adjective used in the nominative case in the role compound predicate, as a rule, cannot be controlled words, but in a short form they can. For example: he was sick with a sore throat; he is capable of music(but one cannot say - he was sick with a sore throat, he was capable of music).

The full form of the adjective indicates a permanent attribute, the short form indicates a temporary one: beautiful girl(at all), the girl is beautiful(At the moment).

2. When forming short forms of adjectives ending in - (natural, artificial, solemn) fluctuations are observed: natural - natural, artificial - artificial, solemn - solemn. Currently, both options are possible both in written and oral speech, but the truncated form (in - en) is more common.

3. When forming analytical (compound) forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives, the following forms are errors: better, worse, less beautiful, less smart etc., since the second word itself already expresses the meaning of a superlative or comparative degree.

4. The following synthetic forms of the comparative degree of adjectives are accepted in the literary language: closer, bolder, higher, more flexible, deeper, duller, more expensive, hotter, louder, shorter, stronger, lighter, smaller, softer, lower, rarer, sharper, sweeter, stricter, narrower, quieter, tighter, biting, brighter(but not more lively, louder, more dexterous, sweeter, sharper).

5. Not used as homogeneous members sentences are the full and short forms of the adjective. You can't say: The house is stone and very durable. Need to: The house is stone and very durable.

Norms for the use of some proper names

1. Surnames do not decline to - ago, - yago, - yh, - their, - ovo, - ko (-enko). For example: Zhivago, Sedykh, Dolgikh, Durnovo, Franco.

2. As a rule, non-Russian surnames ending in unstressed – a, – z are declined. For example: the works of Pablo Neruda, the songs of Bulat Okudzhava, the films of Akira Kurosawa.

1. Use of nouns.

2. Use of adjectives.

3. Use of numerals.

4. Use of pronouns.

5. Use of verbs.

Morphology, like vocabulary, studies the word, but the word as a part of speech. Therefore, the main attention is paid to the structure of the word and its various forms.

1. USAGE OF NOUNS

Below are the main types of difficulties that arise when using nouns in speech.

1. use of gender forms

Difficulties arise when determining the genus borrowed nouns, especially unyielding. For example, piano, surname, sconce, potato, coffee, rail, moth, tulle, corn, roofing felt, cafe, shoe, cockatoo, chimpanzee, coat, highway, metro, report card, depot, compartment, jam, bureau, bet, jury, etc. P.

The gender of indeclinable nouns can only be determined in combination with their definitions, since these definitions agree with the nouns in gender: beautiful tulle, cozy coupe, highway, etc.

In Russian there are words of the so-called general kind, there are about 200 of them: smart guy, smart guy, sneaky guy, slob, dirty guy, sweet tooth, orphan, protégé, counterpart... They can be used both in the meaning of feminine ( orphan), and in the masculine meaning ( orphan).

There is a rule according to which the gender of nouns formed with subjective evaluation suffix, coincides with the gender of the generating words. For example, nouns house, house, domina belong to the masculine gender.

Things are even more complicated with names of persons by profession, position held. For example, how to correctly say about a woman:

The chief accountant came to work.

Many names of persons by profession, position, work performed form pairs of male and female kind: orderly - nurse, tractor driver - tractor driver, translator - translator.

But it should be remembered that in formal business speech And book styles words are used to denote professions male kind: engineer, director.

IN colloquial speech The feminine form is also used: director, engineer, doctor, - since in colloquial speech we primarily mean a specific person, often not only his occupation, but also his gender. However, such forms give the speech a reduced and somewhat familiar, dismissive character. And often such forms as general's wife, director's wife,ambiguous: firstly, this is the face; secondly, the wife of a person of this profession.

There are many names for persons in the masculine gender, which no feminine matches: president, diplomat, ambassador, candidate of sciences...

Some nouns have a feminine gender there are no matches in the masculine gender: ballerina (ballet soloist, ballet dancer), typist (typewriter), manicurist, pedicurist (manicurist or pedicurist).

2) use of number forms

Errors occur when using nouns that have only the singular form in the plural form and vice versa.

Finally on stage everyone's favorite singer came out (necessary:on the stage).

In the Russian literary language the following forms of nouns are used: genitive plural(some without endings, others with endings):

Nouns male kind: a pair of boots, felt boots, shoulder straps, boots, stockings ( BUT: oranges, hectares, tangerines, tomatoes, rails, tomatoes); among Armenians, Georgians, Ossetians, Bashkirs, Buryats, Romanians, Tatars, Turkmens, Turks, Gypsies ( BUT: Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Mongols, Tajiks, Tungus, Uzbeks, Yakuts);

Nouns female kind: no barges, waffles, shafts, poker, stakes, candles ( BUT: it is not worth it);

Nouns average kind: there are no upper reaches, lower reaches, knees, apples, points, swamps, saucers, mirrors, towels.

In Russian words weekdays, rake, frost, twilight, manger and others do not have singular forms.

3) use of case forms

In many cases, nouns have variant endings. The choice of one of these options determines whether there will be a speech error or not.

1. For masculine singular nouns, genitive and prepositional cases are possible variant endings: a glass of tea - a glass of tea, a lot of people - a lot of people, leave the house - leave the house, be on vacation - be on vacation. The second option has more colloquial character.

2. Some nouns have variants accusative and genitive case, which differ in meaning: Buy bread (gender case) - a little bread, a certain amount; partial coverage of the object. Buy bread (vin case) - full coverage of the object.

3. Some nouns masculine in nominative In the plural case, depending on the style of speech, they have endings –И(-И) or –А(-Я): director, cook ( BUT: engineers, doctors). Many nouns have variant norms: pennant (pennants, pennants), spotlight, tenor, tractor, paramedic. Sometimes endings indicate semantic differences: omissions (oversights) – passes (documents).

4. Foreign surnames on -OV and -IN have in creative case ending -OM, in contrast to Russian surnames that have the ending -YM: I am familiar with Vlasov, but: I am familiar with Darwin, Chaplin.

If you have any doubts about the use of a particular form of a noun, you need to consult a dictionary!

2. USE OF ADJECTIVES

1. Short and full forms of adjectives and degrees of comparison adjectives when used in text can lead to speech errors. For example: The girl was tall, beautiful and cheerful (Need: The girl was tall, beautiful and cheerful); My brother is older than me and he studies well (Need: My brother is older than me and he studies better.) As homogeneous members of a sentence, you cannot use full and short forms of adjectives, as well as simple and complex shapes degrees of comparison: He more capable And cleverer me (Need: He is more capable and smarter than me).

2. Full and short forms of adjectives as a predicate function may differ both stylistically and in meaning:

Short forms are predominantly book stylistic coloring: The lecture is interesting and instructive.

Short adjectives sound more categorical in the text and usually express an active and specific attribute: My thoughts are clear, the girl is beautiful.

Full forms of adjectives are usually used in colloquial speeches: The lecture is interesting and instructive.

The full form indicates constant sign, short - on temporary: the girl is beautiful (in general), the girl is beautiful (at the moment).

Full and short forms of an adjective can be differ in meaning: the boy is deaf - the boy is deaf (to requests).

1. During education short forms adjectives with unstressed - established (natural, solemn) fluctuations are observed.

Artificial – artificial, artificial.

Solemn - solemn, solemn.

Currently, these options are equal; they are entrenched in all styles. But the most common is the truncated form (in - en).

2. In the full form of the adjective, used in the nominative case as a compound predicate, as a rule, there cannot be controlled words, and in the short form, they can (wrong: He is sick with a sore throat; correct: He is sick with a sore throat).

3. Forms are not used better, worse etc., since the second word itself already expresses the meaning of the comparative degree.

3. USE OF NUMERAL NAMES.

When using numerals, the following cases present the greatest difficulty:

3. Errors often appear when using the numerals BOTH, BOTH. Both the girl needs to retake the exams (need: Both girls...)

4. Collective numbers two, three, five etc. are used only:

With animate masculine nouns ( three students; wrong: three students);

With nouns children, guys, people, as well as with the names of baby animals (three children, two kittens);

With nouns used only in the plural (two tongs, three sleds) or denoting paired objects ;

With personal pronouns we you they(there were three of us).

2. Colloquial style sometimes allows " indeclination» complex and compound cardinal numbers. But in book styles these words should incline. For example: About six hundred people became interested in this question (wrong: about six hundred people).

At declination composite quantitative numerals all the words included in their composition change; when declension of compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:

R. p. – two thousand nine hundred fifty six (quantitative);

R. p. – two thousand nine hundred and fifty-six (ordinal).

4. USING PRONOUNS

3. Speech errors may be associated with the formation of non-normative pronouns: Their school won the competition (credit: their school)

4. A fairly common mistake is the unsuccessful choice of one of the synonymous possessive pronouns(mine is yours, yours is yours): Does what you do help you? (need: yourself).

5. The accumulation of pronouns sometimes creates ambiguity in the text: It was hard for him when he entered into a fight with him (need: It was hard for Peter when he entered into a fight with Ivan).

6. Personal pronouns in oral speech often duplicate the subject : This student, she always attended classes (need: This student always attended classes).

7. A pronoun usually replaces the nearest noun, so you need to be careful not to make this mistake: Vitya and Sasha started a conversation, and he promised to come again (the conversation cannot come, so you need to say: Vitya and Sasha talked, and Sasha promised to come again).

8. Collective nouns such as students, poor, people cannot be replaced by a pronoun They.

1. USING VERBS

Verb forms, like forms of other parts of speech, can be represented by variants that differ in both stylistic coloring and meaning.

For example, saw And saw - the first option is commonly used, and the second is colloquial. In a certain functional style, variants of the imperative mood of verbs are also used:

notify, cork - conversational version,

notify, cork - book version.

But variations of the imperative mood can also be equivalent: throw it out - throw it out, put it out - put it out.

In the form of stylistic options, verb forms can also be presented in the present tense. rinse, splash, sway, sway, scour, wave, whip, pinch, sprinkle, etc.:

a) with alternation of consonants in the root ( rinse, splash, wave) - stylistically neutral option;

b) without alternating consonants (rinse, splash, wave) - conversational option.

Difficulties arise when forming past tense forms: dry or dry, wet or wet?

The norm is the loss of the suffix -well- in all past tense forms containing prefixes: get wet - wet, soaked; plunge - plunge. BUT : wet, wet.

Morphological norms are the rules according to which the formation of grammatical forms of words of various parts of speech (forms of number, gender, short forms, degrees of comparison of adjectives and others) occurs.

When morphological norms are violated, speech errors occur that are associated with the use of different parts of speech. The occurrence of errors is primarily due to “variability of norms in the field of morphology.”

Morphology (as well as the area of pronunciation and syntax) contains weak and strong norms. Strong morphological norms are observed by everyone for whom Russian is their native language. Weak norms are often distorted, difficult to assimilate, and easy to influence from outside. Their presence depends on many reasons, in particular, on the peculiarities of the development of the grammatical and phonetic systems of the Russian language.

A typical violation of morphological norms consists of using a word in an inappropriate or non-existent form. For example: imported shampoo, railway rail, patent leather shoes, registered parcel post, lobster - lobster, mongoose - mongoose, sprat - sprat. Many difficulties and fluctuations in terms of morphology arise in the formation and use of various grammatical forms and categories of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs and verbal forms.

The morphological norms that apply to nouns are as follows.

1. The gender of words that were formed by composing the first letters is determined by the main word. For example, if in the abbreviation CIS the main word is “commonwealth” of the neuter gender, then all of it will be used in the neuter gender: the CIS arose.

2. Indeclinable nouns, which denote a traditionally male position, profession, are used in the masculine gender. The gender of geographical names that are not declined is determined by the generic word. For example, Ontario is neuter, since the generic word is “lake.”

3. Nouns denoting a homogeneous mass of something, a substance, are used in only one number: either singular (milk, cement, clay, iron) or plural (sawdust, canned food). However, if they are included in the text with a special meaning, then the form of the number can take on the opposite form.

4. Nouns in the 2nd declension of the instrumental case singular can have variant endings: oh, her or oh, her. The last form is typical for poetic works.

Adjectives have the following morphological norms of the modern Russian language.

1. Book speech The short form in –enen is more appropriate than in –en (immoral and immoral), although both are literary.

2. Qualitative adjectives have two comparative forms: na –ee and na –ey, the latter is characteristic of colloquial speech. For example, more active and active.

3. Possessive adjectives with –in and –ov are characteristic only for colloquial speech: fathers, mothers. In other styles, it is customary to use the genitive case: mother’s scarf, father’s request. Exceptions are nouns that are part of a stable circulation. For example, Solomon's solution, Archimedes' lever.

Morphological norms for numerals are as follows.

1. The stem ends in o- in the numeral “both” (neuter and masculine) – “both”, and in e- - in the numeral “both” (feminine).

2. For those cardinal numbers that are formed from many words, each word is declined. When combined with the word one, the word "thousand" has the form "thousand" in the instrumental case, rather than the erroneous "thousand". In oral speech, only the beginning and end of compound numerals can be declined.

Morphological norms for pronouns.

1. The words “any”, “every” and “any” cannot be used interchangeably. They are only close in meaning, not equivalent.

2. Third person personal pronouns acquire the letter “n” at the beginning if they are preceded by a preposition. For example, in them, on him.

3. The pronouns “such” and “such” have shades of meaning. The latter is used as reinforcement. But the pronoun “such” acts as a predicate in a sentence and is more often used in stable phrases: and was such.

4. The pronouns "Your" and "You" are capitalized when used as polite address to one person.

Morphological norms of the Russian literary language. Morphological norms Lexical and morphological norms of the Russian language

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Rules for the use of nouns

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3. Genitive plural of nouns

Standards for using numerals

Standards for using adjectives

Norms for the use of some proper names