General information:

The need to conduct censuses of the tax-paying population and audits arose in connection with the introduction of a new form of tax - the per capita tax, which required, in contrast to household taxation, the accounting of every soul subject to tax. The revision soul - a unit of registration of the population subject to capitation tax, existed in Russia from 1718 to 1887. The concept of the revision soul included everything working population, subject to taxes: men aged 16 to 60 years, women from 18 - 19 years to 55 years. For this purpose, in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries. Permanent or temporary commissions were created to conduct an audit, a census of the population subject to capitation tax and conscription, to compile audit tales, lists of persons subject to capitation and conscription. Persons belonging to the tax-paying classes were included in the revision tales: peasants, including appanage and state ones, townspeople, single-lords, bobyli, coachmen, working people, wandering clergy, free “walking” people and others. The lists did not include nobles, clergy, and officials, as classes not subject to taxes. Revision tales represented the primary material of the capitation census. They were then summarized in the form of district, provincial and all-Russian results, called salary books, lists containing information about the size of the tax-paying population, its geographical location, composition by age, gender, nationality, social and marital status.

A total of 10 audits were carried out, systematically clarifying the number of audit souls:

1st revision was carried out in 1718-1719. under Peter the Great, according to the Decree of November 26, 1718. Special scribes were appointed to carry out the audit, who were under the direct supervision of the regimental and zemstvo commissars. The audit was carried out under the leadership of the military and audit board. During the audit, which was largely completed by 1724, 5.4 million male “souls” were taken into account. The capitation census assigned the “walking people” to the landowners on whose lands it found them, which increased the number of serfs.

2nd revision- in 1743-1747 (the supply of additional tales continued until 1756). The instructions that supplemented the rules established that audits should be carried out every 15 years.

3rd- in 1761-1767 and differed from the first two in that it was carried out without sending officers; the presentation of fairy tales was concentrated in the provincial, provincial and voivodeship offices.

4th- in 1781-1787 was carried out under the supervision of the Senate, the reception of fairy tales was entrusted to the mayors, lower zemstvo courts and state chambers.

5th- in 1794-1808 was carried out on the basis of the rules of the 4th revision.

6th scheduled for May 1811, but interrupted due to the threat of war with France.

7th- was carried out in 1815-1825.

During the production of the 6th and 7th revisions, there were so-called revision commissions consisting of the district leader of the nobility and officials who checked fairy tales at village gatherings.

8th- was in 1833-1835 according to the Manifesto “On the conduct of a new national census throughout the Empire” dated June 16, 1833. The Charter of 1833 lists more precisely those persons who are not subject to the census and in 11 chapters systematically sets out the rules for its production and checking the collected material. The system of revision tales is contained entirely both in this charter and in this charter on the 10th revision. Information was entered into the revision tales in the order of family numbers, for this and for the previous revision. On one side of a sheet of paper, a name list of male persons in each family was entered with a note on age and an indication of how many such persons were in the family during the previous audit; how many people have dropped out, how many are present. On the other side of the sheet, female faces were written with a note about their age. Participants in the collection of data from the latest audits were landowners, special audit commissions and state chambers. The final verification of the tales was carried out by officials specially sent to the districts, whose duties included not only reviewing registry books, but also searching for all “hidden and capitalized ones.”

9th was appointed in 1850.

10th- the last revision was carried out in 1857-1859. according to the “Charter on the production of the 10th national census” of June 3, 1857. According to this audit, 11,244,913 male souls were taken into account, and a total of 2,3,069,621 serfs, which amounted to 34.39% in relation to total number residents Russian Empire as of January 1, 1859
One copy of the “revision tales” was transferred to the county treasury, with a request to notify the county marshal of the nobility and the Pskov Treasury Chamber about this. Another copy was transferred directly to the Pskov Treasury Chamber.

A total of 10 revisions were made. They were compiled for peasants and townspeople for the purpose of collecting taxes.
Of these, 3 (these are 1719, 1743, 1811) included only men.

Revision tales (1850) villages and villages Velikoluksky district:

GAPO, f.58, op.1, d.1656 - exclusively rural secular societies.

GAPO, f.58, op.1, d.1659 - Landowner peasants. The case begins with the villages of Alexander Arsenievich Zherebtsov, ends with the announcement of Varvara Alekseevna Lavrova. Advertisement in house 1659, a
GAPO, f.58, op.1, d.1660 - the audits themselves by V.A. Lavrova are already here. And to the villages of A.S. Obolyaninov.
GAPO, f.58, op.1, d.1658 - from the possessions of Dmitry Aleksandrovich Tulubiev to captain Maria Yanovskaya. Plus at the end there is also an audit of the street people living in Velikiye Luki.

Data from 4th and 5th revisions Opochetsky district are available at GAPO.
Landowners with a surname starting with the letter “S” are in file 931 (RS about the peasants of Opochetsky district, 1782)
and in case 1026 (RS about peasants of different estates of the district, 1795) - all this is in fund 58, inventory 1.

By Porkhov district see also
fund 166 "Porkhov district temporary audit commission of the 8th people's census" (inventory 1)
and fund 534 “Porkhov district temporary audit commission of the 10th people’s census” (inventory 1).

Sebezh district:

There are revision tales of the Mogilno estate for 1834, 1851, 1858, stored in the Pskov archive.

F.641, Op.1, D.7. Revision tales of landowners' peasants with surnames starting with the letters "N-P" p. Elders, Guskino, Zamoshitsy, Anutovo, Radun, Polozovo, them. Mogilno, village Dimokhovo, Morochevka, Tolkachevo, Bolbuki, Malye Gvozdy, Malakhi, Yakovlevo, Rubezhnikovo, Kharino, Vidok, Orekhovo, village. Lavrovo, Karasna, Cherepovo village, Valkovo village. Matysovo, s. Kamenka, village Dolgiye Niva, village Ryabikovo, village. Yassy, ​​Simakovo village, Ulazni, Uspensk, Sebezh district (1851)

The villages of the estate are not listed in these files; you need to check in the archives:
F.641, Op.1, D.5. Revision tales of landowners' peasants with surnames starting with the letters "B-3" named after. Karesilok, Zenkovo ​​village, s. Gorovatki, im. Aninsk, Tanaevo village, named after. Rudnya, Komarovo, Odmyany, Zalosemye, Mogilno (1834)

F.641, Op.1, D.12 (1851-53)

F.641, Op.1, D.13 (1858)

Other:

Fond 23, inventory 1, files 129-260 - sheets general census for 1895 in volosts and villages, rural communities.

Fond 116, inventory 1, files 52-103 - sheets census (household cards) Pskov and adjacent settlements by the names of homeowners.

The general population census, begun in 1718 at the behest of Peter, dragged on for a long time - the landowners hid the exact number of their peasants; in 1721 they hid one million male souls (only men were counted, since they were going to take taxes from them). After all the delays and checks, in the spring of 1724 it became known that out of more than fifteen million inhabitants of Russia, the taxable population (that is, without the nobility and clergy who did not pay taxes) amounted to five million five hundred seventy thousand male souls (without Ukraine, Estland, Livonia and peoples of the Volga region and Siberia not subject to poll tax). Of these, five million four hundred thousand male souls live in rural areas; The serfs number three million one hundred seventy-six thousand souls. The enslaved state of the majority of the Russian peasantry is a widely known fact, as is the fact that they were mercilessly exploited by the nobles. It was common for a serf to work for his owner for three or more days a week. Andrei Vinius, one of the educated foreigners and associates of Peter at the end of the 17th century, forced peasants to work in corvee four days a week. Among Russian landowners, according to I.T. Pososhkov, an economist of the time of Peter, the author of “The Book of Poverty and Wealth,” “there are such inhuman nobles that during working hours they do not give their peasants a single day. Therefore, you work for the master, but your own field stands unmown and unharvested. How will you feed and drink your wife and children later? The master doesn’t care.”

Peter tried to prevent such an attitude towards the peasants, which was ruinous, he understood this very well, not only for the treasury, but also for the landowner himself: there would be nothing to take from the impoverished plowman. The instruction sent to the localities in 1719 obliges the governor to protect the peasants from “dissolute landowners-ruiners.” But this is one side of the problem. Another, more significant, was that the measures of Peter, the authorities, the feudal lords to extort countless taxes and duties from the peasants: recruitment, underwater, billeting, construction, forest cutting, work in factories, etc., etc., all that was bending the peasant to the land, ruined him, led him to mass mortality, death in campaigns, escapes - all this undermined the peasant economy and slowed down the progress of agriculture.

The per capita tax, introduced simultaneously with the population census, had one important and beneficial consequence: if earlier, under the land (pososhnoi) and household (also, in fact, land) taxation systems, the peasant tried to plow less land, now, when collecting taxes from soul, which was not related to the amount of land belonging to it, he plows it as much as possible. Thus, in the 18th century, under Peter and later, a large number of new lands were introduced into economic circulation.

The capitation census was another and even more powerful means of simplifying the social composition. Its production itself is quite characteristic, brightly illuminating the methods and means of the converter. When, with the conquest of Livonia, Estland and Finland, the tension of the Northern War began to weaken, Peter had to think about putting the regular army he created on a peaceful footing. Even after the end of the war, this army had to be kept under arms, in permanent quarters and in government pay, without being sent home, and it was not easy to figure out where to go with it. Peter drew up a sophisticated plan for the quartering and maintenance of his regiments. In 1718, when peace negotiations with Sweden were underway at the Åland Congress, he gave a decree on November 26, stated, according to his habit, in the first words that came to his mind. The first two paragraphs of the decree, with the usual hasty and careless laconicism of Peter’s legislative language, read: “Take fairy tales from everyone, give them a year’s time, so that the truthful ones bring how many male souls there are in each village, declaring to them that whoever hides something, then it will be given to the one who announces it; write down how many souls a private soldier will cost with a share of the company and regimental headquarters for him, putting the average salary." Further, the decree, equally unclear, prescribed the procedure for its execution, threatening the executors with confiscations, cruel sovereign wrath and ruin, even the death penalty, the usual embellishments of Peter’s legislation. This decree gave hectic work to provincial and rural administrations, as well as to landowners. A one-year deadline was set for submitting tales about souls; but until the end of 1719, fairy tales arrived from only a few places, and then most of them were incorrect. Then the Senate sent guards soldiers to the provinces with instructions to chain the officials who collected the fairy tales and the governors themselves in irons and keep them in chains, not releasing them anywhere until they sent all the fairy tales and the statements compiled from them to the office established for the census in St. Petersburg. Strictness did little to help matters: the presentation of fairy tales was still continuing in 1721. The slowdown was primarily due to the difficulty of understanding the confusing decree, which required a number of explanations and additions. At first it was understood to mean that it concerned only the owning peasants; but then it was ordered that the servants who lived in the villages should be included in the fairy tales, and they demanded additional fairy tales. Another obstacle appeared: sensing that things were leading to a new heavy tax, the owners or their clerks wrote their hearts out, “with great secrecy.” By the beginning of 1721, more than 20 thousand hidden souls had been revealed. Voivodes and governors were ordered to conduct personal visits to the localities to check the submitted tales. The Holy Synod called for assistance in this verification, audits, the parish clergy, promising him, for covering up the secret, deprivation of his place, rank, property, “and, due to merciless punishment on the body, hard labor, even if someone was in considerable old age.” Finally, with the help of the strictest decrees, torture, and confiscations, which lubricated the rusty wheels of the government machine, by the beginning of 1722, according to fairy tales, 5 million souls were counted. Then they began to implement the 2nd paragraph of the decree of November 26, “to lay out the troops on the ground,” to schedule the regiments per soul, which were supposed to support them. 10 generals and colonels with a brigadier were sent as dispatchers to 10 rewritten provinces. The shelves were supposed to be placed in “eternal apartments” by company, in special settlements, without placing them in peasant households, to prevent quarrels between owners and guests. The planner had to convene the nobles of his district and persuade them to build these settlements with company yards for officers and regimental yards for headquarters. A new problem: the book spreaders were ordered to check the shower fairy tales in advance. This was a secondary revision of fairy tales, and it revealed a huge secret of souls, reaching in some places up to half of the available souls. The initially calculated fabulous figure of 5 million became impossible to guide when deploying regiments on a heart-to-heart basis. Peter and the Senate turned to landowners, clerks and elders with threats and caresses, set deadlines for correcting the tales, and all these deadlines were missed. Moreover, the auditors themselves, due to unclear instructions or inability to understand them, got confused in sorting souls. They were perplexed about who to write in the per capita salary and who not to write, and bothered the government with requests, and they did not have accurate information about the available composition of the army, and only in 1723 did they think of collecting information about this. However, the auditors were ordered to “completely” finish their work and return to the capital by the beginning of 1724, when Peter ordered the start of the poll collection. None of them returned on time, and all notified the Senate in advance that the matter would not be completed by January 1724; they were extended until March, and the correct poll tax was postponed until 1725. The reformer did not wait six years for the end of the work he had undertaken: the auditors did not return even by January 28, 1725, when he closed his eyes.

✪ Klim Zhukov about the birth of the revolution: failed bourgeois revolution

✪ Natalya Pokrovskaya about taxes and personal income tax

Subtitles

I strongly welcome you! Klim Sanych, good afternoon. Good afternoon. Hi all. Shall we continue about the revolution? Yes sir. The birth of a revolution: two in one. This is what I will call our conversation today: two in one. So. Today I want to trace how, instead of making one revolution, spread out over time, of course, we tried to make two of them in the end. Again, we didn’t try, it was an objective process, but it turned out funny, now we’ll get to that. We need to start from the very beginning. As a matter of fact, now we move on to specifics. Now we have talked about the philosophical foundations of the existence of revolution in general, specifically in Russia, about the principles of external influence, that this is not only when they bring cookies and they try to foist bribes on Lenin, either German or English, there are also some other principles of external influence , much more important. And now we need to get down to specifics, as I promised. Today, I think, we will reach Peter I this way. From whom? From the moment of the formation and beginning of the formation of the Moscow kingdom, when it began in our country. Firstly, by that time, the current state of the classes, i.e., first of all, the peasantry and nobility, and, of course, the highest aristocracy. When they originated, took shape, developed, and became what they came to be at the beginning of the 18th century. And about related important things, respectively. We already talked about this in detail once, so I won’t go into detail about the classical Middle Ages now, I’ll just remind you of some milestones. And the milestones are as follows: in the 13th century, as you remember, the Mongols arrived and disrupted the natural course of the historical process in Russia. Now I won’t say whether this is good or bad, I’ll just say it factually. The presence of such a monstrously powerful force on your border cannot but change a certain historical gravity in the region, drawing away some of the resources, attention... Money. Money, of course, military efforts, etc. Those. yes, the Mongols - they became the decisive force in Eastern Europe for a long time. If we talk about Rus', then for about 250 years. And the Mongols were able to destroy the most important thing - the stable economic balance that had developed for us after the destruction of the decisive force, the decisive unifying core, which was the Dnieper route from the Varangians to the Greeks, which for us lived for a long time at the end of the 11th century after our friends -Crusaders from Europe colonized the southern and eastern Mediterranean, thus making unnecessary the long roundabout transit route through Rus' for goods, respectively, from the Baltic to the Southeast and vice versa. They now had direct ports right in the Mediterranean Sea. And they could easily travel from Italy, from Spain, from France to wherever they needed to go. If you want - to one place, if you want - to another place. And most importantly - very quickly, because the Mediterranean Sea is not very large, it is much more convenient than dragging goods around. It is among the lands. It’s in the middle of the earth, right there is the crossroads of all worlds, it’s very convenient. Although, of course, goods still moved along the Dnieper route, they never stopped moving. It just turned from such a geostrategic path, in general, into a rather local one. It stopped connecting our entire large country from Tmutarakan to Novgorod simply because the flow of goods dropped many times, and the surplus product that could be milked from this trade and additional money decreased so much that the overall economic economy collapsed. Following this, the whole country fell apart, Kievan Rus so-called, for many, many appanage principalities, which began to pull the blanket on themselves, and first of all, naturally, due to the fact that the amount of resources decreased, there was not enough for everyone, it was necessary to defend, first of all, their interests . A period of feudal fragmentation began, which, in general, it would be quite correct to call early feudal fragmentation, because at that time the basis of the economic economy was the unconditional holding of land. Let me remind you that the Middle Ages were a time when the main economy was agriculture, i.e. Everything rests on it, this is the production of food, because it is not difficult to guess that food is one of the main human needs. And as soon as it is satisfied, something else can be developed from above. Well, also, what is directly related to the production of food also develops one way or another. Therefore, agriculture and agriculture were the main thing that existed in the Middle Ages. Moreover, in our country, which was extremely sensitive to changes in the agricultural and cultural regime. So, appanage principalities were based on allodal, unconditional land ownership, i.e. princes and boyars - the highest aristocracy of their time, owned the land not because someone gave it to this prince or boyar in exchange for service, as payment for service, but because it was his patrimony, i.e. his inheritance, he owns it by ancestral right. The patrimony is, many people don’t know, this is the patrimony. Fatherland, i.e. from father. Allod itself is a very internally stable system, because even if all trade around you is shut down, and tripods with aliens run through the forests, if these tripods don’t come to you personally, you, in your allod, will most likely survive everything, because you have peasants - this is, of course, a large allod, I mean a good, stable boyar economy, for example, there, or a princely economy. Your peasants plant food, of which they are obliged to give part of it to you, collect eggs from chickens, milk cows for milk, mow grass, spin flax, comb wool, from all this they weave fabric, from which they then sew clothes for you. So the question is, what if you need to build and repair something? Well, no problem, they will build it and repair it. Why do you need someone? Nobody. In general, no one is needed. Only if I meet someone there, meet friends, have a drink, have fun, I don’t know. And this is how you can live. And this management system could exist for a very long time, because in Rus' there was no decisive force that could quickly break these allodal economies and draw the main resource onto itself. Kyiv used to be such a force, because Kyiv, as an approximate geometric center ancient Rus' , located, among other things, on the main transport artery on the Dnieper, collected, first of all, income from the great route from the Varangians to the Greeks. Thus, there simply were a lot of resources and funds with which it was possible to simply hire more military personnel than the peripheral princes. And force them to be together somehow. After the collapse of the main part of the trade flow along the Dnieper route, there was no longer such a force in Rus', everyone was approximately equal, some were stronger, some were weaker, somewhere suddenly there was a luckier, smarter prince, such as, for example, a very perspicacious man Andrei Bogolyubsky in the 12th century in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, we talked about this once, we recorded 2 whole videos about the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Well, here's a typical result. He, due to the fact that he was a man of rare talents, rare experience, and the commander of one of the richest principalities, this is very important, and most importantly - a single principality, which was young and had not yet had time to fall apart into appanages. He subjugated a significant part of Rus', but because... it was directly against economic interests directly on the ground, objective economic interests, it all ended with the fact that he ceased to be relevant even in his principality, which he raised to great heights, he was quickly killed there. Actually, his closest friends and henchmen. And this system, I repeat, was extremely stable. Firstly, why I already said it, because this is in its purest form a subsistence economy, which, on top of everything else, no one can move from its place, because everyone around is approximately the same. And the third is the structure of the local agricultural draft population, the demographic structure, when all the people live along the rivers, because it is very convenient - along the river you can transport goods of any kind back and forth on a boat, this constant irrigation of your farmland is natural, because in the spring it spills, carries silt onto the banks, and this is a very good fertilizer. Plus, you don’t have to go far to get irrigation power. Here you have a walkway, 2 buckets, a rocker, that’s all your irrigation power, it’s very convenient. But along the rivers, we can now imagine what the banks of a river look like, like the Oka River, for example. Flood meadows, this is waist-deep grass, cows, horses graze there... Fat herds. Fat herds, yes, and you can actually go out to the river bank and just see some more or less free space from horizon to horizon. But this is probably 75-80 percent the result of many years, many decades of agricultural landscapes, as a rule, mainly either of the 19th century, or, to an even greater extent, the legacy of the damned Bolsheviks. Because for this coastal flood meadow to exist, firstly, it is necessary to deforest a very large part of the river, pull out bushes, uproot everything, sow it with grass and continuously graze cattle there, thus preventing it from becoming overgrown again with weedy vegetation such as bushes , trees, etc. Then he will exist. But in the Middle Ages, a water meadow could only be natural, and natural ones, in general, are not often found, yes. They don't meet often. And since there are few water meadows, it means that there are few places to graze on a permanent basis, on good grass, because a water meadow is always very high-calorie, good grass, where it is easy for cattle to graze. Those. horses, which are the main draft force, on which everything is plowed, and cows, which give, firstly, A - milk, B - shit, which can be used to fertilize everything. We simply had nowhere to graze them all the time, and besides, the most important thing is that such meadows provide a huge opportunity for making hay. Hay is what all these beautiful animals will eat in the winter. And in our country, grazing stops in the main part of northern Rus', northeast, northwest, about 4.5 months after it began. Those. For 7.5 months, or even 8 months, you will have to keep the cattle in a stall and feed it. This is how much you need to stock up on. Yes. Those. It was simple moments like these that dictated that - that your usable land would quickly run out and everything would be populated. Well, again, it will still remain somewhere, but here it will either need to be cleared purposefully, or so that you suddenly end up with this land near some new urban center. For example, they founded the city of Moscow, where it had not existed before. More precisely, first the village was organized, the village of Moscow by the Kuchkov boyars. It is clear that if there is now a city, some builders will definitely come there, who will need to be fed, some carts will go there, which will need to be guarded, dragged over snags - which means roads will need to be built. And there, yes, there will still be people settling there next to, for example, some Moscow River. Well, you need to build a new city, and this is not always possible. That is, thus, the demographic structure of the draft population is also very stable, because people settled along the river and will not move anywhere from it. And it is clear that if, in a broad sense, the population in this place does not grow, if it grows, it will leave, for example, from Vladimir to Moscow, because there is no place for them anymore. Your surplus product that occurs with this particular territory will be equal to a constant, 100%, and there will be no increase in the broad sense. And an increase can, excuse me, be a decrease, because the balance of vibrations of the biosystem does not depend on you at all. Today it was cold here, little bread was born, tomorrow it will be warm, a lot of bread is born, you can’t influence it in any way. And thus wealth, i.e. what can be spent on the development of some of your principality or boyar fiefdom, or, God forbid, a grand duchy, beyond the vital level, is very small wealth. And therefore, the complexity of the system has an upper limit, so we cannot spend more than a certain amount of resources on our principality, and it will never grow. Again, within significant limits. And the Mongols shook this stable balance, because, firstly, they dealt a monstrous blow to the urban economy - the cities were partially burned, the trade network that somehow connected the Russian principalities with each other was partially destroyed. They drove away a mass of the tax-paying population or simply killed them, poisoning crops and meadows. And people, especially from southern Rus', were forced to flee the territory in which they lived. They fled, as usual, to the north, because the forests were much less accessible to the Tatar cavalry than the defenseless southern steppes and forest-steppes. And in the forests it suddenly turned out to us that wherever you climb, everything is occupied, there is no place for you on the rivers. I had to go and beat up the princes and boyars so that they would help, especially since you are a refugee, no matter how you settle on your own, you will not settle in any way, only with the help of strong people in the area, who, firstly, will give you equipment to get hold of, and secondly, those around you will be asked not to kill you in the near future, because now they are your friends. Those. it was necessary to go under the roof. And since there was nowhere to house them, and also to the local population There was nowhere to go after the total devastation, people fled from the rivers to the watersheds, i.e. to the hills between the rivers, where suddenly there was a mass of undeveloped land, just a mass. Moreover, they ran there strongly before, but in fragments, because for a person who has lived 10 generations along the river to run to the watershed, something extraordinary must happen. He himself will never budge. He needs to be forced. Of course, such megabonuses come from the river, but here you go, let’s get away from it ourselves. From which one? It’s like the Greeks near the sea, they didn’t go far to fight, why? Let's go away. Yes. This is the counter-offer I will have. Well, so what, and the excess population from the rivers gradually, by historical standards, just the opposite, not gradually, but very quickly, crawled to the watersheds, where there was a mass of unused land, and it turned out that there are territories where soddy-podzolic soils are very fertile. And first of all, of course, this turned out to be, in addition to the already developed Suzdal Opolye, which was heavily plundered by the Tatars and summed up, i.e. for the census of the population, from which tribute was constantly collected, i.e. intra-horde exit. Such a place, very fertile, turned out to be the Klinsko-Dimitrovskaya ridge, on which Moscow, Tver, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, in the end, are located. But Pereslavl, however, is a little further, but in general it found itself in the same conditions. These turned out to be locomotives for the development of the entire Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. Then, in the end, the 2 main locomotives - Tver and Moscow - fought over who would be in charge, because they were approximately comparable in power. Approximately, I’m not saying that they are directly comparable, but they competed with each other confidently. And under these conditions, we have 2 specific types, 2 specific classes of people who live on our land - these are nobles and these are dependent peasants. I have just said that the peasants who fled from certain disorders, they found themselves in the power of specific feudal lords, even in their unconditional allods. But the peasant, thus, turned from a free community member into a dependent community member, and sometimes, often, directly into a slave, i.e. a slave who was obliged to serve his master for life. Or, at a minimum, he became a stinker, i.e. he was insulted, i.e. Instead of a people, for example, a Slovene, he turned into a dependent peasant, who, although he was not yet a serf, I assure you, the dependence was not much more pleasant. The only thing there was that yes, it was possible to leave the ground. Even a smerd could leave his master, it would be where, it would be a separate question, where. Although, of course, they left anyway, it is not a fact that the new master will be better than the old one. Or if you find yourself without a master, and who is the master, this is a military force that, if anything happens, will protect you. If you find yourself without a master, you will somehow survive at all. Although, of course, they fled north, to the area of ​​the future Arkhangelsk, fled east, to the Volga, fled south to the Dnieper, this, in general, is what later became the Cossacks, in the end. But, again, it was not just one person who fled. As a rule, at least a family fled, and most likely a large community fled. But we will return to this later. The most important thing is that we are creating dependent peasants who are now completely dependent on their master, who owns the land. And because There are more peasants here, in the northeast of Rus', and they have developed new lands; due to the destruction of the usual demographic stable state of the structure of the tax-paying population and the extensive increase, there were simply more of them, it became possible to plow more land. And now we have more surplus product. Plus on these lands, because there were more of them, it became possible to practice not the old two-field, when one land was fallow, the other under sowing, but a three-field, when our land was divided into 3 sections - this is fallow land, spring land, and winter land. For the stupid – what are spring crops and what are winter crops? Winter crops are what are planted in the fall for the winter. Those. what lies under the snow ripens there and emerges in the spring. Those. you can quickly assemble it right away and you will receive at the beginning, before the summer arable season, you will simply receive a finished product. Spring is what is in the yar, what is planted for the summer, i.e. collected in spring and autumn. And fallow is something that is fallow and is not plowed in order to restore the natural fertility, the fertile layer of the earth. Ideally, it should be watered, of course, with manure. Did you sow anything special, alfalfa? No no no. This is a more advanced method, this is a grass field. He was unavailable then. I can’t say that it didn’t exist, I can say that most likely at that time the four-field system was considered a space technology. Those. did it have to be diligently littered under steam? Shit, yes. How is it that they scattered manure with shovels, or somehow with slurry, is there any information? No, we do not have such information. We have other information that when living on a river, it is almost impossible to practice three-fields simply because everything is already occupied for you. Those. you need a plot of, for example, 3 hectares, you have one and a half hectares fallow, one and a half hectares are sown. And so you get a certain amount of bread from one and a half hectares. And now you need to divide the plot into one hectare, you will have 1 hectare sown, 1 will be winter, 1 will be spring. Those. your land will simply have less rest, you will work out faster. But to make yourself a plot of 4.5 hectares is no way, because Ivan Ivanovich lives nearby, who will immediately ask what it is. And you also have your personal grandfather, who will tell you that I did this, and my grandfather did it, and my grandfather’s grandfather did it, come here. Well, this is no joke. Certainly. From your agricultural experiments... You can die. Grandfather, by the way, it seems to me, was in authority in such societies precisely because he lived to such an age. This means he showed remarkable intelligence, ingenuity, and physical strength. Good luck. And, what is important, he also remembers his grandfather, who also showed all these wonderful qualities. Which means it’s better, given that no one can read and everything is transmitted orally, you can only listen to him. There are real... Elders, yes. Why have you lived here for 15 years, now you’re going to teach me. Yeah, teach your little spiders. So. So, there are more resources. Well, to put it simply, money, although, of course, not money. At that time in Russia we had a very long period without coins. After Yaroslav the Wise, we do not mint our own coins at all. We use, if we use, a foreign one. And mostly natural exchange. We even have the names of conventional monetary units - all these white, legged and others, this is a designation of animal skins, which acted as an exchange equivalent. Those. in fact, this is a very primitive form of management precisely because our trade was in relative desolation after the destruction of the Great Dnieper Road, and our own productivity was such that there was simply nothing for sale. The markets were quite poor and narrowly localized, and there you could get by very well without any money. The word money itself is... Tenge. Hello Zadornov, damn it. And now we have an increase in resources, but the possibility of a new agricultural culture, which (i.e. three-field), which promises more profit from the land, more people appears in the northeast. And the northeast begins to take over the lands around it. And at this time, I say, 2 specific classes of people appear, who will then play a major role in the entire history of Russia. At least for many, many centuries. Firstly, the peasants, who are representatives of the economic basis, without whom nothing will happen at all. The peasants were divided into very specific states, because they were, firstly, A - free community members who had remained since the early Middle Ages. That's how lucky they are. And, secondly, dependent peasants appeared, but no longer just smerds, which we had throughout the Middle Ages, who simply live here, were born here, and will most likely die here, on the lands of boyar Pupkin. And it was serfs who appeared in large numbers, that is, slaves. Previously, in order to get into slavery, you had to get seriously pregnant, frankly speaking, or get into serious trouble. And here you just came with everything you have... Raiders. Yes. If you came with all your family, you found yourself with nothing because somewhere near Izyaslavl Zalessky, Yuzhny, your enemies burned your home. You came to Vladimir and they simply enslaved you to work off what they lent you, because it was mainly the boyars who lent us money. Microloans, right? They gave such microloans at 50%. Well, don't pay. Yes, as a rule, it is no longer possible to pay off a 50% loan. And they were already Orthodox then, no? In the 13th century, in the 14th, of course, they were Orthodox. They greeted you like a god, that is, right? We were greeted like gods. As they say, it was Mitki, Mitki who shared the drinks like brothers, i.e. I drank most of it. So, they greeted us in a brotherly way, like Orthodox brothers do with Orthodox brothers. What are completely dependent peasants? This means you can do whatever you want with it. You can make them work more, you can, most importantly, make them settle where you want. And in our country the structure of the formation of the tax-paying population on earth is changing greatly, because previously everyone lived in villages, which were located simply in counties. Here we have some Tver, with villages around it. But now people began to concentrate around the princely-boyar villages, when there was a large village, relative, of course, to where there was a church, a graveyard. It was a rural center, around which, yes, their own small villages were already concentrated, where there was no church. Because the name itself is a boyar village or a princely village, it is clear that it was owned by a boyar or a prince, they were sometimes very rich. Thus, the local population was one way or another subordinated to this particular person, and you could not escape this. Both boyars and princes naturally had their own dependent warriors, with whom they went on campaigns, held sieges, defenses, etc. throughout the Middle Ages. Previously, as they did in Europe, it was impossible to place him on the ground and give him the disposal of the peasants so that they would feed and arm him, and he would serve for this. Simply because our productivity is low, the productivity of the biosystem is so low that if you put a warrior in prison, he will need to be given so many peasants to feed him that he will cease to be a warrior and immediately become a boyar, why do you need another one? You don't know what to do with these. Although, of course, this was also done, and the first person who began to give the first lands for conditional holding was Vladimir the Holy, who stationed his fighters at the heroic outposts, against the Pechenegs. This is exactly what all Russian epics are about. So, they lived in direct analogues of European castles, small, fortified villages. But this was, again, sporadic. And now you have a warrior, a boyar’s son, or a nobleman. Nobleman, this comes from the word yard, i.e. he is at your court. Yours, as the Romans would say, is a client, or as the Romans or French would say 1000 years later, a menestrial, i.e. the one who lives by your grace. And so it became possible to simply plant him in this village, and there would be enough resources there to arm him and several of his guys. And for this he will control this village for you, collect taxes there, and deliver them to you. And the opportunity arose to leave the peasants on this land so that they would not go anywhere, this is the most important thing. And this is what is happening here - this is happening in our country by the 14th century, by the 14th century it is developing, and by the 15th century, until the end of the 15th century, it is developing completely, we have developed feudalism, based on now conditional, and not unconditional, holding of land . Just in time for us Ivan III This developed feudal revolution is approximately ending. And look how interesting it turns out - in Europe at exactly the same time, literally synchronously, very similar external processes are taking place. Those. countries are centralized around the personality of absolute or close to it monarchs. This is England, this is France, this is Spain, this is Portugal. Of course, Germany remains due to the extreme looseness of its political structure, and Italy is the same. But large, powerful national centers of power are emerging, which are emerging, first of all, on capitalist foundations, because capitalism alone could give birth to political nations. It’s clear, if you all speak Spanish, then you more or less understand each other, so it’s easy to manage you on specific economic grounds, because before I, being a Frenchman, could, half of my possessions could lie somewhere in Holland , people there don’t really understand what I’m talking about. But at the same time, my lands are rich, so these will also be my lands. These are completely medieval, different reasons for the formation of states, and this is precisely a national state, because together it is easier to run a common economy simply on the basis of the fact that you understand each other. And everyone is drawn, according to a very specific sign of language and blood, to one center, to the monarch. And by the end of the 15th century in Europe, feudalism, in general, was already collapsing, at least as an economic foundation. In the main place of the city with their capitalist economy, merchants, trade and money, because money becomes what truly crushes medieval chivalry. Not the spears of the Swiss, not the bows of the English, not the muskets of the musketeers, but money, because with money you can simply hire any number, including knights. Thus, he no longer becomes feudally obligated, but simply a mercenary, like everyone else. And we have? And at the same time, the same processes are taking place in our country; it would seem that a national state is taking shape, or at least is beginning to take shape. And everyone is drawn to a single center, which at that time was still unclear, where it would be - in Moscow, in Tver, but then it became clear that it was in Moscow. Vasily the Dark wins the protracted civil war for Moscow, Moscow finally rises as an all-Russian center of unification. But at the same time, feudalism fell in Europe, but in our country it became stronger and stronger precisely on the basis of centralization, because in our country centralization turned out to be possible only on precisely feudal grounds. And centralization gave rise to a monstrous strengthening of feudalism, specifically the feudal economy. Why? Yes, all because we had a very poor ecosystem, we could not produce as much surplus product as Europe produced due to the fact that it is closer to the Gulf Stream, there are more people living on the territory, therefore any economic transaction has lower costs and greater profitability. You just don’t need to transport the goods far, you can take it to a neighboring village and they will buy it there, for example. This is the presence of free cities, because our cities could only exist if they were protected by the prince and kept by the boyars. What is a free city? What is he allowed to do? The free city, when it was born, was itself a feudal lord. He had no master, he himself was a feudal lord. But our city remained the patrimony of, for example, some Prince Vorotynsky. This is his Vorotynsk - this is his city. What a free city, what are you trying to offer me now, huh? And Nuremberg is a free imperial city and no one has power over it, because this very stadtluft, city of air, is a city of freedom. If the peasant is a serf... The air of the city is the air of freedom. Yes, the air of the city, it generally sounded like, my God, stadtluft macht frei, i.e. makes the air of the city free. Here the serf peasant just had to escape to the city, live there for a year, and after that no one could take him back into serfdom, he became a city dweller, if, of course, he lived there for that amount of time, anything could happen, it was a dangerous time. So, we have the same centralization process and completely different results in the end at the basis of these processes. Here capitalism is taking shape, and feudalism is finally taking shape here. Getting stronger. It's getting stronger, yes. At the same time, we are developing a very centralized state, as, for example, in England. And, probably, in France, too, to Louis XI. Those. the poverty of the ecosystem, the extension of communications, they only lead to the fact that everyone around them understands - those who do not understand are quickly explained that all this can only be maintained if there is a very strong central government that can collect resources and purposefully distribute them to the right place - to support the road, to support the war, or vice versa - to conclude peace, to build some cool temple. Only 1 person can do this, because if many people do it again, it will end up like it was in the 13th century. For people of the late 15th century, it was like the day before yesterday for us. Again, this traditional societies, they are very labile to ancestral memory, what are these 200 years for them? Again, traditional societies, time for them is not linear, time is looped for them, and in principle, since yesterday we had turmoil and discord, it is clear that soon it will happen again, most likely. But for now it is necessary to prevent this from happening, and this can only be avoided by a powerful centralized state, therefore it was the objective interest in extreme centralization. This is what happens under Ivan III, under Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible #1, a very rigid vertical of power is emerging around Moscow, and at the same time, absolutely, something that in Europe began to die out already in the 13th century, but in our country it only just developed. Allow me to ask a question from the stupid and ignorant. Those. all this is not because Ivan the Terrible was evil and bad; not because he was schizophrenic; not because he introduced the hellish oprichnina, which killed everyone the best people and poets, of course. All these are, so to speak, incidental phenomena. It started strongly before Grozny, Grozny was not yet in the project. No, well, you understand, he’s a scoundrel, he ruined Rus', and nothing could happen after him. In our country, unfortunately, every 2 monarch necessarily ruins Rus'. In our country, Ivan the Terrible ruined Rus', then Nicholas I ruined Rus', then Alexander III ruined Rus', and Nicholas II finally managed. Comrade Stalin put an end to it, ruining us completely. Lenin planted the bomb, and Stalin ruined Rus'. Blew up. And Stalin blew it up, right. And even when you look at the line of all these scoundrels, it’s not very clear where we came from? And 1/6 of the land, yes, was under us. What is happening here at this time: we have a terrible antagonism between the old aristocracy and the new aristocracy, i.e. nobility. It occurs for one simple reason: the new aristocracy was not any aristocracy at all, although it seemed to belong to the same class objectively to which the old aristocracy belonged. They received land for their service and served from this land, exploiting their peasants. The old aristocracy did the same thing simply on a gigantic scale and did not owe anything to anyone. Obliged. She did not owe anything to anyone, because they owned their lands in the old days. And, of course, this, firstly, was very much disliked by the most important representative of the highest aristocracy - the Tsar, then still the Grand Duke, then the Tsar. The Tsar, of course, would very much like everyone to be obliged to serve him, not because of the ancient loyalty of a clan to another clan, because, you know, this can be quickly corrected. Your so-called loyalty. I am the master of my land, which means I am the master of my word. He gave his word and took his word, like a true gentleman. These, again, were objective moments that required the centralization of power around a specific person, a specific city, around the capital. Again, whoever did not understand, he began to contradict objective interests, and he either left the country himself, because, naturally, the crucian carp is looking for where to swim deeper, or he was forced to submit to general interests, because, again, these are people in On average, quite intelligent creatures, they understood that together they were much safer than alone. And it’s not a fact that, having gone somewhere to Lithuania, you will find yourself greatly needed by someone there, because where you were born, you were useful there. But here it’s still better for everyone to exist together. But the new aristocracy - nobles and boyar children - existed in rather poor conditions, because back in the 17th century they had an average of 3.8 peasant households per person. Those. 6.2, on average male souls. One fighter was provided, conditionally, by 7 men, which, by European standards, could not lead to the emergence of at least some kind of knighthood, because even there, under Charles Martel and Charlemagne, one fighter was equipped from 20 houses. Those. at least 20-30 men worked for him. And this is the early Middle Ages, which was much less demanding on the quantity and quality of equipment. And here we have a kind of knighthood, it’s kind of like this knighthood, it’s generally not capable of combat, because very few people worked for it, it’s just poor, frankly speaking. And these landowners, on average, of course, they were very different, but on average, sometimes it got to the point that they themselves were forced to plow the land. And we once talked about this, talking about the transformation of Russian military affairs in the post-Mongol period, that adaptation mechanisms were developed instantly, they turned, in the sense of military units, into a complete analogue of our eastern and southern neighbors, dressing up according to the Tatar model. And at this time the Tatars changed clothes according to the Turkish model, i.e. We also indirectly dressed according to the Turkish model. Because if we were undergoing osternization, then the Tatars were undergoing westernization, because for them the west was Turkey. We are still closer to Europe. Yes. And so we became all over the place dressed like Turks, approximately the same, in the sense of military strength. Because it was very much cheaper - this is light cavalry, this is not heavy knightly armor. Now, in this case, it doesn’t matter, I just remembered it as a kind of reference point. The objective interest of the nobles was to enlarge their own economy, and the objective interest of the tsar was to oppose the tsar to the large aristocracy, and the nobles gladly, you know, got involved in this process, because they also understood their interests. It’s clear, you have 6 men, but you need 60, but where can you get them? Oh, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, you have a lot of these same peasants, you should share them. This is a long time... But how can they be taken away? The long revolution from above, it also consisted in the fact that, for example, even Ivan III and, especially, Ivan the Terrible were engaged in the fact that they simply took away the old lands for their own use, for their domain. Here is the oprichnina, for example, it was the gathering of a large part of the land into a personal royal domain, because oprichnina is besides, outside. Those. outside the zemshchina. Zemshchina is all this bastard who owns something there by family and tribe, and this is my personal, so that he can carve out land for his people under guarantees of service. For example, if a person committed a crime against the state, he could be punished by deprivation of land, which Ivan the Terrible did regularly, both Ivan III and Ivan IV. Ivan III, as we remember, did not allow his brother to escheat his property when his brother died, did not allow the other brothers to tear apart his inheritance, took everything for himself, which terribly insulted both of them, simply terribly insulted them. Thus, a royal domain is formed, royal lands on which the royal peasants live, who were called black peasants. Here's a tricky question for you. If I were a terrible serf owner, then I would, for example... I almost said - if I were a sultan. Yes. For example, I would intentionally deceive people. I would build a farm for them, with luscious girls, of course, where I would organize for them conditions for conception, gestation, childbirth, and such as boarding schools, areas for children, juveniles, I would diligently breed them. I would study some of these features, how they grow better, how they grow worse, and in general, I would conduct breeding work. In America, the valiant Anglo-Saxons did this in the United States, but ours didn’t think of this? They had no idea, they didn’t have the money for this. In order for a crowd of beautiful women to sit, firstly, they need to be brought together in one place, and secondly, they need to be continuously very good level feed them non-stop, take guys to them, taking them away from work. Tolkov too. Smart guys too, just check - he’s smart, he’s not smart. Those. it’s physical... We simply wouldn’t have enough money for such an event. Somehow they managed to spin at all. It's not because I'm so smart, but because it can't be done that way. It was simply impossible to do that. Clear. The Tsar takes everything away from everyone, the peasants are black. Black peasants, in fact... Were there any other white ones? These are directly dependent, it’s just a name - black or black-plow peasants, black plow - something that personally belongs to the king. And, of course, at this time we have another, third player. This is the clergy, because the old clergy monasteries that we had since the end of the 11th century, apparently. These were serious institutions, of course, but the new monasteries that began with the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, with Sergius of Radonezh, are completely different institutions. Sergius of Radonezh, as we know, was known for his extreme asceticism and asceticism against the background of the fact that it was necessary for the monastic life to be truly holy. Why did people gather in the monastery? Well, why? You and I are deeply religious people... Because this is absolutely connected with this very thing, back in the old days, with allodal land ownership, because allod is such a thing that holds unconditionally. And you bequeath to each of your children a piece of land. If you have 10 children, your allod will become 10 times smaller and after a while there will simply be nowhere to put the children, because what can you give him if you don’t conquer something urgently? So where should we put them? They began to be put into service, but to God, because in the Middle Ages it was absolutely clear that the most important feudal lord around everyone was God. Everyone serves him because he is the boss. Surrenders himself to serve God. This, again, is very valuable; it’s not just that someone prays for you, but your loved one, i.e. 3 times harder. Certainly, he probably won’t forget his mom, dad, and brother in evening and morning prayers. Well, in the monastery they are like, having cut themselves off from worldly life, breaking with it, yes, they serve there fiercely, i.e. All the prayers, fasts, back and forth are worth it. That's the point. Well, plus the monastery, because... And this immediately gives you +10 to spirituality, happiness, luck and all that. Very valuable. Plus the monastery as a thing, undoubtedly filled with simply the most educated people of their time, who were the only ones who could get an education, in general. Those. These are priests who are educated, they are obliged to read, at a minimum. Were they always called “priests”? Pop is Greek for “father.” When we say "pop", it means father. And I always thought it was from the Pope. So Dad is also a father. Also from Greek, right? Yes. In short, cultural centers were formed there. What I mean is that in English Papa is called Pope. Naturally, Pope. It confused me. So. Monasteries, 3 strength. There is a cultural center there, because there are a lot of educated people who are engaged in, among other things, copying books, and they also copy not only liturgical books, but also those that are needed by the state, because where will you send books to be copied? Oh, the monastery. The only literate ones are there. How amazing. At least in large quantities. How amazing. Come on, do something useful. Plus, churches are always very capital buildings, and a monastery is several churches together, as a rule, in which you can store something, because as I already said 1 time, talking about Mister Veliky Novgorod, in the Middle Ages in Rus' a church was immediately was built bifunctionally - as a church and as a warehouse for footcloths, without fail. Those. They also kept documents there, they could store archives there, they could store the treasury there, so the monastery was a very valuable thing. And the monasteries became terribly corrupted because of this, because, naturally, some younger boyar Kuchkovich came to the church, to the monastery, and understood that he was here for the rest of his life, so why get lost now. We have to arrange it somehow. Get settled somehow. Those. you need to do the same thing you always did, i.e. go to the monastery forest to hunt, to the monastery village to fuck local girls, then come, make friends with local monks, just like you, and conjure until the morning, that’s exactly what you need. Sergius of Radonezh terribly did not like this, he fought against this by simply leaving the world, practically into the forest, like the first Christians, some ancient ascetics, cut down a dugout for himself and began to live there among the bears. Those. Did he try by example? Yes, he was a very middle-aged man at that time, just very much so. He saw enough of everything that was around and left. And everyone was so surprised. What is he doing? Everyone suddenly realized that this was a real monastery. That’s all, everyone knew perfectly well what was happening there, naturally. There is simony, sodomy and so on. Rum, whip and sodomy. And simony, that was the most important thing. What is this? This is selling positions for money. It was simply the most important thing. It was a business on a gigantic level, selling positions. And so everyone reached out... To everyone who is now rejoicing at how bad everything is in Orthodoxy, I will note that it was the same in the West. The well-known d’Artagnan bought himself the position of chief guard at the Castle of Versailles, and yes, he made money there. Simony was a thing that every second church council in the West constantly condemned. They also had everything in order with sodomy and simony. Where to go. Where. All of them, yes. And as a result, the monastery of Sergius of Radonezh became so rich after his death that everything became the same there. And the same thing is that: the monastery owns the land, it needs to be constantly fed, supplied with food, supplied with money, i.e. he needs peasants. And the monasteries turn into one of the richest feudal lords in Rus'. Thus, there were also church and monastic peasants, i.e. noble peasants, monastic peasants, and state peasants. What were they called? If these are black-growing ones, what were they called? Well, they simply called them Christians. True, they were not called that, they began to be called that much later, but these were simply called monastic, priestly, church. Was it good for them, bad, better? They were no better off than anywhere else, and sometimes even worse in places, because if you read carefully what Ivan the Terrible wrote about monasteries and how they treated the peasants, the priests there were not at all embarrassed. Those. not Christian? No no. There the level of exploitation was always, on average, very high. And so Ivan the Terrible goes to any lengths - he goes to the extent that he (return to 3 players at once), he goes to equalize the nobles and the highest aristocracy. Those. a Service Code is being created, where everyone is obliged to serve on an equal basis, and everyone owns land not because you got it from your dad, but only because you serve. He swung at the sacred. No wonder he is still hated so much. Yes. Despite the fact that the Service Code appeared in 1556, i.e. this is until the end of the reign Ivan the Terrible With almost 30 years left, it's a wonder he wasn't spanked sooner. But the provision on service still exists. I served under it. Yes Yes Yes. Service Regulations. Those. patrimonial owners are equated with noble landowners. They resisted, I hope? All repressions of Ivan the Terrible were 100% related to resistance people to that what he was doing. Naturally, everyone simply didn’t like it and caused fierce hatred. Just now you were the hereditary prince Rurikovich, and now you are the same as some nobleman Khrenov, do you understand? Piskin. Nobleman Piskin, who is your former nobleman, by the way. In general, no one, he’s just in general, he’s even the son of a serf, for example. And now you are standing on the same step, on the same level, only you, yes, are richer, and he is poorer, but what's the difference? Soon he will be richer. Yes, today you are richer, but what will happen next? What's going on, Orthodox Christians?! Attempts to raise armed uprisings, attempts at murder? This was the normal background of the general existence of the Russian state at that time. There was an armed uprising in Novgorod, it had to be suppressed. These wonderful people, not guilty of anything. Not guilty of anything. Yes. This is where they were sent under the ice, right? Well... When Malyuta Skuratov came there to commit atrocities, it was absolutely terrifying. And Novgorod was another thing that definitely needs to be said about what changed in the structure of the Russian state in the 14th-15th centuries. We are creating... Absolutely understanding that trade is fundamentally important, we are creating a Yam service. Already under Ivan III it was working. It was created earlier, but under Ivan III it already worked as a state institution. This was what was able to turn around part of at least the trade flow of the Great Silk Road from the Caspian Sea towards Novgorod. Because Yam stations allowed you... Yams. Yes, the pits allowed what we spied from the Tatarva. Allowed you to drive at a guaranteed speed in in the right direction, knowing for sure that you will have somewhere to change horses, where you will temporarily store the goods in a warehouse, and that most likely you will not be robbed along the way. And in this way we redirect part of the traffic flow to ourselves, and Novgorod becomes not just important, it becomes a radically important city, because we have the only port in the north. Which, yes, is not sea, yes, river, but it has constant contact with the West. The most important transit base is transshipment. Novgorod is growing richer non-stop, and, of course, Moscow had to bring it under its hand or, thus, directly lose part of its sovereignty. He is rapidly getting rich and greyhounds at the same speed. And the greyhound is advancing at a faster pace, because Novgorod has had traditions of independence since the 12th century. And only Ivan Vasilyevich put an end to the greyhound. At first there was only Ivan Vasilyevich, i.e. the third, and then his grandson, the fourth, once again, brought it to its logical conclusion, quite rightly. And in such conditions, we finally have that same feudal, developed feudal revolution, a revolution that brings to the fore the nobility and the peasants dependent on it. Then the antagonism between the nobility and the peasantry begins non-stop, because, well, not counting, of course, the constant whirlpool within the ruling layer, where those who are poorer strive to climb higher, and those who are taller strive to push them back so as not to climb all sorts of strange people. Nobles, this was their objective interest, and this was their objective interest in this case also the states - they had to be richer so that they could perform their service normally. Because these are the only people who could have the leisure to get an education, for example, military, or engineering, or something else. And this is where the protracted fight of the nobles for their rights begins, because the nobles had an excellent example of how it would be nice to live, namely, across the border we had the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where the gentry disposed of all their peasants as slaves, they could do anything with them. And in our country, already in the 17th century, in the Council Code of 1649, it was directly prohibited to do anything at all with the peasants; it was forbidden to sell them. You seem to be in charge of them, but everyone understands that you are in charge only because you serve. And you serve because they feed you, and since they feed you, don’t you dare lay a finger on them. Those. you are a state pest as soon as you start selling them. Yes. You're like this - a self-shooter, oh, an economic self-shooter. Now you will squander your property, and what will happen? You won’t be able to go to war, this is unacceptable. This is important, that this is not out of philanthropy, that you can’t sell people, but because you can’t. Undermining combat readiness. The nobles, in general, agree with this, but for them this agreement logically develops further. If I can’t sell them, it means I can’t buy them, and I don’t have enough of them, I need more. Because these 6-7 male people feed me poorly, poorly equip me, and in general - this makes me a bad servant to the king, I am an unreliable support for the king, because there was only one hope - in the king. Who else can give them? Only the king. Because the tsar was the only figure on whom the petty nobleman could rely, because he could not rely on the boyar and the prince in any way, because his personal interests were directly opposed to the interests of the nobleman, etc. Every boyar and prince, no matter how rich he was, was much poorer than the tsar; it was clear that he most likely would not be able to provide them with new peasants, or would not want to, because in this way he himself would become poorer. Exactly. So what to do with the sale and purchase? And here's what we have, look. Our nobles constantly struggle intensely for their rights, because they recognized themselves as a class. It was a class for itself, and not a class in itself. It was an established stable class, a circle of people. They were an estate, but they were also a class, of course, they performed. A group of people, stable, extensive, which is bound by the peculiarities of owning the means of production, this is a real class. And they knew about this, that I was a nobleman, because I was obliged to serve and for this I owned peasants and land. On this basis, they became close, they had common interests. And they, as a combined monolithic force, could influence many processes in the country. Because the peasants at the end of the 16th century - not under Ivan the Terrible, but under the kind, weak-willed Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, at the instigation, of course, Boris Godunov , peasants were forbidden to leave the land. Here's to St. George's Day. Here's to you, grandma, and St. George's Day. This is exactly what was said. But even then, at the end of the 16th century and already under Mikhail Fedorovich, in the 17th century, all the nobles said that it was impossible to leave, they were not just leaving, they were rushing in an influx of unknown destinations, there was simply no strength to hold them back. Those. some special government measures are needed to keep them. And then reserved summers are declared, when you cannot leave the earth at all, because, for example, there is a war going on, while the war is going on you cannot go anywhere. Next, the nobles seek a five-year investigation, so that the peasant will be searched for 5 years and returned to the owner. Then they achieve, if I’m not mistaken, a nine-year investigation, and then an indefinite investigation. Those. you are a runaway peasant - you are always a runaway peasant. And they are achieving this already under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, i.e. It is with him that the indefinite investigation begins. And, in fact, under him it is believed that serfdom finally took shape. But this, of course, is not entirely true, not with him. Those. What we see - we see that the country, having just emerged from the Time of Troubles, ended in 1613, the Time of Troubles, what it was, I described last time, it was another attempt at European expansion. The country, emerging from the Time of Troubles, emerged monstrously weakened. But, recovering, the economy recovered quite quickly, which is simply surprising, because since 1613, in fact, 1618 is the end of hostilities, and by about 1650-1660, in general, we are already in good shape . The state became even more feudalized. Here's a question. How did they conduct the search if there are no documents, no passport offices, no registrations? In general, everything was in order with the documents there, because if you were going to leave somewhere, under Alexei Mikhailovich it was absolutely perfect, you needed a travel document. If you, well, you are clearly a peasant, were seen somewhere 30 miles from home, they could justifiably grab you by the ass and take you back, but you obviously ran away, what are you doing so far from home? Those. just... And if he ran away to the Don, then what happened there? Were special expeditions sent there, to the Don? With the Don, everything was complicated, because as soon as they found themselves in a stable society of free Cossacks, they simply did not give them up. They said - we don’t know, ours has been living here for 300 years, maybe 400. He looks similar, but you never know who he looks like. Those. it was incredibly difficult to pull him out of the wild field. Another thing is that you still had to walk to get there. Because there were few roads, they were well controlled, roads. And they paid money for the capture, no? It depends. Because it’s like for a runaway dog, yes, something is supposed to happen, I guess, to be honest, I don’t remember. The finder is guaranteed a reward. Another thing is that the cover-up could have been taken seriously, simply seriously. And now our country emerged from the devastation of the Time of Troubles even more feudalized, with it almost completely formed, already as serfdom it took shape 100% to the end, i.e. something that had already completely died in Europe by that time. And we find ourselves, at the same time, again we return to our 2nd conversation, face to face with Europe - incredibly powerful by that time, incredibly grown, incredibly complicated, which developed literally by leaps and bounds. We find ourselves, naturally, first of all, in the face of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden. If Lithuania is generally almost the same as Rus', with its own specifics, of course, but in an economic sense it is not stronger than us, at least, if in some places it is richer, then insignificantly. Before Poland, which is already a little noticeably richer. And Sweden, which at this time is on a colossal rise in the system, has such good, developed capitalism, and the first in the world to switch to a recruiting system for army formation. Those. this means only one thing - that they were so rich, or at least rich enough to support a professional army. Those. a recruit who is called up for 25 years, then I don’t know who he is for 25 years if not a professional military man. Those. they need to be constantly maintained, and they can do this. Constantly train them, maintain combat readiness, equip them, and the Swedish army turns out to be the strongest on the fields of the Thirty Years' War, i.e. There is nowhere better than their cavalry and infantry; they defeated everyone, in fact, precisely in a direct combat clash. Another thing is that the army was not very large, so they constantly had to hire more mercenaries, like everyone else, who turned out to have an overall average-worthless combat capability. And that’s why they were unable to seriously seize anything in Europe, specifically in Central and Western Europe. They just hit everyone in the teeth, and France took over everything, of course. With effort... But they made the Baltic Sea internal Swedish. Yes, of course, they made the Baltic Sea internal Swedish, and if in 1633-34 in the Smolensk War we acted, under Mikhail Fedorovich, against the Poles, in general, successfully, although we could not take Smolensk, and moreover, we were under attack there he was surrounded and we were forced to leave near Smolensk on the terms of honorable surrender, i.e. without handing over your weapons and in perfect order, just get out of there on the terms of a free exit. But the war of 1656-1664 is a completely different matter. Is this when they took Novgorod? No, this is when we took Smolensk, on the contrary, which later passed to us under the Andrusovo truce. We find ourselves... Well, we have already copied Western models so well, everything, i.e. the most important thing is that we are developing regiments, namely soldiers’ regiments, regiments of the new system, which appeared (prototypes) under Mikhail Fedorovich, and developed under Alexei Mikhailovich. Reiter regiments are being created, i.e. regular cavalry, dragoon regiments are created, i.e. cavalry that can fight dismounted, regular forces. At the same time, neither the archers nor the old local cavalry are going anywhere, because they fought under Peter I. Both the archers and the local cavalry. But the new army is precisely a professional mercenary army, opposed to the old semi-professional militia army, i.e. what exactly is a militia. But it’s clear that the archers are also a professional army, there just weren’t that many of them. But the basis of the army was local cavalry, i.e. militia directly. This professional European army is contrasted with a semi-professional militia army. This is the direct influence of the West, from which we had to constantly learn, and we learned well, because we gave the Poles a hard time for a long time. And on the other hand, the Swedes joined this fascinating process, after which the Poles experienced the famous flood when they realized that their mother was dear... Oh-wey. Oh-wey, rage, boys. There is a good book on this subject by Genrikh Sergeevich and a wonderful film, by the way. But here we made a terrible diplomatic mistake, just a terrible diplomatic mistake, because our pro-Polish party informed Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich that if now, together with the Swedes, we finish off the Poles, and this is about to happen, then we will have to deal with an endlessly strengthened Sweden , this cannot be done. But at that time we had nothing to share with the Swedes, but we had something to share with the Poles, and therefore we concluded a truce with the Poles and began to fight with the Swedes. Of course, we beat them more than once, but it was so hard that when we finally began to fight the Poles again, we came out of the war with great difficulty. And what we got is yes, big lands , but again, this was already a diplomatic, not a military game, we could have gotten much more, much more. But we got as much as we got. This is a diplomatic mistake. This is not an objective factor, but rather the factor of not thinking of something. But, nevertheless, we are faced with Europe on equal terms. If this was not discussed before, if we could butt heads with Lithuania and Poland, then if we found ourselves facing a serious European army, somewhere like this, well, actually, we found ourselves under Ivan the Terrible at the end of the Livonian War. We were not ready for this. Despite all efforts, we lost the Livonian War, first of all, organizationally, economically and organizationally. We were forced to withdraw from the Livonian War, losing the Baltic as a result. Well, Sweden, in the end, reserves this very loss of the Baltic for itself, in the described time, 1656 and subsequent events. And we are forced to copy Western models more and more, realizing that we cannot in any way resist, for example, Sweden, we also need a conscript army. Even the mercenary army can no longer cope, just like theirs. But mercenaries are much cheaper than recruits. Recruits come forever to your neck, for your support, there’s no escape here. And a series of reforms are being developed, starting with financial ones, ending with military reforms, land reforms, and management reforms. Another thing is that Alexey Mikhailovich cannot carry them out to the fullest extent. But he is already planning. And we see that the nobility at this time is attacking, as I just described, the interests of their, so to speak, larger class brothers. The Tsar, on the other hand, helps them, and at the same time he thinks about modernization, because this was the second point that needs to be said - this is a new revolution that Alexei Mikhailovich had to make, because one - feudal - has already practically taken place. Now a new one was needed - a bourgeois revolution. But on what basis? For a bourgeois revolution you need to have a bourgeois class, oddly enough, but there is nowhere to get it from. Of course, Alexey Mikhailovich is constantly, from above, trying to create new manufactories, new factories - yes, they are growing under him, there are few of them, very few. Those. the locus of this bourgeois within the feudal is so insignificant that, in general, one can not even pay attention to it. This is, you know, a special tool that is good for performing specific, narrowly localized tasks. And this is where we see that the nobles turn out to be the only, again the only layer on which we can rely. And, of course, the merchants. But first of all, the nobles, because they are obliged to serve, merchants are not obliged to serve, merchants are obliged to trade. Or organize certain trading processes. And the nobles specifically owe it to you. But Alexei Mikhailovich died and our era of inter-quick kingdoms began, when Fyodor Alekseevich, Sofya Alekseevna changed, and finally, Peter I came after him. After her, I beg your pardon, Peter I. If under Alexei Mikhailovich approximately 220 were given per year -250 state peasant households to nobles, then already under Sophia more than 1000 were given per year. So have you multiplied? Or from pocket to pocket? No, the sovereign’s peasants gave it to the nobles in order to somehow support them and make them even richer, so that they could rely on them more strongly. This process was objective and mind you, it began before Peter. And already under Sophia, as under a weak empress, it certainly reached great proportions. When they say that it was Peter who began to oppress everyone around him, this is not Peter, it was he who had already approached this moment, because, again, I say, only nobles, in the sense of officers and educated officials, could fight and serve. They needed to be supported somehow. And now we come to the time of Pyotr Alekseevich, who raised Russia on its hind legs and left it standing there. I remember. Peter undertakes several military enterprises. After he calmed down the military rebellion, after he calmed down his very same ruler Sofya Alekseevna, as he outlived Fyodor Alekseevich, he undertakes several military enterprises in which he fails. The first Azov campaign was very unsuccessful. 1700, Narva, it’s just a disaster. The Russian army is losing all the artillery that it took with it on the campaign. Despite the fact that there are almost 2 times fewer Swedes. There, about 40,000 people marched towards Narva - not only did they not take the city, they carried it away with barely their legs, and miraculously carried it away. Those. it is clear that in the old way we can no longer fight or organize production, but we need to organize production, because we need to fight with something, again. We couldn’t even cope with the Turks, which was just guard duty, although the Turks are far from Swedes. We need seas, we need trade, because we need the Black Sea and we need the Baltic Sea to provide direct communication between trade routes within the state from south to north and from north to south. Those. large-scale modernization is required and quickly, because yes, under Alexei Mikhailovich it was going on, it was going on continuously, it was going on very slowly. If we trace the dynamics of the development of purely evolutionary processes under Alexei Mikhailovich, then somewhere, probably, after 100 years of such a quiet life, 100-120, perhaps something would have happened. But there was one problem - no one was going to give us such a peaceful life. Those. howling Stolypin - give us at least 10-20, yes... Howling could have happened 300 years before. Useless. This, on the contrary, greatly encouraged the neighbors, who - yes, how long do you need to live in peace? Now we will organize it for you. Now we need, of course, for you to strengthen yourself, build a good army for yourself, it’s very necessary, such a valuable initiative, what are you talking about. Unfortunately, our country, and any other country, does not exist without connections with its neighbors. Moreover, even our economy, as I said, does not exist as a separate closed system, it is always a subsystem in a giant macrosystem, so we were influenced by both political pressure and economic processes that unfolded in Europe, in which we were integrated. Just by virtue geographical location , because we, damn it, live in Europe too, so we were also integrated into the European economic system. Integration was simple, it was very difficult for us to sell finished products to Europe, we were forced to trade mainly raw materials, mainly raw materials. And we tried, naturally, to sell finished products, because his rate of added value is higher, because the profit will be greater. But this is very difficult, because it was difficult for us to compete with European manufacturers, who simply made many things cheaper. In our country, only in the 14th century did the water mill begin to be used on the farm, but in Europe it has been around for 100 years. Those. progress has been faster due to the fact that our farms are very small. Why does a village of 3 yards need a water mill, damn it, what will they do with it? I recently watched a video about German water mills, to which hammers are attached, that there this healthy hammer knocks day and night, you can plow in 3 shifts, does not ask to eat and in general - change the logs, I was surprised. You still need to lubricate it on time. Naturally. So. Well, this appears here in the 14th century; it has been living in Europe for 100 years. Those. Their progress was simply faster, because there are more people living there, they live closer together, it’s more profitable for everyone to study there, but not for us. And therefore, for objective reasons, they managed to develop many industries further than we developed. On the other hand, of course, we had useful goodies, ranging from walrus tusk, ending with wax and honey, or the skins of fur-bearing animals, which were difficult to do without. Somehow I would like something else. In order for you to want something else, you need to produce it, deliver it, sell it. In order to deliver all this, you need markets. And Peter I, yes, and most importantly, it is necessary that your industry does not die, strangled by foreign ones. At this time, such a question faced all the sovereigns in Europe, and in the 18th century all the sovereigns of Europe enthusiastically played with such things as the policy of mercantilism and protectionism, i.e. protective duties are introduced at the borders. Those. goods that are not profitable for you to buy in the country, because you produce your own, are subject to such a tax that selling them is simply unprofitable. Well, or they are sold for such money that this is justified only if it is only a luxury item that is bought by very rich people who, on average, do not do well. But, for example, they supply you with cloth, but you have worse cloth of your own. Therefore, it is clear that they will buy foreign cloth. A 30% duty is imposed, and you end up with something worse, but so much cheaper that goodbye. Peter does the same. And Peter is engaged in the fact that he literally puts the whole country in barracks, in fact, in order to win the Northern War, the main enterprise that lasted 21 years - from 1700 to 1721. He needed access to the Baltic, where he could trade normally. Yes. To do this, he even stopped, in general, fighting with Turkey, removing the Azov Fleet from the Black Sea. He needed the most important thing - to go to Europe, which clearly shows that Peter understood well with whom he needed to be closer, with whom to be friends. Not with the Turks, despite all their power then, but with Europe. Although the power, in general, was greater than that of Turkey, not fundamentally, Peter, like a visionary, understood that only there was a future, nowhere else. Well, the nobility, on which he could only rely in his actions, because he alone, on his own, could not do anything, he would simply be ignored if he did not have specific translators of his will. And the concrete translators of his will, of course, were the nobility. The nobility is now equalized with the highest aristocracy de jure, because there is now a Table of Ranks, which classifies all people in the military, civil and palace service into 14 ranks, and it doesn’t matter whether they are a prince, a boyar, a nobleman, a boyar’s son, it doesn’t matter. And if you reach rank 8 according to the Table of Ranks, you will receive hereditary nobility and become just like everyone else, a decent person. Those. you just have to serve. Everyone is simply obliged to serve. Don't be proud of your pedigree. You can be proud, but this is not a profession. Everyone owes service, first. Secondly, Peter goes so far as to conduct a population census and tax reform. Previously, our taxes, even under Alexei Mikhailovich, were taken from the yard. That is, conditionally, from one family. The peasants, who, in addition to running away from their landowners, also performed a very simple trick inside villages and hamlets. They took 2-3 houses, surrounded them with a fence, and they got a yard. And was it counted as 1? Yes. They come and see - one gate, one yard. According to the law it is. And the money received is 3 times less in the end. This, of course, is very pleasant for the peasants personally. But in the national sense, this is a great loss, of course. Peter said that now the tax will be per capita, i.e. they will pay for everyone in general, and regular layouts were carried out, and if a person died before the layout, you will pay for him until the next layout. Strongly. Just like that. Well, because he died, so what? How do I know about this? No, I don’t know, I have 5 people registered, you will pay for 5. The poll tax made it possible to increase state revenues to a very serious limit, because if under Alexei Mikhailovich in the 70s of the 17th century, our national tax income was 3.5 million Approximately rubles, I can’t tell you the exact numbers right now. Then under Peter I, after he carried out a census and tax reform, it amounted to almost 11 million rubles. There is an important thing here. The amount seems to be almost 3 times larger, but Peter deliberately deteriorates the quality of money, i.e. inflation begins due to damage to the coin. Just to increase the money supply, it reduces the precious metal content in the first place. Secondly, due to the increase in tax burden, of course, people simply began to work stupidly worse, and therefore the actual content of these increased incomes is somewhere estimated at 7.5 million rubles. Those. not 11, but 7.5, this is still 2 times more than it was, this is a tremendous achievement. And the next thing Peter does is, after recalculating... And yes, of course, the nobles and clergy did not pay taxes at all. How did it happen that they didn’t pay? What it is? Living within the state at its expense and not paying, how is that? Because they serve. It was believed that they were working out their job. And Peter I seemed to have done so, turned things around in such a way that in fact everyone is harnessed to the straps, and the fact that he does not pay, well, okay, he will work there. Peter dealt with the clergy more simply. He wanted, of course, for the clergy to also pay taxes, no doubt about it, because it was a sharp knife at his throat, all these parasites. But he acted more simply with the clergy: he took the peasants from them for his own benefit, which he then distributed to the nobles. Here. And how did the monasteries heal after that? The monasteries have healed much worse. They, of course, still have peasants, it’s just that their share has decreased greatly. They were also forced to work, that's the thing, monasteries. They were forced to maintain a specific military contingent, feed them locally, maintain roads and bridges. Peter was fierce. Because if you live in a state, you are all obliged to serve this state. Historian Evgeny Anisimov wrote that this is the formation of a police state. Evgeniy Anisimov will not deceive. I have several works by Evgeniy Anisimov called “Rack and Whip”, “City at the Scaffold” and so on. Wonderful historian Evgeny Anisimov. We'll take care of it. Necessarily. Wait. Peter undoubtedly built a police state among us, simply under the stupid pretext that if you live in a country, you must work for its good. If you don't work for its benefit, you probably shouldn't live in this country. And maybe you shouldn’t even do it at all, because who the hell needs you? Here, of course... Like in the feature film “Reckoning” with Mel Gibson. “Do you have a lighter?” - "No". - “Well, why the hell are you needed here.” In general, everyone served. But, naturally, the system was very ferocious, and often based on direct violence. As soon as a system based on direct violence from top to bottom appears, gigantic scope immediately appears for giving and taking bribes, as well as various embezzlements. And under Peter it simply blossoms, although, of course, he terribly punished for it. Useless. But it was useless, this is just how the system works, which he himself built. And so, in fact, these same 11.5 million rubles were not collected, partly because they were partially stolen locally. But this is, so to speak, a background phenomenon. But that was the fundamental phenomenon. As I said, the monastic reform, the peasants are distributed to the nobles and the peasants are made possible to buy and sell. It was Peter I who allowed this to be done. And without any decrees, just in person - sell and that’s it. And then they started building factories to divorce children? Vocational school? No, then they just started building factories. And 205 factories were built during the time of Peter I, which is a lot. Rope factories, iron foundries, Yekaterinburg, for example, were founded simultaneously with St. Petersburg. A real big industrial construction was going on. And who built them? Serfs, right? Including. They were built... And then Evgeny Roizman tells us that there, in Yekaterinburg, there have never been serfs, there is a free spirit there. I want to report to the free-spirited Evgeniy Roizman, undoubtedly a free-spirited man, that mainly serf workers worked in large state-owned manufactories, who were attached not to the land, but to the factory. Evgeniy, hello. Here. This seems to be written in a school textbook. Why read them? They were written under the Bolsheviks, and they are just lies. Oh, okay. And the historian Klyuchevsky wrote about this before the Bolsheviks, is that also a lie? Crypto-Bolshevik. Latent crypto-Bolshevik. All clear. So, from now on peasants can be bought and sold, and now this is not just serfdom, but in fact almost slavery, because, of course, it seems that only 1 person from a family could be sold, in no case should the family be divided, but everything They immediately began to sell it the way they wanted. Someone would try to say something against it. Of course, a serious stratification begins among the nobility, because as soon as someone can be bought and sold, someone becomes richer, and someone becomes poorer. But on average, a certain “middle class” was formed, conditionally, in quotes, among the nobility, which Peter I relied on, of course. And Peter I gives specific privileges to the nobility and merchants, because if you show yourself to be an intelligent person, like the Demidovs, for example , you are given a state-owned factory or a deposit that lies on state land, so that you can develop it. Opposition to the development of ore deposits was punishable by death, because it was so important that they could even get killed for it. But on the other hand, if you didn’t pull it, the factory was simply taken away from you. They didn’t buy it out, there was no reprivatization, they just took it away. It’s rude to treat efficient owners like this. I was here recently, we were talking about all sorts of so-called economics, I was alarmed by the question, but if a person privatizes something... And he doesn’t drag it. And it doesn't drag. I remember that when the legacy of bloody Bolshevism was divided, all this happened amid screams... It will be more effective this way! It was ineffective. The command-administrative system, which, as we know, has rocked the whole of Europe, is absolutely ineffective, so it needs to be distributed to effective owners. Here they are distributed. Is there some kind of control, no? I don’t know, some, I don’t know, Norilsk Nickel, Port Pevek, and something else. This is how it was under the Bolsheviks, but with you, apparently, the effective ones, the rocket should take off on the graph, it should just take off. It's soaring, isn't it? It didn't take off. So if it didn’t take off, then there is an experience, it turns out, Peter I, that everything should be taken away from you, damn it, and given to others, damn it, and put under control, and for sabotage... Your nostrils should be torn out. Worse than cutting off your head, damn it. Start with the nostrils, of course. Yes. And somehow this did not raise any doubts in anyone, because these were logical moves. But here, it turns out, it’s not necessary. Give it to who knows who knows why, get, in the end, again a dick, and sit and enjoy how well it turned out. If this happens without control, then if it is now mine, then I can do whatever I want with mine. They gave me a gift, for example, I don’t know, a mug of tea. I can drink it, I can give it to you, for example, I can pour it down the toilet. Smash. Break it, it's my mug. Why are you looking at my mug now? Very strange, very. So, and Peter, what, so... Peter simply took away. And here, for example, the historian Evgeny Anisimov, together with the emigrant Solonevich... Scum. Here is the one from Buenos Aires, we have Anisimov from St. Petersburg, they wrote with one voice that so, can you imagine, it all started with Peter, Peter built a command-administrative system, which even then began to rock Russia, interrupting the normal market path , to which Alexey Mikhailovich brought Russia. Are they paid for, these Solonevichs? Solonevich was just, in my opinion, some kind of fool who wrote garbage from Buenos Aires. I read a couple of works, a complete idiot. Sorry, I can’t find any other words, because I understand that if I had a colleague who was a historian, I wouldn’t say that. And here it seems he wrote on historical topics , he's just a fool, I can't say it any other way. I suggest taking up some of his work sometime. At least superficially, otherwise you always talk about good books, but there are also bad books. Harmful directly. Yes, for example, Solonevich’s works. That's it. I can immediately say, before we deal with Solonevich, comrade Anisimov, for example, a note. Citizen Anisimov, he’s not our comrade, damn it. Exactly. Note to Citizen Anisimov. Here you have some kind of book, “The Time of Peter’s Reforms,” where you write about all this. Read your own calculations and calculate the pace at which the country developed under Alexei Mikhailovich and how it would all end in a clash with Sweden. There was no need to defeat them in any way, no? Anisimov no. Anisimov no. He lives in a vacuum. He lives in the city near the scaffold. He lives in a city near the scaffold, and in his head he has a pink vacuum, where there are no external influences. Lesnaya, you understand, was won by the old noble cavalry from him, and the recruit regiments, it turns out, were actually created only to counteract the internal enemy, like internal troops, because they were torn from... Let's talk about the normal ones, otherwise We will now reduce the whole story to Anisimov. Although, of course, of course, recruiting troops, yes, they were pulled out of the peasant environment, and they could be used, among other things, to suppress internal riots with greater efficiency, simply because they are in no way connected with these peasants, who, for example, may rebel not attached. And this is unconditional. Who should have been used, Cretan archers? Maybe no one? Latvian riflemen, what nonsense? So, Peter. By the way, these are our endemic archers and boyar cavalry, how did they do everything normally with Stepan Razin without any recruits? We figured it out, yes. With Kondraty Bulavin, it’s also somehow not like that. Is it true that the saying “Kondraty will embrace you” is from Kondraty, no? It seems like yes. It’s hard to say, I’m not an expert on sayings for all of this. Doesn't matter. What we have under Peter: 2 most important processes that took place simultaneously, but in completely different directions. We have the main part of the country's population, more than 90%, i.e. the peasantry, who in fact almost turn into slaves. The only thing that separates them from slaves is that they can marry legally and own property until they are sold off the land. That's where they can do it, yes. They own property - you will have a plow, this is your plow, a slave is not capable of this. These are almost slaves, but not slaves. And the reliance is thus placed on the nobility, which is fully paid for by the semi-slave labor of the peasants. At the same time, of course, the whole country is constrained by a single Table of Ranks, a single Code of Service. All these reforms that Peter is carrying out, he begins to accumulate money and resources in general in a broad sense in one place on a previously unimaginable scale, simply on a previously unimaginable scale. Because of this, Peter, as the personification of the state, I have the state in general, has the opportunity to develop the necessary, necessary branches of production, and to develop, of course, only on capitalist grounds, because on others it was simply impossible at that time. At the same time, the capitalist is immediately formed in Russia as a state capitalist, because no one else will be able to invest in his project. It’s just that there’s no one else. Of course, when they say that “Oh, Peter I built 205 manufactories, and immediately after his death there were 22 left. Well, what the hell did we have to do?” Comrades, first of all, there is this unhealthy bullshit that you yourself remember as capitalist competition, can you imagine? Who would have thought. What a twist. This has never happened before... And suddenly again. And here we go again, yes. This time. Secondly, capitalist competition, which occurs not only within the country, but also in the macrosystem, which occurs in Europe. And, naturally, you still had immediate needs, about a million pounds of cast iron for cannons, while it was going on North War, your particular manufactory lived well on government orders. The war is over, guns in such quantities are no longer needed, they are simply expensive, at least in maintenance. So what, she closed, she did her job. It was not necessary to make guns or something, for the sick. In short, thus, our feudal revolution ended with the establishment of complete feudalism, simply final, highly developed, which alone could pay for all the processes that took place in the country. And at the same time, capitalism was born on this basis. Thus, we ended with one revolution - the feudal one, in general, in a somewhat paradoxical way, when throughout Europe it collapsed, why I explained, this was due to the objective reasons of our landscape, our settlement structure. And a slow bourgeois revolution began, which is why I called our conversation “2 in 1.” Well, as usual, what you said in the middle I want to repeat again. Those. This is not the schizophrenic Peter I, a pathological executioner who personally chopped off someone’s head, shell-shocked when his uncle was torn with hooks, and he turned for the rest of his life, and was even inclined to homosexuality with Aleksashka Menshikov. Those. These were not the motives that drove them, I understood you correctly, right? And the current environment, competition with the West, the inability to continue living without an army and without anything at all, and this is how it happened. And Peter simply took charge of this matter. And he even, how can I say this, if it weren’t for Peter, someone else would have done it, maybe worse, maybe better, but his dad started doing it, or rather no, his grandfather started doing it, Mikhail . In a broad sense. In general, this process began back in the 14th century, before Ivan III, before he was in the project, and no one thought about Peter at all. It’s not for nothing that I stretched this thread from so far away. Everything that happened under Peter was directly determined by what happened in our fight against the Tatar-Mongols. You are a terrible person, Klim Alexandrovich. You should write books. That's what I'm busy with. Thank you. Continue to educate us further, literally opening our eyes. Perhaps even third ones. Thank you. That's all for today. Until next time.

Poster about poll tax and other things (decree on poll tax)

Before the introduction of a new form of taxation, in order to increase their income, landowners settled several peasant families in one yard. As a result, during the census in 1710, it turned out that the number of households had decreased by 20% since 1678 (instead of 791 thousand households in 1678 - 637 thousand in 1710). Therefore, a new principle of taxation was introduced. In 1718 - 1724 A census of the entire male tax-paying population is carried out, regardless of age and working capacity. All persons included in these lists (“revision tales”) had to pay 74 kopecks. per capita tax per year. In the event of the death of the person recorded, taxes continued to be paid until the next revision by the family of the deceased or the community to which he belonged. In addition, all tax-paying classes, with the exception of landowner peasants, paid the state 40 kopecks. “Obrok”, which was supposed to balance their duties with the duties of the landowner peasants.

The transition to per capita taxation increased the number of direct taxes from 1.8 to 4.6 million, accounting for more than half of the budget revenue (8.5 million). The tax was extended to a number of categories of the population who had not paid it before: serfs, “walking people”, single-lords, the Black Hundred peasantry of the North and Siberia, non-Russian peoples of the Volga region, the Urals, etc. All these categories made up the class of state peasants, and the poll tax for them it was feudal rent, which they paid to the state. The introduction of the poll tax increased the power of the landowners over the peasants, since the presentation of audit tales and the collection of taxes was entrusted to the landowners.

M.V.Krivosheev

We are Peter the First Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, and so on and so forth and so forth.

We have already indicated that all army and garrison regiments, both from the qualeria and the infantry, should be distributed according to the number of male souls, and supported by money collected from those souls, and for that purpose, to select zemstvo commissars by the landowner himself, among himself from the best people, one by one or two. And how did the colonel, and the officer, and also the commissar in collecting money: and in other matters, they were ordered to do so, instructions were given to them, and for the people's information, so that no offense or ruin would be caused to anyone from them, and from above I decree nothing They didn’t take it, and by our decree we ordered that it be announced to the people.

Why is capitation money required?

From each male soul, which, according to the current correspondence and according to the testimony of the staff officers, the zemstvo commissar was ordered to collect for a year, according to seventy four kopecks, and for the third of the year, for the first and second, twenty-five kopecks, and for the third, twenty-four kopecks: and moreover, there are no monetary or grain taxes or carts, and you are not guilty of paying; except for money, as in the subsequent 7th paragraph it is announced: and for such matters, these decrees are signed by our Imperial Majesty’s hand, or by the hands of the entire Senate, and printed decrees will be published among the people.

At what time should you collect the per capita money?

It was ordered to collect that money for three terms. Namely: the first third in January and February, the second in March and April, the third in October and November, leaving nothing for milking, so that in the summer months the farmers would be busy working, and the regiments would have no shortage of salaries.

About the payer signing his payment in the receipt book and about giving a signature

When someone pays the commissar how much money, then he will sign his payment in the commissar's receipt book, which will be given to him from the Kamor College, with a stitched cord and behind a seal, under the article with his own hand: and whoever does not know how to write himself, then to whom will they instead believe themselves. And the commissar should sign under the same article, with his own hand, that he accepted that money, and in addition, give that payer, the commissar, the signature with his own hands, as soon as possible, without any red tape to the payer: and if the commissar does not give the signature within three days , then by that payer to report on them to the commissars, by the colonel: and in the absence of them, by the remaining officer, who must force the commissar, so that the records are given immediately: And if they are not satisfied with that, then ask for the commissioner’s council, from the landowners of that district who elected him, while these landowners, at the end of the year, will come to one place to choose another commissar instead. And for the salary of a commissar, a clerk, for paper, for ink, and for other expenses for the zemstvo commissar, and for records, when paying money, take one dengue per ruble. And write the signatures on plain paper, and not on stamp paper: and besides, do not take anything at all, under the penalty of political death.

On the taking of provisions in kind and on inclusion in the per capita tax

When the shelves are in the apartments, and it is ordered to take provisions and fodder in kind, then they will be charged for it at the current prices in those places, having consulted the customs note, except that it is higher than the prescribed price listed below and the time on the road cannot be counted. Namely: for flour, one and a half rubles, for cereals, two rubles per quarter, for oat fodder, half a ruble per quarter, for hay, ten dollars per pood.

On non-entry into landowner and peasant work

Non-commissioned officers and privates should not enter into any of the landowners' or peasants' estates, nor their management and operations, headquarters, equipment, and should not cause any disturbance. ...

Printed by: Russian legislation of the X-XX centuries: in 9 volumes. T.4. Legislation during the formation of absolutism.

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