Scientific thinking and modern man. Cognition is the process of knowledge formation. Ordinary and scientific social knowledge.

Glancing at world history, we discover three stages of cognition: firstly, this is rationalization in general, which in one form or another is a universal human property, appears with man as such; ...secondly, the formation of a logically and methodically conscious science - Greek science and, in parallel, the beginnings scientific knowledge in China and India; thirdly, the emergence modern science, growing since the end of the Middle Ages, decisively establishing itself since the 17th century. and unfolding in all its breadth since the 19th century. This science makes European culture - at least since the 17th century. - different from the culture of all other countries...
Science has three necessary characteristics: cognitive methods, reliability and general validity...
Modern science universal according to your spirit. There is no area that could isolate itself from it for a long time. Everything that happens in the world is subject to observation, consideration, research - natural phenomena, actions or statements of people, their creations and destinies. Religion and all authorities also become the object of study. And not only reality, but also all mental possibilities become the object of study...
Modern science, addressed to the individual, seeks to reveal its comprehensive connections... The idea of ​​the interconnectedness of all sciences gives rise to dissatisfaction with individual knowledge. Modern science is not only universal, but strives for a unification of sciences that can never be achieved.
Every science is defined by a method and a subject. Each is a perspective of the vision of the world, not one comprehends the world as such, each covers a segment of reality, but not reality - perhaps one side of reality, but not reality as a whole, however, each of them enters into a world that is limitless, but all -still one in the kaleidoscope of connections...
Questions and tasks: 1) What stages of cognition does the author highlight? 2) What does the philosopher understand by such a feature of modern science as universality? 3) How does the text treat the problem of integration and differentiation of scientific knowledge? 4) How does the author explain the impossibility of complete unification of the sciences?

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Social science

Social science.. profile level textbook for class educational institutions edited by L N Bogolyubov A Yu Lazebnikova N M Smirnova..

If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:

What will we do with the received material:

If this material was useful to you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

All topics in this section:

Getting ready for the exam
Chapter I. SOCIAL AND HUMANITIES KNOWLEDGE AND PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY § 1. Science and philosophy

Philosophy about social science
The very term “social and humanitarian knowledge” indicates that social science is “composed” of two different types cognition, i.e. this term captures not so much a connection as a difference. Situation

Myth, fairy tale, legend
When distinguishing between myth and fairy tale, modern folklorists note that myth is the predecessor of a fairy tale, that in a fairy tale, in comparison with myth, there occurs... a weakening of strict faith in the truth of evil

Eastern philosophy: secret knowledge or traditionalism?
The Greeks made the secret obvious, the knowledge that came from the East did not cause them to tremble... On the one hand, they revealed secrets, the knowledge transformed by their daring genius fertilized the human world. N

Philosophy and social sciences in modern and contemporary times
Remember how things have changed catholic church influenced by the Reformation? What new things did you bring?

We go down sighted
World history is not like the dreams of our time. The history of man is short when compared with the history of plants and animals, not to mention the long life of the planets. The sudden rise and fall of black

From the history of Russian philosophical thought
Remember: what characterized the development of spiritual culture in Kievan Rus, Moscow state? What from

Political freedom and spiritual freedom
Conciliarity means the combination of unity and freedom of many individuals based on their common love for God and all absolute values. It is easy to see that the principle of conciliarity is of great importance not only

Man and humanity
No matter how brilliantly rich the spiritual life of this or that person may be, no matter how fountain the power of his mind flows outward, it is still not self-sufficient and limited if he does not internalize spiritual values.

The essence of man as a problem of philosophy
Remember: what are the features of anthropogenesis and sociogenesis? What place was given to man in all things ancient?

Society as a developing system
Remember: what characterizes any mechanical system? How is the integrity of living organisms expressed? TO

Typology of societies
Remember: what are the main levels of consideration of society? What characterizes the historical-typological level

Historical development of humanity: search for social macrotheory
Remember: what applies to historical sources? What are the methods of studying history? What civilizations exist

Historical process
Remember: how do philosophers solve the question of the meaning and direction of social development? What are the differences?

The role of the people in the historical process
This role is interpreted by scientists in different ways. Marxist philosophy asserts that the masses, which include primarily the working people, are the creators of history and play a decisive role.

Social groups and public associations
Every individual belongs to some community. Speaking about the participants historical process, we refer to communities such as social groups. English philosopher T. Hobbes

Historical figures
At the beginning of the paragraph, the universality of the historical process was noted. Since it covers all manifestations of human activity, the circle of historical figures includes figures from various fields

The Problem of Social Progress
Remember: what meaning does science give to the concept of “society”? What is the difference between the linear-stage approach to p

How we protect our sense of freedom
If persuasive messages are intrusive, then they may be perceived as an intrusion into the sphere of freedom of individual choice and thereby intensify the search for ways to protect against them. So, if you are persistent

Spending free time by young Muscovites
Form of leisure Social status (in%) Above average Average Below average Low

The symbolic nature of culture
Any structure serving the sphere of social communication is a language. This means that it forms a certain system of signs used in accordance with known members of a given group

Labor activity
Remember: what role did labor play in the evolution of humanity? What are the labor relations? Than sq.

Sociology about job satisfaction
People have different attitudes towards their work. Some do not overburden themselves with work and work coolly. Others are literally “burning” at work. When they come home, they continue to think about what they didn’t have time to do

Political activity
Remember: what is the sphere of politics? What is the meaning of the concept “power”?

The problem of the world's cognition
Remember: what sense organs does a person have? How are their activities coordinated? What is human consciousness

How do we recognize an image?
Do we recognize a dog because we first saw its fur, four legs, eyes, ears, etc., or do we recognize these parts because we first saw the dog? This problem is whether recognition begins with cha

Truth and its criteria
Remember: how in the history of philosophical thought the question of the relationship between being and knowledge was resolved? What is expressed in

Faith and knowledge
That something exists outside of us and independently of us - we cannot know this, because everything that we know (is real), that is, everything that we experience, exists in us, and not outside of us (like our feeling

Practical thinking
The difference between theoretical and practical thinking is that they are related to practice in different ways: not that one of them has a connection with practice and the other does not, but that

Social cognition
Remember: what is the difference between the social sciences and the natural sciences? What are the features of activity in spirits

About natural and social sciences
The formation of concepts and theories in the social sciences has become a topic of discussion that has split not only logicians and methodologists, but also social scientists themselves into two camps for more than half a century. One of

Soul of the Crowd
...Decisions concerning general interests adopted by the assembly even famous people in the field of various specialties, differ little from the decisions made by a meeting of fools, since in both

Self-concept
A person's idea of ​​himself and how other people know him never completely coincide. Everyone extracts from their own experiences some essential content from their own point of view.

Personality as a subject of study
If natural sciences, having the subject of study of man, analyze his properties as a biological and often biosocial organism, then personality as social quality person is before

Periodization of personality development
How are the mental development of a person and his main activity interconnected? First historical principle into the study of different periods age development introduced in psychology by L. S. Vygotsk

Stages of personality development according to E. Erikson
Stage What choice is made I Trust in the world - distrust in it II Becoming a

Historical character of childhood
The modern division of human life into epochs and periods seems so natural that it is difficult to imagine any other option. The usual trio: childhood, adolescence and youth - like boo

Behavior and attitudes
Three competing theories explain why our actions influence the statements that reflect our attitudes. Self-presentation theory holds that people, especially those who control their behavior in

Communication barriers
The emergence of a barrier to understanding can be caused by a number of reasons, both psychological and other. It may occur due to errors in the process of transmitting information. [...] Phenomenon

Interaction in joint activities
When considering communication from the point of view of human interaction, it is always necessary to keep in mind the purpose of communication. This goal is to satisfy the need for joint activities of people. Result

Errors of perception
Depending on the proposed status of the person, the descriptions given by the subjects from the photograph changed. For example: Criminal. “This beast wants to understand something, looks intelligently and without interruption. WITH

Group cohesion and conformity behavior
Remember: can people always choose which association to participate in? What contributes to effective

Advice for a young wife
Organize your time: give everything a fixed time. Don’t stay with your husband in the morning: drive him to a position in his department, reminding him every minute that he should all belong to him.

Typical negotiation scenarios
Negotiations are a model for organizing conflicts and disagreements that involves “direct” coordination of the interests of the conflicting parties through open discussions by the participants about their differences.

A problem occurs. In this case, the sources of problems can be both empirical and theoretical in nature. 2.

Proposing hypotheses and identifying a specific area of ​​research to obtain new facts. Identification and recording of the object and subject of research, setting goals and formulating research objectives.

Hypotheses are assumptions about the possible results that will be obtained from the study. Hypotheses can be theoretical (explanatory) and empirical in nature.

An object of research is an objectively existing fragment of the surrounding world that has an infinite number of properties, connections, and relationships that interests the researcher.

The subject of research is a clearly defined side (property, connection, relationship) of an object that is supposed to be investigated.

The objectives of the study are what is expected to be obtained (or received) as the main and generalized results of the study.

The objectives of the study are to formulate how and in what ways the marked results can be obtained (or were obtained). 3.

Research planning and selection of specific methods. 4.

Implementation of the study. 5.

Processing of the obtained results: qualitative and quantitative (statistical). 6.

Interpretation and generalization of the results obtained: refutation or confirmation of hypotheses; formulation of laws and dependencies; construction of scientific theories.

It should be noted that the implementation research activities may differ from the formal sequence of description of its stages. In this case, as a rule, the following natural stages of functional organization are preserved scientific research:

Proposition of a testable hypothesis: a) within the framework of the existing one scientific theory; b) beyond the scope of existing scientific theories.

Collection and analysis of theoretical justifications and refutations of the put forward hypothesis.

Collection of data for the purpose of empirical confirmation or refutation of a hypothesis: a) search and use of available empirical data; b) organization of activities aimed at obtaining new empirical data.

Confirmation of the proposed hypothesis provides grounds for:

a) to confirm an existing scientific theory;

b) to the formulation of a new scientific theory.

A refutation of a put forward hypothesis provides grounds for: a) a refutation of the scientific theory within which the hypothesis was formulated; b) to refute the hypothesis and to accept or put forward other alternative hypotheses.

More on the topic What stages can be roughly distinguished in modern scientific activity?:

1. What periods can be distinguished in ancient philosophy and on what grounds?
2. 1.3.2. Structure of modern scientific knowledge What types of knowledge are available within each scientific field?
3. MODERN SOCIETY: SYNTHESIS OF HUMANITARIAN-CULTURAL AND SCIENTIFIC-RATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF INNOVATION ACTIVITY IN SCIENTIFIC COGNITION ETHOS OF COGNITION AND CIVILIZATION Alekseeva E.A.
4. 1 What conclusions can be drawn from our basis [for proving the existence of God] about the superiority of the natural order over the supernatural?
5. 1.5.2. Problems that arise when mastering scientific knowledge What problems arise when interpreting sign-symbolic means in which scientific knowledge is recorded?

Each of us, even being very far from professional scientific activity, constantly uses the fruits of science, embodied in a mass of modern things. But science enters our lives not only through the “door” of mass production, technical innovations, and everyday comfort.
Scientific ideas about the structure of the world, about the place and role of man in it (the scientific picture of the world) to one degree or another penetrate into the consciousness of people; principles and approaches to understanding reality developed by science become guidelines in our Everyday life.
From about the 17th century, as industrial society developed, the authority of science and the methodology (principles, approaches) of scientific thinking became increasingly stronger. At the same time, alternative pictures of the world, including religious, and other ways of knowing (mystical insight, etc.) were gradually pushed to the periphery public consciousness.
However, in recent decades, in a number of countries with traditionally strong trust in science, the situation has begun to change. Many researchers note the increasing influence of extrascientific knowledge. In this regard, they even talk about the existing two types of people. The first type is science-oriented. Its representatives are characterized by activity, internal independence, openness to new ideas and experience, willingness to flexibly adapt to changes in work and life, and practicality. They are open to discussion and skeptical of authority.
The thinking of another type of personality, focused on non-scientific pictures of the world, is characterized by an orientation towards practical benefits, an interest in the mysterious and miraculous. These people, as a rule, do not look for evidence of their results and are not interested in checking them. Priority is given to the sensory-concrete rather than the abstract-theoretical form of knowledge. They believe that anyone can make a discovery, not just a professional researcher. For such people, the main support is faith, opinions, authority. (Which type would you classify yourself as?)
But why is the influence of alternative scientific views and attitudes growing? There are different explanations given here. Some believe that in the 20th century. science revealed its powerlessness in solving a number of problems important to humanity, moreover, it became the source of many new difficulties, leading Western civilization to decline. There is also such a point of view: humanity, like a pendulum, is constantly moving from the phase of preference for rational thinking and science to the phase of the decline of rationalism and an increasing craving for faith and revelation. Thus, the first flowering of enlightenment occurred in the era of classical Greece: it was then that the transition from mythological to rational thinking was made. By the end of the reign of Pericles, the pendulum swung in the opposite direction: all kinds of cults, magical healing, and astrological forecasts took center stage. Supporters of this point of view believe that modern humanity has entered the final phase of the flowering of rationalism, which began with the Age of Enlightenment.
But perhaps those who believe that civilization has already accumulated a certain fatigue from the burden of choice and responsibility and that astrological predestination is preferable to scientific criticism and constant doubts are right. (What do you think?)
Basic concepts: scientific theory, empirical law, hypothesis, scientific experiment, modeling, scientific revolution.
Terms: differentiation, integration.

1. Here is how the German philosopher K. Popper proved the unscientific nature of astrology: the prophecies of astrologers are uncertain, they are difficult to verify, many prophecies did not come true, astrologers use an unsatisfactory way of explaining their failures (predicting the individual future is a difficult task; mutual arrangement stars and planets are constantly changing, etc.).
What criteria for distinguishing scientific and extra-scientific knowledge can be identified using this example? Name other criteria.
2. Expand your understanding of Pushkin’s lines “Science reduces our experiences of fast-flowing life.”
3. L. Pasteur argued: “Science should be the most sublime embodiment of the fatherland, for of all nations the first will always be the one that is ahead of others in the field of thought and mental activity.”
Is this conclusion confirmed by the course of history?
4. Find errors in the following text.
Rigorous empirical knowledge is accumulated only through observation. Close to observation is experiment. But it no longer gives strict knowledge, because a person here interferes with the nature of the subject being studied: he places it in an environment unusual for it, tests it in extreme conditions. Thus, the knowledge obtained during the experiment can only be partially considered true and objective.

Read an excerpt from the work of the German philosopher K. Jaspers “The Origins of History and Its Purpose.”

Modern science

Casting a glance at world history, we discover three stages of knowledge: firstly, rationalization in general, which in one form or another is a universal human property, appears with man as such; ...secondly, the formation of logically and methodically conscious science - Greek science and, in parallel, the beginnings of scientific knowledge in China and India; thirdly, the emergence of modern science, growing from the end of the Middle Ages, decisively establishing itself from the 17th century. and unfolding in all its breadth since the 19th century. This science makes European culture - at least since the 17th century. - different from the culture of all other countries...
Science has three necessary characteristics: cognitive methods, reliability and general validity...
Modern science universal according to your spirit. There is no area that could isolate itself from it for a long time. Everything that happens in the world is subject to observation, consideration, research - natural phenomena, actions or statements of people, their creations and destinies. Religion and all authorities also become the object of study. And not only reality, but also all mental possibilities become the object of study...
Modern science, addressed to the individual, seeks to reveal its comprehensive connections... The idea of ​​the interconnectedness of all sciences gives rise to dissatisfaction with individual knowledge. Modern science is not only universal, but strives for a unification of sciences that can never be achieved.
Every science is defined by a method and a subject. Each is a perspective of the vision of the world, not one comprehends the world as such, each covers a segment of reality, but not reality - perhaps one side of reality, but not reality as a whole, however, each of them enters into a world that is limitless, but all -still one in the kaleidoscope of connections...
Questions and tasks: 1) What stages of cognition does the author highlight? 2) What does the philosopher understand by such a feature of modern science as universality? 3) How does the text treat the problem of integration and differentiation of scientific knowledge? 4) How does the author explain the impossibility of complete unification of the sciences?

Social cognition

Let's imagine a scientist bending over a microscope, in front of the control panel of a microparticle accelerator or the terminal of a modern telescope. The study of the living, micro- and macro-world includes scrupulous observation, verified calculations and experiments, and the construction of mathematical or computer models. When studying society, scientists also observe, compare, calculate, and sometimes experiment (for example, selecting a space crew or a polar expedition based on the principle of psychological compatibility). Does this mean that the same methods are used to study society as to study nature? Scientists have answered this question in different ways.

Casting a glance at world history, we discover three stages of knowledge: firstly, rationalization in general, which in one form or another is a universal human property, appears with man as such; ...secondly, the formation of logically and methodically conscious science - Greek science and, in parallel, the beginnings of scientific knowledge in China and India; thirdly, the emergence of modern science, growing from the end of the Middle Ages, decisively establishing itself from the 17th century. and unfolding in all its breadth since the 19th century. This science has been making European culture - at least since the 17th century. - different from the culture of all other countries... Science has three necessary characteristics: cognitive methods, reliability and general validity... Modern science universal according to your spirit. There is no area that could isolate itself from it for a long time. Everything that happens in the world is subject to observation, consideration, research - natural phenomena, actions or statements of people, their creations and destinies. Religion and all authorities also become the object of study. And not only reality, but also all mental possibilities become the object of study... Modern science, addressed to the individual, strives to reveal its comprehensive connections... The idea of ​​interconnectedness of all sciences gives rise to dissatisfaction with individual knowledge. Modern science is not only universal, but strives for such a unification of sciences, which is never achievable. Each science is defined by a method and a subject. Each is a perspective of the vision of the world, none comprehends the world as such, each covers a segment of reality, but not reality - perhaps one side of reality, but not reality as a whole, however, each of them enters into a world that is limitless, but all Still one in the kaleidoscope of connections... Questions and tasks: 1) What stages of cognition does the author highlight? 2) What does the philosopher understand by such a feature of modern science as universality? 3) How does the text treat the problem of integration and differentiation of scientific knowledge? 4) How does the author explain the impossibility of complete unification of the sciences?

The author writes about the integration of scientific knowledge, the convergence of research methods in different fields of knowledge, emphasizing that “the theoretical levels of individual sciences converge in a general theoretical, philosophical explanation of open principles and laws, in the formation of ideological and methodological aspects of scientific knowledge as a whole.” Is integration only characteristic of modern science? Formulate your point of view and provide two arguments to support it.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

<...>Science is a historically established form of human activity aimed at knowing and transforming objective reality, a spiritual production that results in purposefully selected and systematized facts, logically verified hypotheses, generalizing theories, fundamental and particular laws, as well as research methods.

Science is simultaneously a system of knowledge, its spiritual production, and practical activity based on it.

For any scientific knowledge, the presence of what is being studied and how it is being studied are essential. The answer to the question of what is being researched reveals the nature of the subject of science, and the answer to the question of how the research is carried out reveals the research method.

The qualitative diversity of reality and social practice has determined the multifaceted nature of human thinking and different areas of scientific knowledge. Modern science is an extremely ramified collection of individual scientific branches. The subject of science is not only the world external to man, various forms and types of movement of things, but also their reflection in consciousness, i.e. the man himself. According to their subject, sciences are divided into natural-technical, studying the laws of nature and methods of its development and transformation, and social, studying various social phenomena and the laws of their development, as well as man himself as a social being ( humanitarian cycle). Among the social sciences, a special place is occupied by a complex of philosophical disciplines that study the most general laws development of nature, society, and thinking.

The subject of science influences its methods, i.e. techniques, ways of studying an object. So, in natural sciences One of the main research techniques is experiment, and in social sciences- statistics. At the same time, the boundaries between sciences are quite arbitrary. For modern stage The development of scientific knowledge is characterized not only by the emergence of related disciplines (for example, biophysics), but also by the mutual enrichment of scientific methodologies. General scientific logical techniques are induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, as well as systematic and probabilistic approaches and much more. Each science has a different empirical level, i.e. accumulated factual material - the results of observations and experiments, and the theoretical level, i.e. generalization of empirical material, expressed in relevant theories, laws and principles; scientific assumptions based on facts, hypotheses that need further verification by experience. The theoretical levels of individual sciences converge in a general theoretical, philosophical explanation of open principles and laws, in the formation of ideological and methodological aspects of scientific knowledge as a whole<...>

(Spirkin A.G.)

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) An answer is given and a point of view is formulated, let’s say:

Modern science is characterized not only by integration;

In addition to integration, we can also talk about the disintegration of scientific knowledge, the separation of more specific scientific disciplines;

2) Arguments are given, for example:

In the social sciences, increasingly narrow areas of research are distinguished, for example, the science that studies the nature of power - cratology;

In the natural sciences, with the discovery of new elements, particles, and the development of nanotechnology, new areas of knowledge also arise;

With the advent of new techniques and ways of knowing among humanity, new scientific disciplines arise both in the study of the microworld and in the study of the megaworld, the Universe, etc.

Other correct wording of the answer may also be given.