Agriculture.

Agriculture played a primary role in the economy of the Novgorod Republic - medieval society was agrarian. The most important source of knowledge about agriculture is archaeology. Through a comprehensive study of grain, weed seeds and agricultural tools found during excavations, it was established that the level of development of agriculture in the Novgorod land was very high already in the 11th - 12th centuries.

Of the cultivated crops, the first place belonged to winter rye, as indicated by the predominance of winter weed seeds (the fact is that for each crop there are accompanying plants).

Wheat took second place in Novgorod agriculture. Judging by the seeds of spring weeds, in the 12th century, mainly spring wheat was grown in the Novgorod land. Barley and oats were sown to a much lesser extent than rye and wheat.

The appearance of winter rye is a sure sign of the formation of a free farming system. In conditions of old arable soils, the predecessor of a field with winter rye can only be a fallow field, which is the defining element of this system. One of its forms is two-field - alternating fallow and winter rye. Since it has been established that wheat was cultivated on the ancient Novgorod spring field, we can talk about the existence in the 12th century of a three-field crop rotation, most common under the fallow farming system. True, the swidden and shifting systems of agriculture, which had lost their former significance, still continued to exist, as well as some transitional forms of the fallow system, for example, variegated fields, when the crops of bread and fallow alternated without any order.

The agricultural technology used by ancient Novgorod farmers corresponded to the level of development of agriculture of that time. During excavations in Novgorod, openers were discovered, the design of which proves that they were used for cultivating cultivated old arable soils. In a cultural layer of the 13th century, a vomer of the so-called reinforced design was found, differing from the usual one in slightly smaller dimensions, greater thickness and a narrower working part. Such openers were intended for processing heavy soils and forest clearing. This means that the shifting system of agriculture had not yet disappeared by that time.

The land was cultivated with multi-pronged, often three-pronged, plows. The appearance of such plows was obviously associated with the transition to arable farming using draft power. The bread was harvested using sickles.

Closely connected with agriculture was cattle breeding, which also played an important role in the economy of the Novgorodians. If agriculture was the main occupation of the rural population of the Novgorod Republic, then city dwellers could also engage in cattle breeding. This is evidenced by archaeological data. In all layers of ancient Novgorod, uncovered by excavations, a huge number of animal bones were discovered. The widespread cultivation of cattle breeding in Novgorod is evidenced by a cultural layer richly saturated with manure. Novgorodians raised large and small cattle, pigs, and horses.

In addition to cattle breeding, both the rural and urban population of the Novgorod land were engaged in vegetable growing and fruit growing. Gardens and orchards were probably part of many city estates. In any case, seeds of vegetables and fruits are not a rare find during excavations. Cucumber seeds were discovered in the 13th century layers. It can also be assumed that cabbage was grown in ancient Novgorod - in the layers of the 13th century, strikers were found - hand tools for planting cabbage. Under 1215, the chronicle mentions turnips, which, apparently, were very common in Novgorod. Seeds of garden dill were discovered in layers of the 12th century.

The most common fruit tree was the cherry. Cherry pits are found very often during excavations, with the largest number in the layers of the 12th century. Apple trees were also grown in Novgorod.

Black currants and raspberries were grown from berry bushes, the seeds of which are often found during excavations.

Despite the fact that the agriculture of Veliky Novgorod was developed, as far as conditions allowed, it could not meet all the needs of the Novgorod population. As noted in the introduction, the scarcity of soil and the nature of the climate encouraged the Novgorodians to actively engage in crafts and trade. In addition, by producing goods, Novgorod could sell them to the West without intermediaries. Thus, the prerequisites for the development of crafts in the Novgorod Republic were quite significant.

The chronicles name the following craft specialties: shield maker, tanner, silver maker, boiler maker, oponnik, carnation maker, blacksmith. Silver artisans were called silversmiths. Shield makers, carnation makers and boiler makers were masters of various specialties in blacksmithing. Oponniks were called artisans who were engaged in a certain type of weaving (later they began to be called felt makers). Novgorodians achieved particular success in carpentry: they were known in Rus' as skilled carpenters.

At the end of the Brief Edition of Russian Pravda there is a so-called “lesson for bridge builders.” Mostniks were apparently the name given to builders of roadways or bridges. In the damp Novgorod climate, city streets without pavements would be impassable and impassable, especially in spring and autumn. The pavements were rebuilt approximately every 15 - 20 years, sometimes they were repaired, and thanks to this they lasted longer. Thus, bridge workers did not experience a shortage of work, and this specialty appeared early (the oldest Novgorod pavements date back to the middle of the 10th century). Quite often it was necessary to build bridges that constantly suffered from fires; even the Great Bridge across the Volkhov burned repeatedly. The great attention to the construction of pavements is evidenced by the so-called “Charter of Prince Yaroslav on bridges” dating back to the 60s of the 13th century, which talks about the obligation of Novgorodians to pave public areas of the city.

The craft professions mentioned in the chronicles do not exhaust all types of craft in ancient Novgorod; there were much more of them. It turned out to be possible to find out what the level of development of the craft was, how diverse the craft professions were, only after systematic archaeological work began to be carried out in Novgorod.

Excavations of Novgorod, which began in 1932 and continue to this day, showed that Novgorod was the largest craft center of its time. This conclusion was made based on the study of the remains of craft workshops uncovered by excavations and the products of Novgorod artisans. Of course, not all craft workshops left behind traces from which one can reliably establish what their inhabitants were doing. A craft workshop can be identified, first of all, by a large number of production residues, as well as by defective products, semi-finished products and tools. As a result of excavations carried out in different areas of the city, the remains of craft workshops were discovered. This indicates that the majority of the population of ancient Novgorod was engaged in various crafts.

The 12th century and the first half of the 13th century were the heyday of crafts in many ancient Russian cities. But the heavy burden of the Tatar yoke could not but affect the production spheres of Rus'. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of people, including artisans, were killed or taken into captivity. As a result of this, the craft fell into decline. Novgorod the Great escaped ruin by escaping with tribute.

However, if in a number of cities destroyed by the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the period preceding it turned out to be the time of the highest flowering of medieval crafts (the pre-Mongol level of handicraft production in these cities could not reach at a later time), then this cannot be said about Novgorod. The process of development of productive forces in the Novgorod feudal republic was not interrupted, and in the second half of the 13th century they continued to develop in an ascending line. Novgorod craft, like Novgorod itself, reached its peak in the 14th century.

The high level of ironworking production contributed to the progress of many other crafts that could not have developed successfully without the appropriate tools. Based on the study of various tools, it can be argued that in Novgorod, in addition to masters of various blacksmith specialties, mechanics, turners, joiners, carpenters, woodworkers, woodcarvers, bone carvers, tanners, shoemakers, tailors, and jewelers worked. The study of a huge number of household items and other finished products, as well as semi-finished and defective products, helps to supplement the list of specialties of Novgorod artisans. Noteworthy is the wide variety of both finished products and tools.

Obviously, artisans in Novgorod specialized in the production of certain types of products. Moreover, sometimes the same master was engaged in different types of craft. A shoemaker, for example, was also a tanner for a long time, which is confirmed by joint finds of remains of both productions. Only in the 12th - 13th centuries did the shoemaking craft separate from the tanning craft. The shield maker, in addition to knowledge of blacksmithing, had to have skills in processing copper, wood and leather, since shields were made from all these materials. But at the same time, a narrow specialization developed in the blacksmith’s craft (nail makers, lock makers, etc.).

A variety of metal jewelry: bracelets, rings, brooches, pendants, beads were made by highly qualified jewelers. It has been established that most of the jewelry discovered during excavations in Novgorod is a locally produced product. This is confirmed by finds of jewelry workshops, tools and semi-finished products. Master jewelers mastered a number of complex technical techniques: casting, free forging, drawing, rolling, embossing, chasing, engraving, soldering, gilding, champlevé enamel, heat treatment of copper and bronze.

A huge number of remnants of leather shoes and scraps of leather is evidence of the widespread use of shoemaking in Novgorod.

Pottery production was also developed. The most common finds during excavations are numerous fragments of pottery.

Weaving received significant development in ancient Novgorod. During excavations, many scraps of various fabrics were discovered in all layers. Based on a study of textile samples, it was established that until the middle of the 13th century, the main production tool was a vertical loom, but a more productive horizontal loom was also known in Novgorod, as evidenced by the finds of its parts. Weavers made fabrics from ready-made yarn, linen and wool. Spinning in Novgorod has been known since the earliest times (during excavations, many wooden spindles, flax carders, flappers, spindle whorls, and spinning wheels were found).

Craftsmen involved in wood processing also made up a very large group of Novgorod craftsmen. The huge variety of wooden products discovered during excavations (spoons, ladles, bowls, carved vessels, disks, dishes) indicates a high level of development of woodworking craft. In addition to turning tools, parts of a lathe were found. Often found are blank spoons, unfinished and damaged wooden ladles, bowls, and tops.

Combs, knife handles, various jewelry, piercings, checkers, chess pieces, buttons, etc. were most often made from bone. Processed pieces of bone, sawn pieces of horn, and semi-finished combs were found in all Novgorod layers. The technique of bone processing was high, as evidenced by the finds of both high-quality bone products themselves and the tools with which they were made.

A large group of finds in Novgorod consists of glass items, and, first of all, fragments of glass bracelets. Until recently, it was believed that the vast majority of bracelets were made in the workshops of ancient Kyiv, from where they were distributed throughout Rus'. The existence of local production of bracelets in Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and other cities was only assumed.

Using data from archaeological excavations, researchers have established that Novgorod had its own bracelet production (in addition to Kyiv imports) and that it appeared in pre-Mongol times. It was also established that initially Novgorod bracelets were made from lead-silica glass, which in its composition did not differ from the glass known in other cities, but it always contained antimony oxide as a microimpurity. The emergence of its own production of bracelets in Novgorod is associated with the resettlement of bracelet makers from Kyiv, who could not withstand the competition in their homeland. The first bracelets appeared in Novgorod around the middle of the 12th century. In addition, during excavations, bracelets made of potassium-lead-silica glass were found.

At the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there were already two glassmaking schools in Novgorod. Glassmakers of the first school melted lead-silica glass and made green, yellow and brown bracelets from it. The masters of the second school brewed potassium-lead-silica glass and made from it bracelets of all colors known in Rus', while producing mainly turquoise, violet and blue bracelets, which their competitors, the glassmakers of the first school, could not make. This indicates a certain specialization in bracelet production.

Some craft professions have to be judged only by insignificant material finds. A number of specialties did not leave behind archaeological traces at all.

These include bread makers, kalachniks, and various specialized tailors, which we can learn about from scribe books of the 16th century and which obviously existed in an earlier time, since the need for their products existed before.

Trade.

Trade played an important role in the economy of ancient Russian cities. Russian merchants traded with the Baltic states and the Arab East, with Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe. Even in pre-Mongol times, a number of large craft and trade centers formed in Rus', of which Novgorod stood out in the north. The products of artisans had to find markets, and not only in the city itself, but also in nearby districts and in more distant places. If at first the artisan was also a merchant, then later a special class of merchants emerged. Merchants specialized in trade, so the emergence of this class contributed to the development of external and internal trade relations.

Trade ties within the Novgorod land undoubtedly existed for a long time, and they arose earlier than foreign trade ties, but it is quite difficult to trace them due to the extreme paucity of chronicle reports. The village was of little interest to the city chronicler, and other cities were mentioned by him only in connection with some important political events. Archaeologically, these connections are also almost impossible to trace, since it is impossible to determine the difference between many locally produced items made in different cities of the Novgorod land, for example, iron knives made in Novgorod, Pskov or Russa.

One can only distinguish objects made by rural artisans from products of highly skilled urban craftsmen.

In Novgorod, as in the ancient Russian village in general, subsistence farming dominated. The basic needs of the rural population were satisfied within their own households, and they received the things needed in the household and everyday life, as a rule, from rural artisans. Only high-quality steel tools, weapons, some types of jewelry, and jewelry had to be purchased in the city. Exchange in rural areas most likely occurred in its simplest form, when a blacksmith (or other rural artisan) received meat, grain, fish, etc. for his products.

Agricultural products came from the village to the city for sale and were sold for money. The purchase and sale took place “at the auction”, the city market, which was in every city. Here prices for goods were usually set, fluctuating depending on various circumstances, mainly depending on harvests and crop failures. The chronicle repeatedly indicates an increase in prices, mainly for bread, during famine years.

Sometimes frosts or rains, which caused another crop failure, did not cover the entire territory of the Novgorod land. In such cases, Novgorod received bread from Torzhok or from other regions of the Novgorod Republic. The supply of bread was often influenced by the political situation. So, in the lean year of 1215, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was sitting in Torzhok, who was in conflict with the Novgorodians, who “do not let anything into the city.” Bread prices at the Novgorod market, of course, rose.

During the famine years, bread was so expensive that many were simply unable to buy it. Part of the population, fleeing hunger, left Novgorod for other lands.

Residents of Novgorod raised livestock, which was also a subject of trade.

Numerous products of highly skilled city blacksmiths were also sold at the auction. Knives, keys, locks, and axes were in constant demand among the population. Thus, the activities of Novgorod artisans were primarily aimed at meeting the needs of the residents of Novgorod itself and surrounding areas.

Foreign trade relations of Novgorod were extensive. They can be judged from both archaeological and written sources. Several documents characterizing trade relations between Novgorod and the West have survived to this day. One of such documents is the treaty letter of Novgorod with the Gothic coast, Lübeck and German cities (1139 - 1199).

Novgorod's main partners in Western trade in the 12th - 13th centuries were Gotland, Denmark and Lubeck.

In the middle of the 12th century. in Novgorod there already existed a trading court of Gotlandic merchants with the church of St. Olaf.

Russian merchants on Gotland also had their own courtyards and a church, which was apparently built by the Novgorodians. This is evidenced by the frescoes of the Gotlandic church, which are almost completely similar to the frescoes of one of the Novgorod churches.

The city of Visby on Gotland in the 12th century was the center of trading activity throughout the Baltic basin. It was nominally dependent on Sweden. In 1170 - 1270, when a colony of German merchants from Westphalia firmly settled there, Visby reached its heyday.

And although the Gotlandic merchants during this period were also Germans, in order to distinguish them from the German merchants from mainland German cities, the Russians called them Goths or Varangians. The Germans mentioned in the chronicle under 1188 (this is their first mention) should be considered Swedes: since we are talking about Swedish cities, their inhabitants, obviously, should be Swedes. Usually the Swedes were called “Swei”.

At the end of the 80s of the 12th century, Novgorod established trade relations with Lubeck. Having appeared in Novgorod, German merchants also created their own court and built the Church of St. Petra. In 1187, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa granted Lübeck a charter, which granted Russian and other merchants the right to duty-free trade in Lübeck. This suggests the existence of a permanent Russian (most likely Novgorod) colony in Lübeck. Trade with Lubeck and German cities developed very intensively at the end of the 13th century. acquired paramount importance, the Danes and Goths were relegated to the background.

The composition of imports from Western Europe to Novgorod is not easy to establish. We know almost no written sources. Of the archaeological materials, only amber can be named with certainty. Amber products in Novgorod are very numerous (more than 2000 copies). Amber was most often brought to Novgorod in unprocessed form and processed here by local artisans. The smallest number of amber finds were collected in the layers of the 13th century.

Moreover, amber was imported to Novgorod not only from the Baltic states, but also from the Dnieper region, where there were also deposits of it. A sharp reduction in the import of amber in the 13th century. is explained by the fact that as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the delivery of goods to Novgorod along the Dnieper route ceased. Amber was also not imported from the Baltic states at this time, since throughout the entire 13th century Novgorod was in hostile relations with the Teutonic Order. In the early 40s, there was a war between them, during which trade relations with the Baltic states were completely stopped.

Among the items imported from the West are jewelry (however, very few).

Some types of fabrics were also imported to Novgorod, primarily cloth. It has been established that in the 12th century, high-quality English fabrics predominated in Novgorod imports. However, in the 13th century, Flemish fabrics also appeared, which subsequently completely captured the local market. In addition to cloth, expensive Byzantine fabrics - pavoloka - were also imported to Novgorod. In 1228, pavoloka was mentioned among the gifts that the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich brought to Pskov.

In the XII-XIII centuries, jewelry craft reached a high level in Novgorod. A large amount of copper was found in a number of workshops in the form of finished products, semi-finished products, production waste, ingots and simply pieces of ground. It is known that copper was not mined on the territory of the Novgorod land. Therefore, we had to import it from abroad. Metal in the form of raw materials was supplied to Novgorod by Gothic and German (Lübeck) merchants, independent of the Teutonic Order. The trade in non-ferrous metals was not hindered by hostile relations between Novgorod and the Order.

In the first half of the 13th century. in northern Europe, in the Baltic region, salt trade began to develop. Novgorod participated in it as a buyer. Of all imported goods, salt was the most widely consumed item. It was not only a necessary food product, but was also used in large quantities in the leather industry.

Foreign trade of the Novgorod Republic was not limited to the western direction; it was also carried out with southern countries. Archaeological data suggest that in the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod was connected by trade relations with the North Caucasus, Central Asia, Iran and, perhaps, with Byzantium. This is evidenced by finds of clearly southern origin. Walnut shells were discovered during excavations in various layers of different times. The largest number of finds comes from the 12th century, and starting from the 40s of the 13th century. Walnut shells are rare. Almond finds are rare. Both walnuts and almonds could be imported from Byzantium, Crimea or the Caucasus.

Products made from boxwood are imported. Boxwood is a southern tree; it still grows on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. It was apparently imported to Novgorod by the Volga or Dnieper route. Boxwood combs, which existed in Novgorod for five centuries, are found during excavations, most often in layers of the 13th century. and very rarely - in the layers of the 12th century. At this time, the struggle between the Russian principalities and the Polovtsians intensified, which made it difficult for merchants to move along the Volga trade route. Boxwood wood was brought to Novgorod in unprocessed form, and the combs were made by local artisans. This conclusion was made on the basis of the absolute similarity of boxwood combs in shape and size with some types of bone combs of local Novgorod production. In addition, the cutting technique for many wood and bone combs is absolutely identical. Not only combs were made from boxwood. In the layers of the 13th century. A small round boxwood box was found, the internal cavity of which had not yet been carved. Obviously, this is a semi-finished product, for some reason not processed to the end, discarded or lost by the Novgorod master. Frequent finds of boxwood combs in Novgorod indicate that they were ordinary household items that any city resident could buy, and not luxury items available only to wealthy people.

In general, it was luxury goods that were most often imported from distant countries to Rus'. In the pre-Mongol layers of ancient Novgorod, fragments of expensive imported glazing vessels were discovered at that time. It was used only by wealthy circles of Novgorod society.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. White clay earthenware with a white opaque glaze and painted with cobalt (blue) and manganese (lilac-violet) was brought to Novgorod. These were, as a rule, bowls and dishes decorated with motifs in combination with geometric ones. Birds were often depicted on the inside bottom, and the walls near the rim were decorated with oblique wide parallel lines. In the layer of the second half of the 12th century. a part of a luster dish with an Arabic inscription was found.

The center of production of glazed earthenware ceramics with luster and cobalt painting was Iran. Novgorod specimens are also undoubtedly of Iranian origin. The latest finds of such dishes date back to before 1240. From the middle of the 13th century, only Golden Horde glazed ceramics are found. This suggests that since the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the import of Iranian dishes into Rus' ceased, since the Tatar-Mongol state formed on the Volga - the Golden Horde - began to control the Volga trade route, the importance of which fell.

One of the items of Russian import has long been various spices, which were in wide demand. Wine was also imported from the West and the East. Findings of Greek sponges indicate connections with the Mediterranean.

Rus' exported its goods to various countries. Unfortunately, we have almost no sources indicating the composition of Novgorod exports. The chronicles sometimes report on the adventures of Novgorod merchants returning “from across the sea.” Obviously, they did not go for overseas goods empty-handed, but also brought their own goods, which they traded “overseas.”

What were these goods? First of all, fur. Novgorod land has long been famous for its hunting grounds. Furs were highly valued abroad, both in the East and in Europe, and were the most important item of Russian export. According to the testimony of Arab writers, Rus' supplied furs from beavers, black foxes, sables, squirrels and other fur-bearing animals.

Furs came to Novgorod in the form of tribute, which the Novgorodians took from the northern tribes under their control.

Among the goods exported from Novgorod abroad was wax. Candles were made from it, the demand for which was great in Christian countries. In addition, wax was widely used in crafts, in particular in jewelry (casting from a wax model). Wax began to be exported back in pre-Mongol times - a corporation of wax merchants existed in Novgorod, apparently already in the 12th century. In the Novgorod land itself, bee farming was less developed than in North-Eastern Rus', so Novgorod, although it traded its wax, primarily played the role of a transit center in the trade of wax imported from neighboring principalities.

Novgorod land (Republic)

The power of one person over another destroys, first of all, the ruler.

Lev Tolstoy

The largest principality of the era of appanage fragmentation of Rus' was the Novgorod land, which was governed in the form of a boyar republic. The principality flourished due to the development of trade and crafts, because Novgorod, the center of the earth, was located on the most important trade routes. Novgorod maintained its independence from Kyiv for a long time and managed to maintain its independence and identity.

Geographical position

The Novgorod principality or Novgorod land (republic) was located in the northern part of Rus' from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, and from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains. The capital is Novgorod. Large cities: Novgorod, Pskov, Staraya Russa, Ladoga, Torzhok, Korela, Pskov and others.

Map of Novgorod land in the 12th-13th centuries.

The specificity of the geographical location was the almost complete absence of agriculture, since the soil was unsuitable for agriculture, as well as the remoteness from the steppes, due to which Novgorod practically did not see the Mongol invasion. At the same time, the principality was constantly subjected to military invasions by the Swedes, Lithuanians and German knights. Thus, it was the Novgorod lands that were the shield of Rus', which protected it from the North and West.

Geographical neighbors of the Novgorod Republic:

• Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
• Principality of Smolensk
• Principality of Polotsk
• Livonia
• Sweden

Economic features

The lack of good arable land has led to Crafts and trade actively developed in the Novgorod Republic. Among the crafts that stood out were: iron production, fishing, hunting, salt making and other crafts characteristic of the northern regions. Trade was mainly carried out with neighboring regions: the Baltic states, German cities, Volga Bulgaria, Scandinavia.

Novgorod was the richest trading city in Rus'. This was achieved by the advantageous geographical location, as well as the presence of trade relations with various regions, including with Byzantium and the Caucasus. Basically, Novgorodians traded furs, honey, wax, iron products, pottery, weapons, and so on.

Political structure

The Novgorod feudal republic was formally governed by a prince, but in reality the system of government can be represented in the form of an inverted triangle.

The real power was with the Veche and the boyars. Suffice it to say that it was the veche that appointed the prince, and it could also expel him. In addition, at the citywide assembly, which functioned within the framework of the boyar council (300 gold belts), the following were appointed:

• The prince was invited along with his squad. His residence was outside the city. The main task is to protect Novgorod land from external threats.
• Posadnik is the head of the city administration. His tasks are monitoring the prince, court in the cities, and governing the cities. He was subordinate to the city's street elders.
• Tysyatsky - head of the city administration and city militia (assistant mayor). He was involved in population management.
• The archbishop is the head of the Novgorod church. Tasks: storage of archives and treasury, responsibility for external relations, monitoring of trade, compilation and preservation of chronicles. The archbishop was confirmed by the Moscow metropolitan.

The prince could be summoned by the Novgorodians, but he could also be expelled, which happened often. A gift (agreement) was concluded with the prince, which indicated the rights and obligations of the prince. The prince was seen only as a protector against foreign invaders, but had no influence on domestic politics or the appointment/removal of officials. Suffice it to say that during the 12th-13th centuries the princes in Novgorod changed 58 times! Therefore, we can safely say that the real power in this principality belonged to the boyars and merchants.

The political independence of the Novgorod Republic was formalized in 1132-1136 after the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. After this, the Novgorod land eliminated the power of Kyiv and became a virtually independent state with a republican form of government. Therefore, it is customary to say that the Novgorod state was a boyar republic with elements of a system of city self-government.

Novgorod the Great

Novgorod - the capital of the Novgorod land, was founded in the 9th century as a result of the unification of the villages of three tribes: Chud, Slavic and Meryan. The city was located along the Volkhov River and was divided by it into two parts: eastern and western. The eastern part was called Torgovaya, and the western part was called Sophia (in honor of the cathedral).

Novgorod was one of the largest and most beautiful cities not only in Rus', but also in Europe. The city's population was quite educated compared to other cities. This was largely due to the fact that crafts and trade developed in the city, which required specific knowledge.

Culture

Novgorod is one of the largest cities of its time. It is no coincidence that he is often called Mister Veliky Novgorod. In the center of the city was the St. Sophia Cathedral. The pavements in the city were paved with logs and were constantly renewed. The city itself was surrounded by a moat and wooden walls. The city practiced wood and stone construction. As a rule, churches and temples were built of stone, one of the functions of which was to store money.

Chronicles, fairy tales and epics were created in the Novgorod land. Much attention was paid to icon painting. The brightest painting of that era is “Angel with Golden Hair,” which today can be seen in the Russian Museum of St. Petersburg.

Architecture and fresco painting also developed in the principality. The main direction of development is realism.

Main events

Main events in the principality in the 12th-13th centuries:

• 1136 - the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, after which the Novgorodians independently elected their own prince.
• 1156 - independent election of the Novgorod Archbishop
• 1207-1209 - social movements in Novgorod against the boyars
• 1220-1230 reign of Yaroslav, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest
• 1236-1251 - reign of Alexander Nevsky

Novgorod stood out from the cities of the north-west with its power. “Mr. Great Novgorod” - they called him. Thanks to its geographical location, Novgorod became a trade intermediary between the West and the East.

The power of the prince in Novgorod was limited to the veche, which was revered as the supreme state body. It was a boyar republic, but the voice of the people at the veche was heard.

Since ancient times, Novgorodians were famous as builders of wooden temples, fortresses, and palaces.

In 1045-1050 they erected the first stone cathedral - St. Sophia in the center of Detinets (Novgorod Kremlin), on the banks of the Volkhov. Its founder is Prince Vladimir, the son of Yaroslav the Wise. This is a five-nave temple with five apses in the east. It is simpler and more severe than the Kyiv Sophia, has five chapters (instead of thirteen). From the paintings in the temple, a composition depicting the first Christian emperor Constantine and his mother Helen has been preserved. Next to her head is the inscription “Olepa,” which indicates the Novgorod origin of the author of the fresco.

At the beginning of the 12th century, Novgorod turned into a veche republic, the princes were expelled from Detinets. They settle in Gorodishche, where they build fortress monasteries with temples, asserting their authority.

The largest monument of this time is St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery. It combined monumentality, epic power and simplicity. Impenetrable steppes are dissected by powerful blades. The cathedral has three asymmetrically located domes, towards which the entire internal space of the temple seems to be directed.

In painting at the beginning of the 12th century, there were two directions: Greek, influenced by Byzantium (paintings of the St. Nicholas Cathedral and others), and a direction influenced by Western Europe (frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Antoniev Monastery).

Of particular importance were the frescoes of the Church of the Spa on Nereditsa, which once covered the walls, vaults, and dome of the temple with a single carpet. Opp indicate that Novgorod had its own school of fresco painters. In the dome there is a scene of the Ascension of Christ, in the apse there is the Mother of God of O rank with Christ depicted on the chest in a circle, and under her there are two rows of saints. On the western wall the Last Judgment is depicted, on the steppes - the Gospel story of the passion of Christ. The art is harsh and even menacing. In the images of saints, truly popular, strong-willed and courageous strength breathes.

Icon painting has reached a high level. In the icon “Angel of the Golden Lass” (late 12th century), the influence of the Byzantine Empire is still felt, but “the sadness in the eyes, so radiant and deep” (L. Lyubimov), already reflects the state of the Russian soul. The face of Christ in the icon “Savior Not Made by Hands” is expressive. The icon of the Dormition (first half of the 13th century) amazes with the truth of life in its depiction of the grief of the saints mourning Mary.

The Novgorod school includes the icon “Christ on the Path” (13th century), distinguished by its bright, folk character of painting and ornamentation. The icon “Nicholas the Wonderworker” (\29/\) was painted in the local, Novgorod manner, the first work of easel painting bearing the artist’s signature - Alexey Petrov. The saint’s face is round, Russian, and has a good-natured, affectionate appearance.

Evidence of the high level of culture of Novgorod are birch bark letters, which preserved the features of the colloquial speech of the Novgorodians, their way of life, and way of life.

A trade and craft center similar to Novgorod was Pskov, where the veche also ruled and life was distinguished by great democracy.

Pskov is the leading edge of defense against the Livonian knights and Lithuania. Powerful fortifications are being erected here. Cathedrals resemble fortresses. Architectural structures of this period: the Pskov-Pechersky Monastery, the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery. The art of Pskov was influenced by the folk principle. In icon painting, it is not cinnabar that predominates, as in

Novgorod icons, and the green color: “The Cathedral of Our Lady”, “The Descent into Hell” and others.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke led to the destruction of many art monuments of North-Eastern Rus', the masters died or were taken into captivity. In the first half of the 14th century, the revival of Rus' began, and the northeastern principalities were united. Cultural centers - Novgorod, Pskov, at the end of the 14th century - Moscow.

In the 14th century, Novgorod experienced a cultural upsurge. Intense philosophical thought is evidenced by heretical teachings, which were a kind of protest against the official church. Novgorodians travel, rapprochement with the southern Slavs occurs.

New features appear in architecture. The churches of Fyodor Strathnlat (1360s) and the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin (1374) were erected; they are characterized by an eight-slope roof and one apse in the east. These are single-domed high temples with elegant decoration. In the 15th century, especially outstanding buildings were the stone walls and towers of the Novgorod Kremlin, the bishop's palace, as well as the building that later received the name of the Faceted Chamber.

The flourishing of monumental painting of the 14th century is associated with the activities of Theophanes the Greek, an artist who came to Rus' from Byzantium. In 1378, he painted the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin. The subjects of the frescoes are traditional: the formidable Christ Pantocrator, prophets and forefathers. Theophan was a master of sharp individual characterizations of saints who are endowed with stern and strong characters. One of the most striking subjects is the Trinity, next to it are the figures of saints. Here the pillars are the first holy hermits who tortured the flesh and lived on the pillars; and ascetics who retired to the desert. The Saints of Theophapius are wise philosophers, just like the artist himself.

The overall red-brown tone, dark contours, folds of clothing, sometimes forming lightning-like zigzags, masterfully thrown whitewash “engines” - “nervous, extremely dynamic painting, conveying (...) human passions, doubts, thoughts, impulses” (L. Lyubimov ).

Novgorod icons of the 15th century are a brilliant page in the history of world painting. They are marked by a strong originality. This is mainly an image of saints popular in Novgorod - the prophet Elijah, Paraskeva and Anastasia, patronesses of trade, Saint George slaying the dragon. St. Dahlia is revealed as a fighter for the victory of light over darkness.

An interesting icon is “The Battle of the Suzdalians with the Novgorodians,” the earliest painting on a historical theme in Russian art. The composition is three-tiered, where the story of the transfer of the nkopa from the Church of the Savior on Ilyin to Detinets, the treachery of the Suzdalians and the victory of the Novgorodians unfolds sequentially. The beauty of an icon lies in its graphic clarity, in the rhythm of what is depicted, in the extreme expressiveness of its color.

One of the famous Novgorod icons of the 15th century is “Depsus and the Praying Novgorodians,” commissioned by the Kuzmin boyars; they are presented on the lower tier of the icon. Episodes of the gospel tale are depicted in the icon “The Nativity of Christ” (the Mother of God and Child are written in the center in bright cinnabar). The icon “Florus and Laurus” is unusual, dating back to Slavic pagan art. The plot of the “Entombment” icon is dramatic, characterized by its emotional, expressive character. The Mother of God, falling to the body of Christ, reveals an image of inconsolable suffering. This is a traditional Russian cry over the deceased, this is maternal grief, so familiar to Russian women.

By the middle of the 12th century, 15 small and large principalities were formed in Kievan Rus. By the beginning of the 13th century their number had increased to 50. The collapse of the state had not only a negative result (weakening before the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols), but also a positive result.

Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation

In individual principalities and fiefdoms, rapid growth of cities began, and trade relations with the Baltic states and the Germans began to form and develop. Changes in local culture were also noticeable: chronicles were created, new buildings were erected, etc.

Large regions of the country

The state had several large principalities. These, in particular, can be considered Chernigovskoe, Kyiv, Severskoe. However, the largest were considered to be three in the southwest, and the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities in the northeast. These were the main political centers of the state at that time. It is worth noting that they all had their own distinctive features. Next, let's talk about what were the features of the Novgorod principality.

General information

The origins from which the development of the Novgorod principality began are still not entirely clear. The oldest mention of the main city of the region dates back to the year 859. However, it is assumed that at that time chroniclers did not use weather records (they appeared by the 10-11th century), but collected those legends that were most popular among the people. After Rus' adopted the Byzantine tradition of composing tales, authors had to compose stories, independently estimating dates, before weather records began. Of course, such dating is far from accurate, so it should not be completely trusted.

Principality of Novgorod Land

What this region was like means “new called fortified settlements surrounded by walls. Archaeologists found three settlements located on the territory occupied by the Novgorod principality. The geographical location of these areas is indicated in one of the chronicles. According to information, the region was located on the left bank of the Volkhov ( where the Kremlin is now located).

Over time, the settlements merged into one. The inhabitants built a common fortress. It was named Novgorod. Researcher Nosov developed the already existing point of view that the historical predecessor of the new city was Gorodishche. It was located slightly higher, not far from the sources of the Volkhov. Judging by the chronicles, Gorodishche was a fortified settlement. The princes of the Novgorod principality and their governors stayed there. Local historians even made a rather bold assumption that Rurik himself lived in the residence. Taking all this into account, it can be argued that the Principality of Novgorod originated from this settlement. The geographical location of the Settlement can be considered an additional argument. It stood on the Baltic-Volga route and was considered at that time a fairly large trade, craft and military-administrative point.

Characteristics of the Novgorod Principality

In the first centuries of its existence, the settlement was small (by modern standards). Novgorod was completely made of wood. It was located on two sides of the river, which was quite a unique phenomenon, since settlements were usually located on a hill and on one bank. The first inhabitants built their houses near the water, but not close to it, due to fairly frequent floods. The streets of the city were built perpendicular to Volkhov. A little later they were connected by “breakout” lanes that ran parallel to the river. The walls of the Kremlin rose from the left bank. At that time it was much smaller than the one that stands in Novgorod now. On the other bank, in the Slovenian village, there were estates and a princely court.

Russian chronicles

The Principality of Novgorod is mentioned quite little in the records. However, this little information is of particular value. The chronicle, dated 882, talks about something from Novgorod. As a result, two large East Slavic tribes united: the Polyans and the Ilmen Slavs. It was from that time that the history of the Old Russian state began. Records from 912 indicate that the Principality of Novgorod paid the Scandinavians 300 hryvnia a year to maintain peace.

Records of other peoples

The Novgorod principality is also mentioned in Byzantine chronicles. For example, Emperor Constantine VII wrote about the Russians in the 10th century. The Principality of Novgorod also appears in the Scandinavian sagas. The earliest legends appeared from the reign of the sons of Svyatoslav. After his death, a power struggle broke out between his two sons Oleg and Yaropolk. In 977, a battle took place. As a result, Yaropolk defeated Oleg’s troops and became the Grand Duke, installing his mayors in Novgorod. There was also a third brother. But fearing being killed, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia. However, his absence was relatively short-lived. In 980, he returned to the Principality of Novgorod with hired Varangians. Then he defeated the mayors and moved towards Kyiv. There Vladimir overthrew Yaropolk from the throne and became the Prince of Kyiv.

Religion

A description of the Novgorod principality will be incomplete without talking about the importance of faith in the life of the people. In 989 baptism took place. First it was in Kyiv, and then in Novgorod. Power increased due to the Christian religion and its monotheism. The church organization was built on a hierarchical principle. It became a powerful tool for the formation of Russian statehood. In the year of baptism, Joachim Korsunian (Byzantine priest) was sent to Novgorod. But, it must be said that Christianity did not immediately take root. Many residents were in no hurry to part with the faith of their ancestors. According to archaeological excavations, many pagan rituals survived until the 11th-13th centuries. And, for example, Maslenitsa is still celebrated today. Although this holiday is given a somewhat Christian overtone.

Yaroslav's activities

After Vladimir became the prince of Kyiv, he sent his son Vysheslav to Novgorod, and after his death - Yaroslav. The name of the latter is associated with an attempt to get rid of the influence of Kyiv. So, in 1014, Yaroslav refused to pay tribute. Vladimir, having learned about this, began to gather a squad, but during the preparation he suddenly died. Svyatopolk the Accursed ascended the throne. He killed his brothers: Svyatoslav Drevlyansky and Gleb and Boris, who were later canonized. Yaroslav was in a rather difficult position. On the one hand, he was absolutely not against seizing power in Kyiv. But on the other hand, his squad was not strong enough. Then he decided to address the Novgorodians with a speech. Yaroslav called on the people to capture Kyiv, thus returning to themselves everything that had been taken away in the form of tribute. The residents agreed, and after some time, in the battle of Lyubech, Svyatopolk was completely defeated and fled to Poland.

Further developments

In 1018, together with the squad of Boleslav (his father-in-law and the King of Poland), Svyatopolk returned to Rus'. In the battle, they thoroughly defeated Yaroslav (he fled with four warriors from the field). He wanted to go to Novgorod, and then planned to move to Scandinavia. But the residents did not let him do this. They chopped up all the boats, collected money and a new army, giving the prince the opportunity to continue fighting. At this time, confident that he was firmly seated on the throne, Svyatopolk quarreled with the Polish king. Deprived of support, he lost the battle on Alta. After the battle, Yaroslav sent the Novgorodians home, giving them special letters - “Truth” and “Charter”. They had to live by them. Over the next decades, the Principality of Novgorod also depended on Kyiv. First, Yaroslav sent his son Ilya as governor. Then he sent Vladimir, who founded the fortress in 1044. The following year, at his behest, construction began on a new stone cathedral instead of the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral (which burned down). Since that time, this temple has symbolized Novgorod spirituality.

Political system

It took shape gradually. There are two periods in history. In the first there was a feudal republic, where the prince ruled. And in the second, control belonged to the oligarchy. During the first period, all the main bodies of state power existed in the Novgorod principality. The Boyar Council and the Veche were considered the highest institutions. Executive power was vested in the thousand and princely courts, mayor, elders, volostels and volostel managers. The evening had special significance. It was considered the supreme power and had greater power here than in other principalities. The veche decided on issues of domestic and foreign policy, expelled or elected the ruler, townsman and other officials. It was also the highest court. Another body was the Council of Boyars. The entire city government system was concentrated in this body. The Council included: eminent boyars, elders, thousand, mayors, archbishop and prince. The power of the ruler himself was significantly limited in functions and scope, but at the same time, of course, occupied a leading place in the governing bodies. At first, the candidacy of the future prince was discussed at the Council of Boyars. After this, he was invited to sign the contract document. It regulated the legal and state status and responsibilities of the authorities in relation to the ruler. The prince lived with his court on the outskirts of Novgorod. The ruler did not have the right to make laws or proclaim war or peace. Together with the mayor, the prince commanded the army. The existing restrictions did not allow the rulers to gain a foothold in the city and put them in a controlled position.

The painting of Veliky Novgorod was as clear and concise as Novgorod architecture.

The main type of painting was icon painting. In the 13th century Icon painting played a leading role in Novgorod art.
Of the earliest Novgorod icons that have come down to us, there are real masterpieces of world painting. For example, “Angel Golden Hair.”

Icon "Angel Golden Hair"

Archangel Gabriel (“Angel of Golden Hair”). 2nd half XII century Wood, tempera. 48.8 × 39 cm. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg)
The angel’s hair is made using the “asista” technique with gold leaf, which is why this icon got its name. Thin gold stripes are laid along the hair. Gold symbolizes the unearthly, divine principle in the icon. The image of the icon is pure and simple. It still has a Byzantine style. But the sadness in the bottomless eyes of the Angel, his beauty and mystery already reflect the depth of the Russian soul. This face combines both humanity and high spirituality.

Icon "St. George"

This is a temple icon of the Yuryev Monastery. Currently in the collection of the State Tretyakov Gallery.

Saint George (c. 1130). Wood, pavolok, gesso; egg tempera. 230 × 142 cm. Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)
In Byzantium from the 10th century. An image of St. George as a warrior, rather than a young martyr, circulated. He is depicted in full growth with a princely crown on his head. The background of the icon is golden. His right hand is pressed to his chest, holding a spear, and his left hand is lowered and holds a sword in its sheath. Behind St. George, a round shield is visible.
The icon was renewed several times.

Icon "Ustyug Annunciation"

Ustyug Annunciation (20-30s of the 12th century). Board, tempera. 238 × 168 cm. State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)
In the middle of the 16th century. This icon was transferred to Moscow by Tsar Ivan the Terrible from the St. George Cathedral of the Novgorod Yuryev Monastery. The name of the icon is not documented, there are only assumptions and legends.
The icon is painted on a linden board with tempera. The Virgin Mary is depicted with the baby Jesus entering Her womb. Maria is wearing a red maforia (outer clothing) and a dark blue chiton (lower clothing, something like a shirt). She stands before the throne. The face of the Mother of God is depicted without clearly expressed feelings, which is typical for the icon and symbolizes humility before the will of God. She leaned slightly towards Archangel Gabriel, who brought Her this news. In her left hand is a skein of red yarn (the spindle is not preserved in the image). The right hand of the Mother of God forms a semblance of a blessing gesture, with which she touches the halo of the infant Christ.
The Infant of God is depicted in full growth, his figure seems to be visible through Mary’s robe. The baby's right hand is folded in a blessing gesture, the left is lowered down. The baby's body is covered only with a loincloth, hinting at the upcoming Crucifixion of Christ.
In this icon, Gabriel is also depicted with golden hair. He turns to Maria.
At the top of the icon is the Old Denmi, seated on cherubim and glorified by the seraphim. Old denmi- an image from the book of the prophet Daniel. In iconography, this is a symbolic iconographic image of Jesus Christ or God the Father in the form of a gray-haired old man.

Icon “Savior Not Made by Hands”

The Savior Not Made by Hands (Novgorod icon of the 12th century). State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)
The source of this iconography are several legends, each of which reports the miraculous origin of the image. We present here the Western versions of the legend. According to it, the pious Jewish woman Veronica, who accompanied Christ on His way of the cross to Calvary, gave Him a linen handkerchief so that Christ could wipe the blood and sweat from his face. The face of Jesus was imprinted on the handkerchief. The relic, called the "Veronica board", is kept in the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome. On the scarf, when held up to the light, you can see the image of the face of Jesus Christ. Attempts to examine the image revealed that the image was not created with paint or any known organic materials. At this time, scientists intend to continue research.
The miraculous image of the Savior is also associated with another famous Christian relic - the Shroud of Turin. The Shroud is a 4-meter-long linen cloth in which Joseph of Arimathea wrapped the body of Jesus Christ after his suffering and death on the cross. The face of Christ is captured on the canvas. Currently, the Shroud is kept in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Turin.

Image of the face of Christ on the Shroud (negative)

Icon "Cloud Dormition"

Cloudy Assumption (late XII-early XIII centuries). Wood, pavolok, gesso; egg tempera. 155 × 128 cm. State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)
Icon from the Novgorod Desyatinny Monastery. It was revealed (freed from later layers) in the Tretyakov Gallery in 1935 by art critic I. I. Suslov. The icon is well preserved. Written on a linden board.
At the top of the icon “Assumption of the Mother of God” the Archangel Michael is depicted, raising the soul of the Mother of God to heaven. Below are four angels receiving the soul of the Mother of God from Jesus Christ. In the upper part of the icon, on the sides of the deathbed of the Virgin Mary, the apostles are depicted, having flown on clouds to say goodbye to the Mother of God.
The scene of the apostles' farewell to the Mother of God is presented in traditional iconography. The mourning 12 apostles are depicted on either side of the funeral bed in two rows. In front of the bed are the red shoes of the Virgin Mary, behind the bed are two candles.

Monumental painting of Novgorod

The earliest monument of Novgorod monumental painting is a fragment of a painting preserved in the southern gallery of the Cathedral of St. Sofia in Novgorod (built between 1045 and 1050). They began to paint it in 1108, and before that there were only individual images of saints. These include a fragment of the southern gallery, which depicts Saints Constantine and Helen in full size. It is believed that this image was supposed to become the basis for a mosaic, since it was made with highly diluted paints.
In 1108, St. Sophia Cathedral began to be decorated with frescoes. Only seven figures of the prophets in the drum, the figures of Saints Anatolius, Carp, Polycarp of Smyrna and the Patriarch of Constantinople Herman in the light openings above the aisles from the main apse to the side ones have reached us. Under the new floor, fragments of frescoes knocked off the walls during the barbaric restoration of 1893 were found.

Fragments of frescoes of the princely palace St. Nicholas Cathedral, erected in 1113, date back to the second decade of the 12th century. This cathedral is one of the oldest Novgorod churches. In age it is second only to St. Sophia Cathedral. It was founded in 1113 on the territory of Yaroslav's Court by Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich.

Lazarus four days. Fresco in the altar of the St. Nicholas Cathedral in Veliky Novgorod (XII century)
In the first years of its foundation, the cathedral was painted with frescoes. But only small fragments have survived: scenes of the “Last Judgment” on the western wall, three saints in the central apse and “Job on the rot” on the southwestern wall - a fresco depicting the suffering of Job the Long-Suffering. His wife, in order to avoid infection, fed him from a stick.

Fresco of the St. Nicholas Cathedral (XII century). Fragment of the composition “Job on the Dung” (Job’s wife)
Experts believe that the slender, proportional figure of Job’s wife with a thin, stern face goes back to Kyiv traditions. Perhaps this is the work of a visiting Kyiv master.
The Monk Anthony built a stone Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in his monastery in 1117; it was painted with frescoes. The painting of the cathedral was completed in 1125.

Fresco of the Anthony Monastery “Deacon”
In the 20th century Many frescoes were cleared: figures and heads of saints, medallions with half-figures of saints, remains of the “Candlemas” in the altar, two scenes from the life cycle of John the Baptist, fragments of the “Adoration of the Magi” and “Assumption” on the walls. The frescoes are damaged.
Recently, the frescoes of the tower of St. George's Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery (XII century), which were also badly damaged, were cleared.
In the immediate vicinity of Veliky Novgorod, next to the road to the Yuryev Monastery, there is the Church of the Annunciation in Arkazhi.

The church was built in 1179. The frescoes of this church are the earliest in Novgorod painting. For a long time theywere hidden under whitewash and notes, they began to be revealed in 1930. This work was continued in 1966-1969. The frescoes depict scenes from the life of John the Baptist and figures of saints, the Virgin Mary cycle, etc.

Saints

Christ in glory is depicted in the midst of saints approaching him on both sides, holding unfolded scrolls. Arkazhian frescoes are similar to Romanesque ones, but were painted in a broad manner characteristic of the Novgorodians.