The main Hellenistic states. Hellenistic states. State of affairs in Egypt
Lecture 15. History of the Hellenistic states
Lecture questions:
1. Features of the Hellenistic world.
2. Hellenistic powers of the Eastern Mediterranean.
3. The periphery of the Hellenistic world.
Hellenism is a period in the history of the Mediterranean, primarily the East, which lasted from the time of the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. e. until the final establishment of Roman rule in these territories. The latter is usually dated to 30 BC. e. - Rome's subjugation of Egypt.
I. Features of the Hellenistic world.
1. Hellenistic era - the time of greatest territorial spread of ancient civilization. The boundaries have expanded Ecumenes- known to the Greeks and the world they mastered. The interaction between individual countries and peoples has become incomparably closer and more fruitful than before. A number of new trade routes, both sea and land, were developed. In particular, a route was laid out from Hellenistic Egypt to India, passing through the Red and Arabian Seas. From the Hindustan Peninsula, luxury goods - incense and precious stones - came primarily to the Mediterranean.
In the 2nd century BC. e. the Hellenistic states learned about the existence of China. At that time, the Han dynasty was in power in the Middle Empire, during whose reign the territory of China reached its greatest size. Part of Central Asia came under the influence of the Chinese rulers. It was here that the first contacts of the Chinese with representatives of the Hellenistic states took place. The main product for which China was famous from that time on for many centuries was silk. It is no coincidence that the trade route to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, blazed during the Hellenistic era, is known as the Great Silk Road.
2. During the Hellenistic era it happened unification of two civilizational spaces– ancient Greek and Ancient East. Previously, these two “worlds” developed separately and even opposed each other. Now they have entered into a single system of states. Undoubtedly, the unification took place by force, as a result of the military campaigns of Alexander the Great. But this in no way means that the unification processes did not have internal, objective prerequisites.
On the one hand, Greek society of the late classical era outgrew the narrow framework of the ancient polis and gravitated towards a broader unification. On the other hand, in the East, which by this time was already largely united under the rule of the Achaemenids, enormous material resources had been accumulated. But they remained unclaimed due to the insufficient degree of economic development and the low level of economic ties between individual regions.
3. The emergence of a “mixed” - ancient-eastern economy. On the eve of the emergence of Hellenistic civilization, there were two phenomena - the “active poverty” of the Greeks and the “passive wealth” of the East. D Ancient Eastern societies were characterized by the predominance of natural agriculture of the traditional type with an extremely insignificant role of crafts and trade. In the Greek world, on the contrary, already from the archaic era, the rapid development of handicraft production and trade began. In the Hellenistic states these two spheres of economic management were combined. The result was a “mixed” economy. Agriculture remained the basis of economic activity, but a dynamic trade and craft superstructure appeared above it.
4. The combination of the monarchy with the polis organization in political life. In the East, monarchy prevailed everywhere, sometimes characterized by the deification of the king and his very significant power, reaching absolute power - oriental despotism. In relation to the monarch, all residents of the state, without exception, were in the position of subjects, completely subordinate to the will of the ruler. A major role was played by the bureaucratic apparatus, on which the kings relied when managing the lands under their control.
The Greek world was characterized by a polis form of statehood with a republican structure. A citizen of the polis had political and personal freedom, obeyed only the law and took part in governing the state. Bureaucracy practically did not exist, since all officials were elected.
In the Hellenistic era, the polis and monarchical principles of government came into interaction. Hellenistic states developed as monarchies, with enormous, sometimes absolute powers of the king. At the same time, policies of the ancient type were founded under them, which were populated by immigrants from Hellas. Polis status was sometimes given to some of the old eastern cities.
Hellenistic city-states were still constituted as civil communities with corresponding elected governing bodies. But unlike the poleis of previous centuries, they were not independent states. They had a supreme sovereign - the king. They did not resolve foreign policy issues, and citizens were entrusted only with internal self-government.
5. Active development of urban planning. Around 170 cities were founded by various Greco-Macedonian rulers, starting with Alexander the Great. Many of them remained small and provincial. But some of the new cities became major economic, political and cultural centers.
Some ancient Greek cities flourished, especially those located in Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and others. At the same time, a number of large cities of Balkan Greece, such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, began to decline.
6. Hellenization- the process of introducing the local population to the Greek way of life, Greek civilizational values. Its depth and scale varied in different regions of the Hellenistic world. The most intense Hellenization was observed in the regions of the Eastern Mediterranean - in Asia Minor, Syria and Phenicia, and partly in Egypt.
But here, too, the process affected, as a rule, cities - the main habitats of the Greeks. The rural population, which constituted the majority everywhere, preferred to adhere to pre-Greek traditions. As for distant regions - Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia, then, with rare exceptions, the further away from the Mediterranean Sea the Greek influence was felt less and less. In addition, Hellenization affected mainly the upper strata of Eastern society.
At the same time, there were regions into which the influence of the East hardly penetrated. First of all, these are territories located on the Balkan Peninsula (Macedonia, Greece proper) and to the west of it (Magna Graecia).
7. High population mobility. This is especially true for the Greeks. Having decided to move to the East, they often began to constantly move from one country to another. Warriors, traders, cultural figures could find themselves as far away from their homeland as desired. And everywhere they felt to a certain extent at home, finding themselves in an environment of similar cultural values.
Instead of many independent poleis warring with each other, the Hellenistic world consisted of several relatively stable major powers. They formed a single civilizational space, often differing only in their ruling dynasties. The elite of society consisted of Greeks and Macedonians. At the same time, eastern aristocrats who became familiar with the Greek way of life were also perceived as “Hellenes.”
Everywhere the official language was Greek. The Greek financial system, based on the Athenian drachma, prevailed. The Hellenistic rulers liked to place on their coins the image of Alexander, whose successor they considered themselves to be. The uniformity of coinage contributed to the development of interstate monetary circulation. A person, having received a salary for serving one Hellenistic king, could well spend this money in the domains of another monarch.
II. Hellenistic powers of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Seleucid State
Political history.
Seleucus I Nicator managed to unite most of the former Achaemenid state under his rule. During the period of greatest power, his possessions covered Syria, Phenicia and Palestine, part of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Iran, and southern Central Asia. Thus, the kingdom spread from the eastern coast of the Aegean Sea to the borders of India. The “core” of the state was Syria. Therefore, in sources it is sometimes called Syrian kingdom.
Son of Seleucus - Antiochus I Soter(281 - 261 BC), who defeated the Galatians, was able to maintain power within the boundaries inherited from his father. But his heir Antiochus II Theos(261 - 246 BC), turned out to be a weak ruler. With him it disappeared Bactria, located in the territory of modern Afghanistan.
Syrian governor of the province Diodotus declared himself king (mid 250s - 248 BC). To him and his son and successor Diodotus II(248 - 235 BC) managed to defend the independence of the state. The Greco-Bactrian kingdom reached its greatest power under Demetrius I(200 - 180 BC). He even managed to conquer a large part of Northern India.
As a result, a vast Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. In the second half of the 2nd century BC, weakened by internal conflicts, it was invaded by the Indo-European people Tocharians(whale. Yuezhi). They managed to capture the territory of Bactria proper. The eastern part of the state survived until 10 AD. How Indo-Greek kingdom.
Tsar Menander I (Ind. Milinda), who ruled there from 150 to 135 BC. e., converted to Buddhism. His role in spreading the teachings of the Buddha is valued in Buddhist literature as highly as the role of King Ashoka. Plutarch says that after the death of Menander, the ashes from the funeral pyre were distributed among many cities in which monuments similar to the stupas of Buddha were built.
Simultaneously with Bactria, the region fell away Parthia, located on the territory of modern Iran. Local Seleucid governor Andragor in 250 BC e. proclaimed the independence of the satrapy. A few years later, his state was invaded by tribes of Scythian origin, the main of which were guys. Leader of the Parns Arshak became the founder of the Arsacid dynasty of Parthian kings. After his death, power over the former Seleucid province passed to his younger brother Tiridatou, who took the throne name Arshak II(247 - 211 BC). The Syrian kings, after an unsuccessful attempt to restore their own, were forced to recognize the Arsacid power over Parthia.
King of Parthia Mithridates I(c. 170-138/137 BC) took the eastern satrapies from the Seleucids - Persia, most of Mesopotamia and conquered part of the Greco-Bactrian state up to the Hindu Kush. He took the title king of kings, thus proclaiming himself the successor of the Achaemenids. At Mithridates II(c. 123-88/87 BC) the Parthians conquered vast areas in the east, and also took northern Mesopotamia from Syria.
The kings of Parthia actively intervened in the political struggle of the last Seleucids in Syria. They also managed to subjugate Armenia. Subsequently, the Parthian kingdom became a formidable enemy of Rome, the new hegemon of the Hellenistic world. In 227, the Arsacid dynasty fell under the blows of internal and external enemies. The title “king of kings” and power over Parthia passed to a new, Persian dynasty - Sassanids.
The defeats of the Syrian kingdom in the east are largely due to the difficult struggle that it waged with Egypt for hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean. This struggle resulted in a series of six wars, which entered the history of Hellenism under the name Syrian. During First Syrian War(274-271 BC) the territories of Phenicia, most of Anatolia and the Cyclades islands went to Egypt. Results Second(c. 260 - c. 253 BC) and Third(246-241 BC) The Syrian wars were also disappointing for the Seleucids.
The situation was corrected Antiochus III the Great(223–187 BC). During Fourth And Fifth Syrian wars, he returned almost all the lost territories. Having completed in 212–205. BC e. military campaign to the east, he forced Parthia and Greco-Bactria to again recognize the power of the Seleucids. It was possible to recapture the lost areas from Egypt.
Concerned about the scale of Antiochus III's victories, Rome intervened in the course of events in the East. A war broke out between the Syrian kingdom and the Roman Republic (192 - 188 BC). The fighting began with the landing of Syrian troops on the island of Euboea. The Aetolian and Boeotian unions, Elea and Messenia went over to the side of Antiochus. The Romans were supported by the Achaean League, Macedonia, Athens and Thessaly. Gradually the fighting moved to Asia Minor. In the battle of Magnesia in Lydia (189 BC) the Syrian army was defeated. After this, the decline of the Seleucid state began. Its kings had to give up their possessions in Asia Minor.
During Sixth Syrian War(170-168 BC) Antiochus IV Epiphanes (c. 215 - 164 BC) subjugated almost the entire territory of Egypt and besieged Alexandria. His fleet captured Cyprus. Rome again intervened in the war, demanding that Antiochus IV leave Egypt, threatening war if he refused. The Syrian king, after a short reflection, submitted and renounced all the conquered territories.
In 167 BC. An anti-Syrian uprising began in Judea, caused by cruel religious and national oppression. It was led by six brothers, the sons of a priest Mattathias. By the nickname of one of them - Judas Maccabee(from the Hebrew Maccabi - “Hammer”) the uprising went down in history under the name of the Maccabees. As a result of many years of war, the Jews restored their state, headed by kings from the dynasty Hasmonean(152 - 37 BC).
The weakening of the Seleucid state was aggravated by the bloody internecine struggle for the throne between members of the ruling dynasty. As a result, at the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. the power of this state extended only to Syria itself.
Hellenistic Egypt
Political history
During the 3rd century BC. The Ptolemies pursued an active foreign policy. They sought to expand their possessions in Asia Minor, interfere in the affairs of Balkan Greece, and bring the islands of the Aegean Sea under their control. In the middle of the century, the Ptolemaic possessions included, in addition to Egypt itself with adjacent territories (Cyrenaica in North Africa, part of Ethiopia), also Palestine, Phenicia, Southern Syria, Cyprus, and part of the coastal regions of Asia Minor. Many islands of the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea straits were under their control. Thus, the Ptolemies managed to establish themselves in the strategically and economically key regions of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The struggle between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids for the possession of southern Syria, through which important trade and strategic routes passed, was especially fierce. The greatest military successes were achieved by Ptolemy III during the Third Syrian War (246 - 241 BC). He captured all of Syria and Phenicia. Egyptian troops even entered the Seleucid capital, Antioch on the Orontes. Until the beginning of the 2nd century BC. under Egyptian control was an important trade route from India, passing through Philadelphia(now Amman in Jordan) to Ptolemais(Acre) and the Phoenician coast.
The last quarter of the 3rd century BC was a turning point in the history of Hellenistic Egypt. Accession of Ptolemy IV in 221 BC. was accompanied by a struggle in court circles. During the IV Syrian War, the pharaoh faced discontent among the Coptic warriors, caused by their inferior position in the army. An urgent peace agreement did not change the situation.
Unrest in the army grew into rebellions that began in Lower Egypt and then spread throughout the country. In Thebaid, popular unrest continued for about 20 years. The rebels attacked the lands of Greek colonists and opposed representatives of the local administration and priesthood. Only by 186 BC. the uprising was suppressed.
Taking advantage of the weakening of Egypt, Antiochus IV Epiphanes began the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 BC). In 169 BC. e. he invaded Egypt and captured Memphis. In 168 BC. e. Antiochus IV made a second campaign, subjugated almost the entire territory of Egypt and besieged Alexandria. His fleet captured Cyprus. Only the intervention of Rome forced Antiochus IV to leave Egypt.
Military failures and the cessation of the influx of taxes from external possessions worsened the internal situation in Egypt. The country entered a protracted economic and political crisis. The number of unprofitable, neglected lands grew. The irrigation system is deteriorating, and soil population is occurring. The government tried to increase the profitability of land by introducing compulsory rent. In addition to their own plots, the royal farmers were forced to cultivate neglected plots. But farmers responded to these measures by fleeing and leaving their villages.
The country was in a fever of constant struggle for power, reaching extreme bitterness. An example is the long struggle of Ptolemy VIII (145 - 116 BC) with his sister Cleopatra II, the widow of her brother Ptolemy VI. After killing her son, his nephew, he married her. Then Ptolemy VIII married her daughter from his first marriage, Cleopatra III. Cleopatra II, removed from power, did not resign herself. Taking advantage of the discontent of various sections of the population, she began a stubborn struggle against her brother. Eventually there was a reconciliation.
Cleopatra II was recognized as a sister queen along with queen wife Cleopatra III. On behalf of Ptolemy VIII and two Cleopatras in 118 BC. The so-called “decrees of philanthropy” were issued. They proclaimed an amnesty for all participants in the political struggle and a fight against the abuses of officials. However, these declarations were not supported by real deeds. The situation in the country continued to deteriorate. At the beginning of the 1st century BC. An uprising breaks out again in Thebaid. At Ptolemy XII Aulete(“Fluteist”, 80 -58 BC) rebellions swept several nomes at once.
In foreign policy, Egypt gradually lost its independence and became an obedient servant of Rome. The history of the last years of independent Egypt is connected with the name of the famous queen Cleopatra VII(47 - 30 BC). She fought for the throne with her brother and husband Ptolemy XIII(51-47 BC).
Cleopatra was supported by a Roman commander Julius Caesar. The population of Alexandria, opposed to the dictates of Rome, rebelled. All winter 48-47 BC. A Roman military detachment led by Caesar withstood a siege at the residence of the Egyptian kings. When reinforcements arrived, Caesar defeated the rebels and the army of Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra was declared queen.
After the death of Caesar, Cleopatra tried to strengthen Egypt, relying on the help of one of Caesar's associates, the ruler of the eastern provinces, Mark Antony. He married Cleopatra and gave her and her children part of the Roman possessions. Antony was soon defeated in a power struggle in Rome with Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus, and committed suicide. Cleopatra's attempts to negotiate with the winner ended in failure and she also committed suicide. Her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, was killed by order of Octavian. Egypt came under Roman rule.
Hellenistic Macedonia
Features of the monarchy. Like the rest of the largest Hellenistic states, Macedonia was a monarchy. After the end of the wars of the Diadochi, it was headed by the descendants Antigone Gonata- dynasty Antigonid.
The royal power in Macedonia did not reach the same degree of absolutism as in the Ptolemaic and Seleucid powers. There was no deification of kings here, and there was no developed bureaucratic apparatus. The force that traditionally limited the sovereign power of the monarch remained the army - the militia of Macedonian citizens, which, as it was believed, expressed the will of the entire people. The army meeting, in particular, approved the accession of a new king to the throne. It served as a judicial authority in the analysis of cases of some important state crimes.
During the Hellenistic era, Macedonia found itself in a very difficult situation. He had to compete with the powerful Ptolemaic and Seleucid monarchies, which were not comparable in size and economic resources. The country was weakened by the outflow of its best forces, which, during and after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, rushed to the eastern lands. Raids by northern tribes posed a constant danger. The bulk of the inhabitants of Macedonia were still free peasants. Therefore, the Macedonian kings did not, unlike the Hellenistic rulers in Asia and Africa, have such an inexhaustible source of income as the exploitation of the local conquered population.
Nevertheless, despite all the difficulties, during the first half of the Hellenistic era, Macedonia managed to maintain its high reputation, compete on equal terms for primacy with the Seleucid and Ptolemaic powers and exercise hegemony in Balkan Greece. This was possible thanks to the outstanding military, administrative and diplomatic abilities of most of the Macedonian kings. All-round savings in material and monetary resources and strengthening of the country's defense capability made it possible to achieve significant military-political successes.
Armed forces were not as great as those of the Seleucids and Ptolemies. However, in terms of their combat effectiveness they were not inferior to them. The basis of the army was the phalanx, made up of peasants who were called up for military service only during campaigns. Was in a state of constant combat readiness agema- royal guard. Mercenaries were also involved. Among them, a significant part were barbarians - Thracians, Illyrians, Galatians. Many of them, after completing their service, received plots on royal land. Mercenaries, as a rule, guarded the border and garrisoned the Greek cities subordinate to the Antigonids.
The kings sought to transform Macedonia into a great maritime power. But in the end it turned out to be unbearable for the state to have both a powerful army and a fleet consisting of heavy warships. Therefore, subsequently it was based on light galleys - lembas, similar to those used by Illyrian pirates.
Economy and cities. Having ascended the throne, Antigonus Gonatas implemented a number of measures to revive the country's economy. He and his successors contributed to the rise of cities, resettled the population to empty lands, and developed mines. The cities enjoyed autonomy in internal affairs, but were under the control of the tsarist administration. As a rule, it was carried out by a representative of the king - epistat. In territories not included in Macedonia proper, power belonged to strategists, appointed by the king.
Archaeological excavations have shown that the cities of Macedonia at this time were experiencing a period of growth. Capital of Macedonia - Pella in the Hellenistic period it occupied an area of 3 square meters. km. From the south it was protected by a fortress located on an island in the middle of the lake. It contained the royal treasury and prison. On a high double-headed hill there was an acropolis with an old royal palace and a temple Athens Alkydemos. The city itself had a regular layout of streets oriented to the cardinal points. An important economic center of the country was Thessaloniki. This city also had a regular layout.
Mining remained one of the important sectors of the Macedonian economy. Forests provided excellent material for building ships. Agriculture continued to be the basis of the Macedonian economy. However, it was not highly productive. The land tax gave the treasury only 200 talents. It is assumed that the kings received 1/10 of the harvest as a tax. The kings of Macedonia minted gold, silver and bronze coins. The main coin metal, unlike the time of Philip II, was silver.
In Macedonia, as in previous times, the bulk of the population were free peasants who owned their own plots of land and were apparently united in communities. Cities also owned land assigned to them, which was administered by the civil collective. On the territory of Macedonia proper there were no lands that could be defined as the royal domain. The kings owned only forests and mineral resources.
The land in the territories annexed to Macedonia, such as Chalkidiki and Paeonia, was controlled by the king. Part of it belongs directly to the monarch. This land was cultivated by peasant holders, apparently under the terms of hereditary lease. The other part was given to the soldiers as hereditary possession. The owner of the plot performed military service and paid taxes. Initially, these plots were inalienable, but over time they began to be sold. Lands were also given as “gifts” to representatives of the nobility. Due to the lack of the actual Macedonian population, the barbarian Thracians who settled in Macedonia also received plots of land with the obligation to perform military service.
Balkan Greece and Macedonia. The Macedonian kings aspired, like Philip II and Alexander the Great, to hegemony in Balkan Greece. As a personal union, they were tags of Thessaly, in which anti-Macedonian uprisings periodically occurred. The policies of the rest of Greece were formally free. But in many of them there were Macedonian garrisons. Their main stronghold was Corinth, the center of the Panhellenic Union formed under Philip II. In some policies of the Peloponnese, such as Elis, Megalopolis and Argos, pro-Macedonian tyrannical regimes were established.
The bulk of the Greek city-states were burdened by the hegemony of Macedonia and sought complete liberation from its influence. These sentiments led to the so-called Chremonides War, lasting from approximately 267 to 262 BC. e. It got its name from Chremonides, the leader of the anti-Macedonian party in Athens.
The initiator of the war was the king of Egypt, Ptolemy II, who sought to weaken the position of Macedonia. Under his auspices, a union was created that included Sparta, Achaia and Athens. This association enjoyed the support of all anti-Macedonian forces, especially in the Peloponnese. But the war was unsuccessful for the Greeks.
The Macedonian troops occupying Corinth prevented the unification of the forces of Athens and its Peloponnesian allies. The Spartan king Ares died during an attempt to break through the Isthmian Isthmus. Ultimately, Athena suffered the most as a result of the defeat. The city was taken by the Macedonians. Their garrisons were again stationed in Piraeus and in Athens itself. The Egyptian fleet was defeated by the Macedonians off the island of Kos around 261 BC. e., after which the Ptolemies lost their dominance in the Aegean Sea.
Kingdom of Pergamon
Quite a significant role in the Hellenistic world in the 3rd–2nd centuries. BC e. The kingdom of Pergamon played. Its founder Fileter from Tiey, son of the Macedonian Attalus and the Paphlagonian woman, became the founder of the dynasty Attalid. He managed to defend his right to power during the wars between the Diadochi and Epigones and transfer the possessions to his nephew Eumenes I(263 - 241 BC). The new ruler expanded his possessions. Around 261 BC Eumenes I defeated the army of the Syrian king Antiochus I, who laid claim to the lands of Pergamum, near Sardis.
His successor (the son of his cousin Eumenes and the Syrian princess Antiochide) achieved new successes. Attalus I(241–197 BC). He refused to pay tribute to the Galatians and defeated them under the walls of Pergamum. After this, Attalus took the title Soter - Savior. From 230 BC he began to call himself king. In 208 BC, during the First Macedonian War, Attalus I entered into a military alliance with Rome, which sent a squadron to the Aegean Sea. The combined fleet of Pergamon and Rome began to dominate the region.
The establishment of friendly relations with the Roman Republic acquired special significance for the Kingdom of Pergamon due to the fact that in Asia Minor it had dangerous opponents in the person of the Seleucids and the Bithynian Kingdom. The son and successor of Attalus I understood this Eumenes II(197–160 BC). He was one of Rome's most loyal allies in the war with Antiochus III. After the defeat of the Syrian king Attalus I, with the consent of the Romans, included into his possessions Thracian Chersonese, Lydia, Greater and Hellespontian Phrygia, part of Caria and Pamphylia, and a number of Greek cities of Asia Minor, including Ephesus.
After winning the war with Antiochus III, Roman troops were in no hurry to leave the peninsula. The defeat of Syria weakened the force that restrained the Galatian activity from which all the states of the region suffered. In 189 BC. The Roman consul Gnaeus Manlius Vulso, together with the king of Pergamon, made a campaign deep into the territory of the Galatians, which the Romans called Gallogrecia. In several battles, the barbarians were defeated, losing tens of thousands of people killed. More Galatians were captured and enslaved. As a result, at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. The Kingdom of Pergamon became one of the largest Hellenistic states, covering almost all of Asia Minor.
Features of the Pergamon monarchy and society. The Attalids were considered "democratic" monarchs. In Pergamum there was no deification of the king and queen. In the decrees the kings called themselves citizens of Pergamum. The bureaucratic apparatus was modest in size and influence on society. The Pergamon army, recruited mainly on a mercenary basis, consisted not only of Greeks, but also of representatives of local peoples.
Pergamon Society represented a synthesis of Greek and eastern elements, which was characteristic of all Hellenistic states. However, its peculiarity was the predominance of Greek elements. This determined the homogeneity and strength of Pergamon society.
Economy. The economic prosperity of Pergamum was facilitated by a mild climate, fertile soils and rich pastures, a combination of river valleys and low hills suitable for growing vineyards and olive trees, and an advantageous location near the Black Sea straits.
Most of the land was royal property. The farmers who lived on it were considered as tenants paying taxes and bearing duties in favor of the royal treasury. Part of the royal lands was ceded to free possession by representatives of the ruling elite, bureaucracy, and senior command staff. Large estates arose on these lands, cultivated by slave labor. Slaves were also used in other sectors of the economy.
In the Pergamon economy the share of trade, crafts and commodity production was quite high. Craft production developed on rich supplies of local raw materials: good varieties of clay, metals, wood and resin, skins and wool obtained from their own livestock. Products of craft workshops - jewelry, parchment, leather writing material, various types of fabrics, including the famous Attalid brocade woven with gold threads, was famous throughout the Mediterranean.
Having significant surpluses of grain, olive oil, and handicraft products, Pergamum conducted active foreign trade, which brought huge profits. The Attalids founded not many new cities of the Greek type. But almost all of them became important trading centers. Among them it should be noted Eleus- port of the city of Pergamon, Helenopol on the shore of the Propontis, through which goods passed to the Black Sea region, Attalia in Pamphylia, on the southern coast of Asia Minor, connected by land road with the largest centers of the country. A thriving economy made the Attalids one of the richest rulers of the Hellenistic world. Enormous wealth accumulated in their hands, causing envy not only among their neighbors, but also among the distant Roman state.
End of the Kingdom of Pergamon. Eumenes II was succeeded by his brother Attalus II Philadelphia, reigned 159 -137. BC. His reign was marred by wars with the king of Bithynia. The Galatian invasions resumed. The country's situation became even more complicated under Attale III(139–133 BC). He had to wage war with a coalition of Asia Minor states - Bithynia, Galatia, Cappadocia and Pontus. Social conflicts intensified, largely caused by the cruelty and reckless actions of the tsar.
Before his death, the childless Attalus III bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic. A Roman province was founded in its place Asia. It included the historical regions of Mysia, Lydia, Caria and Phrygia. The liquidation of the kingdom caused a powerful explosion of popular indignation. It resulted in an uprising, led by Aristonik- the bastard son of Attalus II. A few years later, this uprising was suppressed by Roman troops. Aristonicus was captured and strangled in a Roman prison.
Rhodes.
Rhodes Island has been inhabited since the Neolithic. In the 16th century BC. e. was part of the Minoan Empire in the 15th century BC. e. was under the control of the Mycenaeans from the Peloponnese. In the 8th century BC. e. Dorian settlements appear on the island. It was occupied by the Persians, but liberated by the Athenians in 478 BC. e. In 408 BC. e. three Dorian policies - Lindos(Lind), Ialyssos And Kamiros, located on the island, merged into one.
The capital of the state is a city Rhodes was rebuilt by the architect Hippodamus with a regular layout. It was located around a round bay, “like a theater around an orchestra.” Rhodes had two ports - commercial and military. The latter was carefully guarded, since the Rhodians sought to keep secret a number of improvements they made on warships.
After the collapse of the power of Alexander the Great in Rhodes, the influence of Ptolemy I was strong. He entered into an alliance with the polis that controlled trade in the eastern Mediterranean. The flourishing of the state began. At this time, it included not only the island, but also territories in Asia Minor. Strabo wrote about Rhodes: “In terms of harbours, roads, walls and other structures, it compares so favorably with all other cities that I cannot name another approximately equal or, much less, somewhat better than it.”
The political system of Rhodes was oligarchic. However, the enormous wealth at the disposal of the elite of the city allowed it to bribe the demos, so that, according to Strabo, “not only the poor receive their food, but the city also has no shortage of useful people, especially to replenish the fleet.”
The prosperity of Rhodes was largely due to its advantageous geographical position on the sea routes leading from Greece and the Western Mediterranean to the new city centers that arose in the East during the Hellenistic era. The enormous scale of maritime trade is confirmed by the finds of hundreds of thousands of Rhodian amphora stamps in all parts of the ancient world - from Susa in the east to Carthage in the west, from the Bosporus in the north to Egypt in the south. The Rhodians traded mainly in grain, most often of Egyptian origin, wine and olive oil. Judging by the epigraphy, there were large weapons workshops on the island, the products of which were exported.
In many coastal cities there were offices of Rhodesian trapezites, who lent money for maritime trade at moderate interest rates. Rhodes waged a merciless fight against pirates. His navy was one of the strongest in the Mediterranean. After 250 BC e., when the power of the Ptolemaic power weakened, it was the Rhodian fleet that ensured freedom of navigation in the Eastern Mediterranean. A special “law of the sea” was created in Rhodes, which, thanks to the Romans and Byzantines, has survived to the present day.
Alexander the Great, having captured vast territories and destroyed the once powerful Persian kingdom, did not have time to create a reliable foundation to ensure the strength of his empire. The War of the Diadochi after the death of the emperor led to the collapse of the Macedonian state and the formation. Hellenistic states.
Hellenistic states
The result of the wars of the Diadochi was the appearance of new state formations on the world map.
Definition 1
Hellenistic states- These are powerful powers that replaced the Greek city-states. Their peculiarity was the presence of huge territories with numerous cities and villages.
The Diadochi divided the lands among themselves. The Seleucid state became the largest and most influential monarchy. Diadochus Seleucus began his reign with the subjugation of Mesopotamia. Then his possessions expanded to the south of Asia Minor, northern Syria, Iran and other territories of the Macedonian conquests.
Ptolemy was only slightly inferior to Seleucus. He formed his kingdom on the territory of Asia Minor, Egypt, southern Syria, and captured the island of Crete. The main city of Alexandria was considered the best city of all times.
Along with the giants, there were smaller monarchies. The Antigonid dynasty strengthened in Greece and Macedonia. Many small Hellenistic states emerged in Asia Minor:
- Pergamon,
- little Armenia,
- Paphlagonia,
- Bithynia,
- Pont.
All of these states were located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, except for Pergamon, which was located on the western shore of the Mediterranean Sea.
Each king tried to strengthen independence and expand the borders of his state. Therefore, wars often broke out between rulers. The Ptolemies and Seleucids were irreconcilable rivals. They could not divide Palestine and the island of Crete.
Redistribution of the borders of the Hellenistic states
After the decisive battle of Ipsus, the Diadochi redrawn the borders of states more than once. None of the commanders managed to subjugate all the lands of Alexander the Great. Seleucus tried to do this for the longest time. To do this, he made a trip to India and defeated the local ruler. For this victory he began to be called Nikator (Winner). Soon Seleucus was killed by Ptolemy, the lands were divided by the diadochi.
The calmest state was Egypt. Ptolemy and his successors tried to rule the country, taking into account local traditions. That is why the ruler was declared a god. The constant struggle with the Seleucids depleted the treasury and led to unsuccessful wars. The power of the state began to be depleted by dynastic strife. Borders became more difficult to defend and in 30 BC. e. Egypt became a province of Rome.
Characteristic features of Hellenistic states
At the head of each state formation was a king. The traditions of the Greek polis were preserved in the cities. Usually the power of the polis was in charge only of the affairs of the city; the monarch ruled the state. In their features, the Hellenistic states were monarchies of the eastern type.
Definition 2
Monarchy is a form of government where complete power is concentrated in the hands of one person - the monarch. The throne is inherited. The population is deprived of the right to participate in governing the country.
In power was a privileged part of the population - the Greek-Macedonian colonists. The land was owned by the king. He transferred a large amount of it to temples and favorites, and provided military settlements with land. All the lands of the nobility and temple lands were cultivated by slaves. Peasant farms continued to live in isolated communities, which were supported by the traditions of the tribal system.
The production of bread for sale remained the basis of the economy of such states. To obtain high yields, communities maintained an irrigation system.
The confrontation between the ruling elite and the large native population led to an intensification of the class struggle, which was expressed in the form of national uprisings against foreigners. This slowed down economic development. The use of slave labor is considered the main feature of ancient society.
Hellenistic states
Alexander's extensive monarchy was a fragile and temporary unification. After a long struggle for power between Alexander's successors, his monarchy collapsed, and on its ruins new kingdoms arose, headed by Alexander's generals: in Egypt - Ptolemy, in Syria - Seleucus, in Macedonia - Antipater. In addition to these main states, the monarchies of Pergamum, the Kingdom of Pontus, Bithynia, etc. arose in Asia Minor, and to the east of Mesopotamia - Parthia and Bactria. The cities of Greece were in a state of decline, drained of blood by long wars and the ebb of masses of the urban population to the east.
This period in ancient history is called Hellenistic. The term "Hellenism", according to some scholars, refers only to the penetration of the Greeks and Greek culture into the East through the founding of numerous cities and the spread of Greek forms of exploitation of the local population. Soviet scientists usually, while preserving this conventional term, put a different content into it. They believe that from the time of Alexander’s conquests and especially after them, a new period of development of the slave-owning formation began, distinguishing it from previous Greek forms of slavery and exploitation. This period is characterized by an organic combination of eastern and Greek forms of exploitation, with the predominance of eastern forms in the exploitation of the agricultural population, and Greek ones in the cities. In addition, unlike previous times, cities became centers of commodity production and the main support of the Hellenistic monarchs.
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The most characteristic features of the new state formations are the state's monopoly ownership of land and the sharp division of the entire population of the state into urban and rural populations. The supreme owners of the land were the kings, who ceded, either by temporary transfer of possession or by gifts and sales, part of the state Lands to temples, cities, officials, generals and soldiers whom they recruited into service, providing them with places for settlements and allocating them with plots of land.
Cities now became the support of the kings as centers for the development of the monetary economy, commodity production, crafts and land ownership. Civil rights were bought and sold. Any person could become a citizen of the policy, regardless of his origin. At the same time, people who lost their land and were left without a means of subsistence were deprived of their civil rights. Thus, urban communities are now united not only along ethnic and political lines, but also along class lines. They are headed by officials “recommended” by the tsar and a city council, whose members were wealthy citizens. The People's Assembly loses its importance: it only listens and approves the decisions of the magistrates and the council. The landowning and trading nobility of the cities were interested in supporting the royal power, because the monarchy provided them with the protection of their borders, while simultaneously providing great opportunities for the development of crafts and trade in the vast territories of the state.
Of the cities founded by Alexander, Alexandria under Egypt received especially great development. Soon after Alexander's death, Alexandria became the capital of the kingdom of one of his generals, Ptolemy. Under the Ptolemaic dynasty, Alexandria became one of the most comfortable cities in the world. Its residents were proud of the excellent layout of the streets, of which the main one was said to stretch for 8 km. and reached 35 m in width. The most crowded streets were lined with trees, providing coolness on hot days. On the island of Pharos, which protected the entrances to the two sea harbors of Alexandria, a large lighthouse was built in the form of a three-story tower, reaching 120 m in height. The construction of this tower was rightfully considered a remarkable achievement of the art of construction, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria was ranked as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The lighthouse stood until the 13th century. The city itself was famous for its gardens and royal palaces. On the territory of the palace, which occupied a significant part of the city, there was the famous Alexandria Museum with the greatest library in the world, containing more than 700,000 ancient manuscripts. "Museion", i.e.
1 From the lighthouse that stood on the island. Pharos, the word “headlights” came from, known to everyone who has seen a car.
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the building, dedicated to the muses, was both a center for the scientific and literary works of scientists and poets who gathered here from different parts of the Greek world, and a sanctuary. It contained work rooms, laboratories, a dining room and apartments for scientists supported by the state. The Museum was adjacent to a botanical and zoological garden. The scientist who managed the library was also the teacher of the royal children.
For a number of centuries, this city was a center of science, especially medicine, exact sciences and philology.
The founding of new cities and the reconstruction of old ones were closely related to the development of the art of construction. The architecture and skill of planning large cities with up to 500-600 thousand people, such as Alexandria, Pergamon (now Bergama in Turkey), Antioch and many other cities in Asia and Africa, are developing. The new cities did not at all resemble old Athens with narrow and crooked streets and an irregularly shaped agora. The streets of the new cities ran parallel to each other, intersecting at right angles, and this required the work of geometers. In the center of the city there was an agora of regular quadrangular shape, framed by porticoes with beautiful colonnades running along the facade. The Agora has ceased to be a market, now it is a place for walking and relaxing, as well as for public meetings. The city council building was usually located on the agora. Sculptures, statues and dedication monuments decorated the square. In addition, areas for the sale of goods and special markets for trade in perishable goods were created. For this purpose, in such a market, tables were placed with a slightly inclined surface, convenient both for draining water and for cleaning tables. There were also special basements for storing food. The squares abounded with water, filling indoor pools and gushing from beautifully designed fountains.
Besides Alexandria, one of the most beautiful cities was Pergamum. It was built in beautiful terraces that rose in parallel rows to the top of the hill - the acropolis of the city. On the upper terraces there were gymnasiums, sanctuaries and temples, and on the top of the hill there were palace buildings, temples and libraries. The beautiful sculptural frieze that adorned the altar of Zeus, with scenes of the struggle of gods and titans, found in Pergamon, belongs to the greatest works of ancient art. This monument is vividly described by I. S. Turgenev 1. Like other Hellenistic cities, Pergamon had running water and good sewerage. The state monitored the proper construction of houses and the cleanliness of both public and private reservoirs.
1 See I. S. Turgenev, Pergamon excavations, Works, vol. XI, 1957, pp. 397-402.
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During the Hellenistic period, there was a fairly rapid development of productive forces in crafts and especially in construction and military affairs. Water-lifting devices began to be used in mining. The invention of screw drainage machines is attributed to Archimedes (“Archimedes’ screw”); however, similar mechanisms have long been used in Egypt for irrigation. Most likely, Archimedes only improved these mechanisms. Various metallurgical processes were improved (amalgamation of gold, production of many types of steel, new methods of producing bronze, etc.). There is information about the acquaintance of the Greeks during this period with mineral coal (probably brown).
Construction in cities shows a high level of architectural development; even the ruins of temples, palaces, and gymnasiums testify to the high skill of unknown architects and the hard work of artisans and slaves. Architects widely used mosaics as a widespread element of building decoration; the walls of palaces and private houses were covered with exquisite frescoes.
Glass, already known in Egypt, has now become widespread. The craftsmen produced mosaic, two-color, engraved, gilded, milky and painted glass. Glass vases from this time adorn the windows of our museums.
Great progress has also been observed in pottery production. Relief vessels have now become widespread. Simplification of the production process made it possible to move to their mass production. The discovery of the potters of Alexandria was lead glaze of various colors, which gave strength to pottery.
Significant progress is being made in textile production. Horizontal looms with 3-4 healds are widely used; In the cities, complex patterned fabrics, gold-woven fabrics, and carpets were produced. Papyrus was used as a writing material throughout almost the entire Hellenistic world.
Military technology, the equipment of sea harbors, and the construction of a military fleet of various types and ships for various purposes are achieving high development. Old ones were improved and new siege devices and military vehicles were created - ballistas, catapults, onagers, etc., which required the introduction of specialist engineers into the army. At the court of the Syrian kings there was also the position of chief physicist.
Four of the seven wonders of the world that the ancient world was proud of were created during the Hellenistic period: the temple of Artemis of Ephesus, the lighthouse in Alexandria, the giant statue of Helios that stood at the entrance to the Rhodian harbor and the tombstone of King Mausolus in Halicarnassus (hence the word - mausoleum) 1 .
1 The other three wonders of the world were created in pre-Hellenistic times: the Egyptian pyramids, the hanging gardens of Queen Semiramis in Babylon and the statue of Zeus at Olympia by Phidias.
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The basis of the economy of the Hellenistic states was land ownership. All land, cultivated and uncultivated, pastures, forests and mines were recognized by the right of conquest as the property of the king. This was possible because the bulk of the agricultural population of the eastern states did not know developed private ownership of land. Farmers lived in communities, long since cultivating the land of the kings, given to them for supplying the kings with a certain share of the harvest. This system was preserved in the Hellenistic states. All farmers of Egypt and the Seleucid monarchy became “royal peasants” or “royal people” and, as tenants, had to cultivate the lands provided to them for a share of the harvest established by the kings (usually half the harvest). The relationship between the “royal peasants” and the new government changed only politically, but the economic basis of their production remained the same. Engels pointed out that on the conquered lands, in the case of dominance of the village, serf relations are formed, and in the case of dominance of the cities, slaveholding relations 1. Cities, especially in areas not united, like Egypt, by a unified irrigation system, dominated rural areas. The founding of cities by kings and their reliance on old urban centers is associated with the policy of strengthening slave relations and methods of exploitation of the subject agricultural population. The large landholdings of the city nobility were the king’s support in the exploitation of agricultural communities. The very form of communities was convenient for exercising control over them in order to systematically collect taxes and cultivate all the land of the community members, since responsibility for this was placed not on individual farmers, but on the community as a whole.
During this period, not only sea, but even more overland trade routes covered vast territories: from the Mediterranean Sea through the Euphrates to China and India, from the Northern Black Sea region to the Aral Sea and Altai. From Egypt, trade routes went east through the Arabian Peninsula to India, south to Nubia, rich in gold and ivory, west to Cyrenaica and Carthage, and from there to Spain and the British Isles. The boundaries of the Hellenistic world expanded. Merchants reached the borders of the oceans in the east and west. Sea voyages were made to uncharted lands, right up to the northern shores of Europe. Ship captains used nautical charts; the carrying capacity of merchant ships increased.
Particularly large profits were brought by trade with remote areas, where it was possible to exchange handicrafts for expensive goods and luxury items with huge profits. Possession of trade routes meant political dominance over adjacent
1 F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, 1953, p. 331.
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territories leading to them, therefore, there was a stubborn struggle between individual states for dominance over these routes and especially over the outlets to the sea.
In parallel with trade, crafts also developed. The sale of handicraft products in large markets provided great opportunities for personal enrichment. In addition to private workshops with a large number of slaves, royal and temple workshops appeared, in which “royal” and “temple” slaves worked.
While cities were centers of monetary exchange in foreign markets, exchange in kind prevailed within the country and all taxes were collected from peasants in kind.
The development of trade and the expansion of markets opened up enormous opportunities for merchants to acquire slaves. The demand for slaves increased enormously due to the widespread use of their labor in workshops, mines, rural estates, temple farms and on city lands. And yet, even with slave markets, there was a hunt for people who were forcibly turned into slaves throughout Egypt and the Seleucid monarchy. The role of slave labor was great in mines and quarries. The exploitation of slaves here reached the most inhumane forms, causing high mortality and rapid disability; Therefore, uprisings in the mines were especially frequent, although they were suppressed with great cruelty.
Hellenistic culture
Economic and social changes in the lives of both individuals and entire states during this period had a huge impact on the nature of culture and its development. With the crisis of the old polis system, a crisis of polis ideology develops; Individualism and the desire to feel like a citizen not only of one’s city, but also of a huge state and even states, became characteristic, since Greeks and Macedonians stood at the throne of kings everywhere, and the Greek language was everywhere the state language. Along with individualism, cosmopolitanism is also developing as an inevitable consequence of the development of mercenaries and the class-privileged position of people brought up in Greek culture. Cosmopolitanism of that time was the class ideology of slave owners, an ideology divorced from the people and opposed to them, as the ideology of the politically dominant elite, to the disenfranchised and oppressed masses of the productive population, alien to the Greeks by origin, culture and language. Thus, the main and characteristic feature of Hellenistic culture is its anti-national class character, which is inextricably linked with the interests of domination and subordination.
That is why the development of literature, poetry and eloquence is so limited and poor. Poets are no longer interested in political life, and if they turn to political topics, it is only to glorify the monarchy.
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authorities, the king and members of his family. The literary works of this time, despite the presence of a number of gifted poets, never reach the perfection of the great literary artists of Greece in the 5th century. BC e. The theater is represented by everyday comedy, and prose is represented by a new literary genre, the Hellenistic novel. The process of degeneration of literature and symptoms of growing pessimism became increasingly noticeable starting from the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. The philosophical schools of this time were also marked by a reactionary aristocratic character. Urging people to seek happiness through self-improvement, they only suggested giving up desires and calmly enduring suffering, both personal and that of their loved ones. The only school; Continuing the materialistic philosophy of Democritus, there was the school of the philosopher Epicurus, who also developed the doctrine of the eternity and immutability of matter. An important scientific discovery of Epicurus was the assertion that matter and motion are inseparable from each other. Epicurus taught, like Democritus, that atoms lie at the basis of the world. But unlike his predecessor, he believed that atoms move not along straight lines, but along curved lines, and upon collision form bodies characterized by new qualities. Being a materialist, Epicurus preached atheism and for the first time, as Marx noted, he began to openly attack religion; This is why Marx considered Epicurus one of the greatest Greek enlighteners. However, Epicurus and his followers avoided political struggle and believed that they could only talk about their teachings among friends, among like-minded people. Thus, this school also retained its aristocratically closed character.
Much more popular at that time was the teaching of the idealistic school of the Stoics, which received their name from the “stay”-covered portico, where the founder of the school, Zeno, taught wisdom in Athens. Later, Christianity borrowed from the Stoics the doctrine of virtue, which meant the combination of reason, courage, self-control and justice, as well as the doctrine of the natural equality of people.
The Stoics taught that a person should fulfill his social duty on earth, without shunning people, and treat slaves with compassion. They defined slavery as “lifelong wage labor.” The duty of a wise man, the Stoics taught, is to help kings manage their subjects wisely, and if the ruler is bad, then help the people get rid of him, replacing him with a reasonable ruler. Therefore, the Stoics took part in political movements. However, the ideal state of the Stoics still rested on slavery.
In the historical science of that time, a large place was given to the history of Philip and Alexander. Most historians have been characterized by highlighting the strong individual as opposed to the politically passive and submissive masses. Along with this, a number of writers have become interested in the history of individual
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countries, in particular to the history of Attica, Sparta, to the history of Egypt, Babylonia, India and Sicily. These works are of great scientific interest, although only fragments of this large literature or its retellings have reached us.
The greatest prosperity was in the IV-III centuries. BC e. exact sciences achieve.
The centers of culture at this time were large cities, especially Alexandria, Pergamon and Rhodes; Of the old cities, Athens also retained its cultural significance as a center of philosophy.
The expansion of the geographical boundaries of the Hellenistic world led to the high development of geography and botany. Alexandria scientists carried out a lot of work to accurately determine the location of individual countries and cities on maps; for the first time such concepts as meridian and parallel were introduced into science. The most famous geographer of that time was Eratosthenes, who compiled a geographical map of the earth and tried to calculate the circumference of the Earth 1 and a description of its shape. At the same time, Aristotle’s student Theophrastus lived and worked, who was known until the 15th century. n. e., the most outstanding botanist, and even in the 15th century. botany began its development with the study of the works of Theophrastus, which were first translated into European languages. Theophrastus laid the foundation for the scientific study of the anatomy, morphology, systematics and even physiology of plants. He already knew that plants feed with the help of leaves, distinguished wood and pith from bark in the stem, and found in plant organs the same veins that are seen in animals. But his work did not receive further development either under the Hellenistic kings or under the Romans, since at that time practical interests prevailed in the study of botany. Botany remained the science of medicinal and poisonous plants.
Great advances in medicine are associated with the work of Alexandrian doctors, who for the first time began to use vivisection in anatomy. For this, the kings of Egypt provided them with people sentenced to death. Human internal organs, the nervous system and the brain, which was already considered the center of mental activity, were subjected to special study.
Great progress was also observed in the development of mathematical sciences. The work of the Alexandrian scientist Euclid “Elements of Geometry” (which then included elements of algebra) remained a reference book not only for the Romans, but later also for Arabs and European scientists. A number of provisions of this book have retained their significance in our time. The greatest mathematician was Archimedes from Syracuse (3rd century BC). A simple and incomplete list of the problems that Archimedes dealt with shows the breadth and depth of his scientific knowledge.
1 The principle of calculating the circumference of the Earth by Eratosthenes was strictly scientific and the value of the circumference of our planet he obtained is close to modern data.
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Teresov: the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference, the invention of scientific terminology to denote any numbers, infinitesimal calculus, studies of hydrostatics, which for the first time received scientific justification in his works. In mechanics, Archimedes made many discoveries: he invented a winch for moving heavy objects, and designed a number of military vehicles. In fact, he was the creator of scientific mechanics.
His tragic death during the capture of Syracuse by the Romans covered the name of the Romans with shame. Therefore, they later composed a legend about an eccentric scientist who was killed allegedly by accident and through his own fault.
In the field of astronomy, Aristarchus of Samos made a brilliant guess that the Earth, along with other planets, revolves around a stationary Sun, 300 times the size of the earth. However, at that time, of course, he could not substantiate his scientific guess. The geocentric system developed at that time by the great astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea, which dominated science until Copernicus, became widespread.
Hipparchus's remarkable discovery was his accurately calculated anticipation (precession) of the equinoxes. Hipparchus was also responsible for compiling the first star catalogue, in which more than 1000 stars were identified.
The flourishing of Hellenistic science and technology did not last long. In the II century. BC e. the decline of science and scientific thought begins, and at the same time the spread of astrology, magic and all kinds of gross superstitions. In literature and philosophy, gloomy tones and the growth of pessimism are intensifying. Determinism is developing, that is, a complete denial of the freedom of human will. The decline of creative thought, science and literature was accompanied by an increased role of religion, especially the growing influence of Eastern cults. The kings pursued a policy of religious syncretism - mixing religious beliefs and cults - thus trying to unite the Greek and eastern populations of the cities. They established an official cult of kings, which, however, took root only in the cities. The local agricultural population remained faithful to their religious cults, rituals, their language and their local culture.
The development of the exact sciences was also short-lived. It was caused by acquaintance with the science and technology of eastern countries, with the wide possibilities of experimental observations, with the practical tasks posed to scientists, and at the same time it was a summing up of the knowledge accumulated in previous periods. But science, divorced from a philosophical basis, inevitably led to empiricism, to the rejection of theoretical research, to narrow practicalism. This is clearly evidenced by the examples of the fate of the works of Archimedes and Theophrastus, which did not find worthy successors either in the Hellenistic or Roman periods.
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Conclusion
The development of science could be a long process only if it attracted people interested in its development. This just did not and could not happen in the Hellenistic states, based on the suppression and exploitation of not only slaves, but also the broadest layers of the rural and urban population engaged in productive labor. What appears before us is the elite of society, infected with cosmopolitanism, having lost their homeland, since they were not connected ethnically, historically, or culturally with the people they ruled, gripped by a feeling of growing pessimism, despair and doom. The degeneration of its class-limited culture was a natural process. The system of Hellenistic states, based on slave monopolies, that is, on direct coercion of the working masses, who had little or no economic interest in the technical development of their production, could not develop for long. Any monopoly, as V.I. Lenin noted, tends to quickly decay.
At the same time, among the peoples subject to the Hellenistic rulers, their local folk culture slowly but steadily developed, the self-awareness acquired in the class struggle grew, and the sense of homeland and patriotism grew stronger. That is why in the Hellenistic period, in addition to the struggle of slaves and the struggle of farmers, who directed their hatred primarily at the cities, the struggle of nationalities for their liberation, for the right to independent political and economic development, also developed.
It is no coincidence that the process of the Roman conquest of the Hellenistic states was rapid. The people, hating their rulers, did not support them during the war, viewing any war as a means of getting rid of the hated yoke. However, the new yoke imposed on the ancient peoples by Rome brought them new suffering, tears and blood.
Prepared according to the edition:
Kolobova K.M., Gluskina L.M.Essays on the history of Ancient Greece. Teacher's manual. L., 1958.
Macedonian period[ | ]
The Aetolians, who sided with the Romans, were very dissatisfied with the terms of the peace; the other Greeks soon became convinced that they had only changed one master for another; it came to a new war between the Aetolians and the Romans (-188 BC), and the king of Syria, Antiochus III, was in alliance with the Aetolians. In 191, at Thermopylae, Antiochus was defeated by the Romans, and two years later the Aetolians were forced to submit to Rome. The Aetolian League ceased to exist (189).
Just as before the Aetolians were annoyed with the Romans and incited the Greeks to war with them, so now both Philip and the Achaeans, who sided with the Romans in their war with Antiochus and the Aetolians, were dissatisfied with Rome. Around this time, the expansion of the Achaean League, led by Philopoemen, to the entire Peloponnese dates back to this time. Sparta, Hellas, Messenia were annexed to the union (191-190). But both in Sparta and Messenia there were strong parties that stood for separating these areas from the union. The dissatisfied complained to Rome, which did not refuse the role of mediator, judge and organizer of the Peloponnese; with his assistance, Messenia broke away from the Achaeans (183). The return of Messenia to the union cost the life of Philopoemen, and with his death internal unrest intensified, and the reasons for Roman intervention in the affairs of the union multiplied. The political struggle was complicated by the socio-economic one. Two parties fought in the alliance: one, without declaring open war on Rome, tried to preserve for the alliance a possible measure of independence in action; the other insisted on recognizing the primacy of Rome over the union. The most prominent representatives of both parties were Aristhenes and Callicrates, respectively.
End of Greek independence[ | ]
In 171 BC. The Third Macedonian War began, which passed from Philip to his son Perseus. In 168, the war ended with the extermination of the Macedonian army at Pydna. Macedonia was declared free and divided into 4 republics dependent on Rome. In their hearts sympathizing with Perseus and wishing him victory over a more dangerous enemy, the Greeks, and in particular
Immediately after the death of Alexander the Great, an acute crisis of power erupted in the huge power he created, caused by the problem of succession to the throne. A fierce struggle for power began between his generals - the diadochi (i.e., successors). Battle-hardened warriors, strong politicians, diadochi divided the satrapies of the huge kingdom among themselves, and each of the generals received control of one of the regions of “Alexander’s legacy”
In the system of Hellenistic states, two largest superpowers can be distinguished, the largest in territory, the strongest in their military-economic potential and the most influential in the world of Hellenism: the Egyptian kingdom, ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty, and the Seleucid power (at the end of the 3rd century BC). BC began to be called the Syrian kingdom). Large and influential states of the Hellenistic world were the Macedonian kingdom, where the Antigonid dynasty ruled, the Pergamon kingdom, where the Attalid dynasty established itself, and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, formed in the middle of the 4th century. BC e. in eastern Iran and covering part of Central Asia.
These were the largest Hellenistic states. However, along with them, there were states of more modest size, whose role in the fate of Hellenistic politics, although not as decisive as the first five great powers of Hellenism, was at the same time quite significant.
The complex relationships between all these state entities constituted the specific history of the Hellenistic world. However, in this general system of relationships, the main role was played by the four great powers of the Hellenistic world: Ptolemaic Egypt, the Seleucid power, Pergamon and Macedonia, to which many other states gravitated.
Hellenistic Egypt, ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty, was the most durable kingdom and existed as a state entity for a longer historical period than other large Hellenistic states. These kings declared themselves the heirs of the Egyptian pharaohs. They supported local priests in every possible way and spared no expense for local temples. As a result of this, they gained the support of the Egyptian nobility. The capital of the Ptolemies was the city of Alexandria. Ptolemy I beautified and expanded Alexandria, aiming to make it the largest port in the Mediterranean.
The Ptolemies encouraged art and science. They invited famous scientists from Greece and created the famous Library of Alexandria. It contained 700 thousand scrolls.
The Greco-Macedonian army that captured Egypt found in this country a long-established economy, the basis of which was irrigation agriculture. The previous system of irrigation canals was restored, which had fallen into disrepair under the Persians and during the turbulent period of the struggle of the Diadochi. In Hellenistic Egypt, various handicraft industries were further developed. This was facilitated not only by the flourishing of agriculture, which supplied abundant raw materials for workshops producing papyrus, fabrics, vegetable oil, beer, and leather, but also by the better organization of craft activities and the introduction of elements of Greek rationalism into its structure.
Having large surpluses of grain, papyrus, fabrics, valuable stones, glass, and jewelry, the Ptolemies conducted extensive trade in world markets. The Ptolemaic power controlled the most important sea routes of the eastern half of the Mediterranean Sea, along which Egyptian goods circulated.
In addition to the capital, in Hellenistic Egypt there were only two policies of the Greek type: Naucratis in the Nile Delta, founded in the archaic era, and Ptolemais in the south of the country. True, there were quite a lot of policies in the extra-Egyptian possessions of the Ptolemies. But these territories, in essence, never became full-fledged parts of the state, remaining a kind of “appendages”.
The largest of the Hellenistic states was the Seleucid kingdom. During the period of the highest power of the Seleucids, their possessions covered Syria, Phenicia and Palestine, part of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Iran, and southern Central Asia. Thus, the kingdom spread from the eastern coast of the Aegean to the borders of India.
The Seleucid kingdom was a military-administrative union, and the issue of the army was of paramount importance here. The composition of the army was as diverse as the composition of the entire state. There were royal garrisons in all satrapies, fortresses and cities. The basis of the army was the phalanx, in which the descendants of the Macedonians who settled in the Seleucid state, or the Greeks, armed and trained “in the Macedonian way,” served. The main forces consisted of heavily armed infantry (Macedonian phalanx, mercenary troops), which played a decisive role in military clashes, numerous detachments of horsemen (Tarentians, Thracians, Niseans, etc.) and special detachments of troops with chariots and siege weapons. The basis of the army was made up of Macedonians and Greeks who lived on the territory of the state in military colonies (kathoikia) and city-states.
In the numerous old and newly founded cities of the Seleucid kingdom, the number of artisans and traders quickly grew. In some areas, local production has been developing since the 4th century. BC.
Under the first two Seleucids, the colonization of the East, which began with Alexander the Great, expanded to its full extent. Many settlements appeared, among which not all were cities in the Greek sense of the word. There were also differences between the policies - these were either large trading cities, or fortresses that occupied important strategic points, or cities that were formed on the site of sanctuaries.
An essential element in the structure of the Seleucid kingdom, along with the poleis, were the katekii. Sometimes these were warrior settlements in important strategic points in areas where there was trouble, or along the border. The composition of the colonists was mixed - Macedonians and Greeks, local residents, mercenaries of various origins.
The Seleucid state was headed by a king. The king headed the civil administration, was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and the supreme judge. In fact, he was even considered the personification of justice, from whom only good orders could come. The monarch was perceived as a being of an unearthly order, as a superman, who became the subject of veneration, and sometimes even deification. To effectively manage the state under the king, there was a fairly large bureaucratic apparatus, which was responsible for the collection of taxes, the functioning of the judicial system, etc. The Seleucid state was famous for its strong army.
Pergamum. The original territory of Pergamum, located in the northwestern part of Asia Minor, was small. However, over time, its territory increased many times over, and its importance in the Hellenistic world increased greatly. A small fortress, such as Pergamon, in the new conditions quickly turned into the main center of the state. Thanks to diplomatic dexterity, the Pergamon rulers Attalus I (241–197 BC) and Eumenes II (197–160 BC) were able to expand the boundaries of their kingdom and capture most of inland Asia Minor.
A feature of the historical existence of Pergamon as a Hellenistic state was the predominance of Greek principles in the synthesis of Greek and Eastern elements that was characteristic of every Hellenistic society and state. It was the predominance of Greek principles in the social and state structure of Pergamon that determined its well-known homogeneity and strength and determined the Western direction of social and state policy.
The Pergamon economy exhibited to a greater extent the characteristic features of the ancient system: the use of slaves in many sectors of the economy, the introduction of intensive methods of exploitation of labor and elements of commodity production. The economic prosperity of Pergamon was facilitated by favorable natural conditions, a mild climate, fertile soils of the Caica Valley, a combination of river valleys, low hills suitable for growing vineyards and olive trees, rich pastures, and the country's advantageous location near the Black Sea straits, through which the most important trade route of that time passed.
In the Pergamon economy the share of trade, crafts and commodity production was quite high, which brings it closer to the general structure of the polis economy. Craft production developed on rich supplies of local raw materials: good varieties of clay, metals, wood and resin, skins and wool obtained from their own livestock.
The political organization of the Pergamon monarchy had some differences from the traditions of the Seleucids or Ptolemies. The Attalids were considered “democratic” monarchs: in Pergamum there was no royal cult, deification of the king and queen, in some decrees the kings called themselves citizens of Pergamum, and not kings, the decrees did not contain the usual “we command” for the Seleucids and Ptolemies. The Attalid bureaucracy was modest in size and influence on society. The role of the army as a support of the king’s power was also different. Among the Seleucids and Ptolemies, the cadre army, which had great privileges and influence on state affairs, consisted of Greeks and Macedonians opposed to local elements. In Pergamon, the mercenary army was recruited from representatives of the entire population, including the local one, and did not play such a political and social role as in the Seleucid and Ptolemaic monarchy, more reminiscent of the mercenary troops common to Greek society in the 4th century. BC e.
Relying on great material wealth and a certain cohesion of the ruling class, the Attalids pursued a clever and successful foreign policy. If the states of the Ptolemies and Seleucids in the 3rd–2nd centuries. BC e. gradually lost one region after another, the Attalids, on the contrary, increased their possessions and by the beginning of the 2nd century. BC e. turned their small state into a great power of the Hellenistic world, covering almost all of Asia Minor.
MACEDONIAN STATE. Ancient Macedonia, which was ruled by the Antigonid dynasty after the end of the Diadochi wars, retained its sovereignty and continued to be considered one of the three largest powers of the Hellenistic world. However, during the Hellenistic era, the poor Macedonian state found itself in a very difficult situation. After all, now he had to compete with the powerful Ptolemaic and Seleucid monarchies, which were not comparable in size and economic resources. And yet, despite all the difficulties, during the first half of the Hellenistic era, Macedonia managed to maintain its very high reputation, fight on equal terms for primacy with the Seleucid and Ptolemaic powers, exercise hegemony in Balkan Greece, and try to implement ambitious geopolitical projects. This was possible thanks to the outstanding military, administrative and diplomatic abilities of most of the Macedonian kings. Among the major figures of Hellenistic history are Antigonus II Gonatus (ruled 277-239 BC), Antigonus III Doson (ruled 229-221 BC) and Philip V (ruled 221-179 BC).
Like the rest of the largest Hellenistic states, Macedonia was a monarchy. But there was another force that traditionally limited the sovereignty of rulers. This force was the army, the militia of Macedonian citizens, which was believed to express the will of the entire people. The army meeting, in particular, approved the accession of a new king to the throne; It also served as a judicial authority in the examination of cases of some important state crimes. The Antigonids also had to reckon with this kind of tradition. Under these conditions, in Hellenistic Macedonia there was no deification of kings, nor was there a developed bureaucratic apparatus. The Macedonian armed forces were not as large as those of the Seleucids and Ptolemies, but were not inferior to them in their combat effectiveness.
28. Northern Black Sea region in the classical and Hellenistic era.
The Greek cities of the Northern Black Sea region were an organic part of the Hellenistic world and closely interacted (in economics, politics and culture) with the states of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor and even distant Egypt.
Of utmost importance for the history of Greek state formations in the Northern Black Sea region was the proximity and influence of the vast barbarian periphery, powerful tribal and state associations of barbarian tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians.
From the 4th century BC e. In the vast region of the Black Sea steppes, significant movements of nomadic tribes occur. Numerous hordes of Sarmatians cross the Tanais River and, slowly moving west, press out the Scythians, occupying their territories. Under the onslaught of the Sarmatians, part of the Scythians retreats westward to the mouth of the Danube, where a state is formed in the Dobrudzha region (the so-called Lesser Scythia), most of the Scythians are pushed into the steppe Crimea and the adjacent areas of modern Southern Ukraine. Here in the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. A strong Scythian kingdom arises, the capital of which was the city of Naples (modern Simferopol), in close proximity to the Greek cities of Chersonesus, Feodosia, and the European Bosporus. Since the powerful Sarmatians prevented conquests in the northern and eastern directions, the Scythians intensified their military activity in the southern direction, against Greek cities, developed and rich trade and craft centers, which had long attracted the attention of the Scythian aristocracy.
The need to repel the military threat of the Scythians determined many features of the internal and external situation of the Greek cities of the Northern Black Sea region, forcing them to seek allies and patrons among the stronger states of the Hellenistic world.
The major centers of the Northern Black Sea region were Olbia, Chersonesus and the Bosporan kingdom. Their internal and external position in the 3rd–2nd centuries. BC e. was not the same
Chersonesus annexes vast areas in the North-Western Crimea, including the policies of Kerkinitis (modern Evpatoria) and Kalos Limen (modern Chernomorsk) and some tribal territories inhabited by local Scythian tribes. A small polis turns into a large on a local scale and complex, reminiscent of a Hellenistic state, including several policies and tribal territories. The center of the state - the city of Chersonesos - is expanding, the urban area is being rebuilt according to the principle of a regular city, with a clear identification of a rectangular grid of streets, an agora, an acropolis, a port area, and craft districts. The city is building its own mint and theater, which can accommodate up to 1.5 thousand spectators. The urban development is surrounded by powerful fortress walls with high towers, built along the best strategic line of defense. Chersonesos is turning into one of the best fortresses in the Northern Black Sea region, being an example of pan-Greek fortification art.
The inhabitants of Chersonesus developed the occupied lands well. The territories of the rural district closest to Chersonesos - Heraclea - and remote areas of North-Western Crimea were subjected to correct land surveying. On demarcated plots, the size of which ranged from 10 to 30 hectares, profitable arable farming (on the plains of the North-Western Crimea), viticulture and gardening (on Heraclea) were established, which were carried out using intensive methods, with the predominant use of slave labor. In Chersonesos itself, workshops for the production of various ceramics (amphoras, dishes, terracottas, pipes, tiles, etc.), weaving, dyeing, and forges appeared. The active construction of city buildings and fortifications contributes to the development of construction and architecture. Based on the increased economic potential, using surplus marketable products (bread, wine), handicrafts, Chersonesos establishes trade relations along a direct route through the Black Sea with the cities of the Southern Black Sea region, primarily with Sinope and Heraclea, as well as with the cities of Balkan Greece. At the same time, Chersonesos establishes strong trade relations with Olbia, the Bosporan cities, including distant Tanais, and the Scythians.
A feature of the social structure of Chersonesos society in the 3rd–2nd centuries. BC e. there was a certain homogeneity of the ruling class, among which there was no such sharp stratification of property as in Olbia, and on the other hand, slave-holding relations of the classical type developed. Slaves were the main producers both on many rural estates and in the city's craft workshops.
Periodization of the history of Rome.
The entire history of Ancient Rome is divided into three large stages:
1. royal period or ancient history of Rome - 753 - 510. BC e.; Ancient history of Italy. Greek colonies in southern Italy. Society and state of the Etruscans. Royal period in Rome
2. period of the republic - 510 - 30s. BC e.;
it is divided into:
Early Republic (late VI-III centuries BC) Early class society. The struggle of the plebeians with the patricians. Rome's conquest of Italy
The rise of the republic (II century BC) The system of classical slavery in Italy. Creation of the Roman Mediterranean Power
Late Republic (133-30s BC) Civil Wars; the fall of the Republic, the formation of an empire; slave revolts.
3. period of the empire - from 30 AD. BC uh in the west to. - 476 AD e.
in the east 602/642 AD
Early Roman Empire 30's BC. – 236 AD (Principal)
Crisis of the 3rd century 235-284. AD General crisis of ancient civilization. The threat of collapse of the Mediterranean Roman Empire
Late Empire (dominant) 284 – in the west...
in the east...
Formation of proto-feudal relations. Late Roman Empire (dominant)
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