The main provisions of the hypothesis. Basic provisions of Lamarck's theory. evolutionary hypothesis. Explanation in "non-scientific" language

Question 1. List the main provisions of the hypothesis of AI Oparin.

In modern conditions, the emergence of living beings from inanimate nature is impossible. Abiogenic (i.e., without the participation of living organisms) the emergence of living matter was possible only in the conditions of the ancient atmosphere and the absence of living organisms. The composition of the ancient atmosphere included methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water vapor and other organic compounds. Under the influence of powerful electrical discharges, ultraviolet radiation and high radiation, organic compounds could arise from these substances, which accumulated in the ocean, forming a "primordial soup".

In the "primary soup" of biopolymers formed multimolecular complexes - coacervates. Metal ions, which acted as the first catalysts, entered the coacervate droplets from the external medium. From the huge number of chemical compounds present in the "primordial soup", the most catalytically effective combinations of molecules were selected, which ultimately led to the appearance of enzymes. Lipid molecules lined up on the border between coacervates and the external environment, which led to the formation of a primitive cell membrane.

At a certain stage, protein probionts included nucleic acids, creating single complexes, which led to the emergence of such living properties as self-reproduction, preservation of hereditary information and its transmission to subsequent generations.

Probionts, whose metabolism was combined with the ability to self-reproduce, can already be considered as primitive procells, the further development of which took place according to the laws of the evolution of living matter.

Question 2. What experimental evidence can be given in favor of this hypothesis?

In 1953, this hypothesis of A. I. Oparin was experimentally confirmed by the experiments of the American scientist S. Miller. In the installation he created, the conditions that presumably existed in the Earth's primary atmosphere were simulated. As a result of the experiments, amino acids were obtained. Similar experiments were repeated many times in various laboratories and made it possible to prove the fundamental possibility of synthesizing practically all monomers of the main biopolymers under such conditions. Subsequently, it was found that, under certain conditions, it is possible to synthesize more complex organic biopolymers from monomers: polypeptides, polynucleotides, polysaccharides, and lipids.

Question 3. What is the difference between the hypothesis of A. I. Oparin and the hypothesis of J. Haldane?

J. Haldane also put forward the hypothesis of the abiogenic origin of life, but, unlike A. I. Oparin, he gave priority not to proteins - coacervate systems capable of metabolism, but to nucleic acids, i.e. macromolecular systems capable of self-reproduction.

Question 4. What arguments do the opponents give when criticizing the hypothesis of A. I. Oparin?

Unfortunately, within the framework of the hypothesis of A. I. Oparin (and J. Haldane too), it is not possible to explain the main problem: how did the qualitative leap from inanimate to living occur.

The most popular among modern scientists is the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis about the origin of life on Earth. According to the hypothesis, life originated from inanimate matter(abiogenic) as a result of complex biochemical reactions.

Regulations

To talk briefly about the hypothesis of the origin of life, it is necessary to highlight three stages in the development of life according to Oparin:

• the occurrence of organic compounds;
• the formation of polymeric compounds (proteins, lipids, polysaccharides);
• the emergence of primitive organisms capable of reproduction.

Rice. 1. Scheme of evolution according to Oparin.

Biogenic, i.e. biological evolution, was preceded by chemical evolution, as a result of which complex substances were formed. Their formation was influenced by the anoxic atmosphere of the Earth, ultraviolet, lightning discharges.

Biopolymers arose from organic substances, which formed into primitive life forms (probionts), gradually separated by a membrane from the external environment. The appearance of nucleic acids in probionts contributed to the transmission of hereditary information and complication of organization. As a result of long-term natural selection, only those organisms remained that were capable of successful reproduction.

Rice. 2. Probionts.

Probionts or procells have not yet been obtained experimentally. Therefore, it is not completely clear how a primitive accumulation of biopolymers could move from an inanimate stay in the broth to reproduction, nutrition and respiration.

Story

The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis has come a long way and has been criticized more than once. The history of the formation of the hypothesis is described in the table.

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Rice. 3. Miller's experiment.

Miller's experiment has been repeatedly criticized, and is not fully recognized as a practical confirmation of the Oparin-Haldane theory. The main problem is obtaining from the formed mixture of organic substances that form the basis of life.

What have we learned?

From the lesson we learned about the essence of the hypothesis of the origin of life on the Oparin-Haldane Earth. According to the theory, macromolecular substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates) arose from inanimate matter as a result of complex biochemical reactions under the influence of the external environment. The hypothesis was first tested by Stanley Miller, who recreated the conditions of the Earth before the origin of life. As a result, amino acids and other complex substances were obtained. However, how these substances were reproduced remained unconfirmed.

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1. All living organisms evolve.

2. The driving forces of evolution and the mechanism of changes in organisms are:

■ direct influence of environmental conditions , which are changing;

■ inner desire for progress and the influence of conditions determine the appearance of useful features;

■ exercise or organ dysfunction leads to the development of these signs;

■ inheritance by organisms only useful features .

3. Evolution is a continuous process of acquiring useful traits.

4. The result of evolution is not only the emergence of useful changes, but also gradation organisms - a step-by-step complication of the organic world.

5. Life is constantly self-generating, so there are species that are on different rungs of the ladder.

6. Wildlife - a series of individuals that are constantly changing and which a person only in his imagination combines into species.

In the hypothesis of J.-B. Lamarck has serious shortcomings: he incorrectly explained the driving forces of evolution, did not recognize species as really existing categories, recognized the appearance and inheritance of only useful features.

Advances in biology in the first half of the 19th century as a prerequisite for the further development of evolutionary doctrine

The first half of the 19th century was marked by many discoveries in various fields of biology.

Advances in biology in the first half of the 19th century

So, successes natural sciences, and geographical discoveries, practice Agriculture became prerequisites for the further development of evolutionary doctrine, since a lot of new data appeared on the structure and life of living organisms, on the variability of living nature, which required systematization and theoretical explanation. In society, there was a need for a theory that could explain how and why organisms change.

The main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Ch. Darwin English scientist Charles Darwin(1809-1882) - one of the world's greatest biologists. His evolutionary hypothesis, known as "Darwinism", has been

theoretical basis of biology. Main scientific works Darwin is "The Origin of Species by Natural Selection" (1859), "Change of domestic animals and cultivated plants" (1868), "The origin of man and sexual selection" (1871), "Self-pollination and cross-pollination" (1876), etc.

Darwin considered hereditary variability and natural selection to be the driving forces of evolution. Darwin collected numerous proofs of the variability of organisms living in humans and organisms of different species in nature. Under the conditions of domestication, on the basis of the hereditary variability of organisms, through artificial selection, man has created numerous breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants.

Similarly, Darwin came to the conclusion that in natural conditions there is a factor that directs the evolution of organisms - natural selection. Darwin showed that in nature, organisms of any species are characterized by a constant struggle for existence, consisting of their interactions with environmental factors and intra- and interspecific competition. The result of the hereditary variability of organisms and the struggle for existence is natural selection - the predominant survival and participation in reproduction of the most adapted individuals of each species. The consequence of natural selection is adaptation, speciation and progressive evolution of living nature. A special case of natural selection is sexual, which ensures the development of traits associated with the function of reproduction.

The main provisions of Darwin's theory of evolution

1. Evolution consists in continuous adaptive changes of species.

2. Each species is capable of unlimited reproduction.

3. Driving forces of evolution and the mechanism of changes in organisms:

The basis for evolution is indefinite (hereditary ) variability : changes in organisms can be beneficial, harmful or neutral;

Unlimited reproduction is hindered by the limited life resources and most of the individuals die in struggle for existence

selective survival and reproduction of the fittest

Ch. Darwin called natural selection .

4. Under the influence of natural selection, groups of individuals of the same species accumulate various adaptive traits from generation to generation and turn into new species.

5. New breeds of animals and varieties of plants are formed under the influence artificial selection .

The significance of Darwin's theory of evolution for the development of natural science was very great: a) was disclosed scientific foundations driving forces of evolution and this approved historical method knowledge, which guided researchers not only to describe natural phenomena, but also to explain their essence, to establish the causes of phenomena, stages of development; b) it has been proved that the driving forces of the development of nature are contained in nature itself.

At the same time, taking into account the then level of development of biology, the teachings of Ch. Darwin had a number of shortcomings: the nature of hereditary variability remained unclear, the individual subjected to natural selection was considered the elementary unit of evolution, the concept of "species" remained the same as proposed by K. Linnaeus.

1. What is life?

Answer. Life is a way of being of entities (living organisms) endowed with internal activity, a process of development of bodies of an organic structure with a steady predominance of synthesis processes over decay processes, a special state of matter achieved due to the following properties. Life is a mode of existence of protein bodies and nucleic acids, the essential point of which is the constant exchange of substances with environment, and with the cessation of this exchange, life also ceases.

2. What hypotheses of the origin of life do you know?

Answer. Various views about the origin of life can be grouped into five hypotheses:

1) creationism - Divine creation of the living;

2) spontaneous generation - living organisms arise spontaneously from inanimate matter;

3) the hypothesis of a stationary state - life has always existed;

4) the hypothesis of panspermia - life is brought to our planet from the outside;

5) the hypothesis of biochemical evolution - life arose as a result of processes that obey chemical and physical laws. At present, most scientists support the idea of ​​the abiogenic origin of life in the process of biochemical evolution.

3. What is the basic principle of the scientific method?

Answer. The scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in the construction of a system of scientific knowledge. The basic principle of the scientific method is to take nothing for granted. Any statement or refutation of something should be checked.

Questions after § 89

1. Why can the notion of the divine origin of life be neither confirmed nor refuted?

Answer. The process of the Divine creation of the world is conceived as having taken place only once and therefore inaccessible for research. Science deals only with those phenomena that can be observed and experimentally studied. Therefore, from a scientific point of view, the hypothesis of the Divine origin of living things can neither be proved nor refuted. The main principle of the scientific method is "take nothing for granted". Therefore, logically there can be no contradiction between the scientific and religious explanation of the origin of life, since these two spheres of thought mutually exclude one another.

2. What are the main provisions of the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis?

Answer. In modern conditions, the emergence of living beings from inanimate nature is impossible. Abiogenic (i.e., without the participation of living organisms) the emergence of living matter was possible only in the conditions of the ancient atmosphere and the absence of living organisms. The composition of the ancient atmosphere included methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water vapor and other inorganic compounds. Under the influence of powerful electrical discharges, ultraviolet radiation and high radiation, organic compounds could arise from these substances, which accumulated in the ocean, forming a “primordial soup”. In the "primary broth" of biopolymers formed multimolecular complexes - coacervates. Metal ions, which acted as the first catalysts, entered the coacervate droplets from the external medium. From the huge number of chemical compounds present in the "primordial soup", the most catalytically effective combinations of molecules were selected, which ultimately led to the appearance of enzymes. Lipid molecules lined up on the border between coacervates and the external environment, which led to the formation of a primitive cell membrane. At a certain stage, protein probionts included nucleic acids, creating single complexes, which led to the emergence of such living properties as self-reproduction, preservation of hereditary information and its transmission to subsequent generations. Probionts, whose metabolism was combined with the ability to self-reproduce, can already be considered as primitive procells, the further development of which took place according to the laws of the evolution of living matter.

3. What experimental evidence can be given in favor of this hypothesis?

Answer. In 1953, this hypothesis of A. I. Oparin was experimentally confirmed by the experiments of the American scientist S. Miller. In the installation he created, the conditions that presumably existed in the Earth's primary atmosphere were simulated. As a result of the experiments, amino acids were obtained. Similar experiments were repeated many times in various laboratories and made it possible to prove the fundamental possibility of synthesizing practically all monomers of the main biopolymers under such conditions. Subsequently, it was found that, under certain conditions, it is possible to synthesize more complex organic biopolymers from monomers: polypeptides, polynucleotides, polysaccharides, and lipids.

4. What is the difference between the hypothesis of A. I. Oparin and the hypothesis of J. Haldane?

Answer. J. Haldane also put forward the hypothesis of the abiogenic origin of life, but, unlike A. I. Oparin, he gave priority not to proteins - coacervate systems capable of metabolism, but to nucleic acids, that is, macromolecular systems capable of self-reproduction.

5. What arguments do the opponents give when criticizing the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis?

Answer. The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis also has a weak side, which is pointed out by its opponents. Within the framework of this hypothesis, it is not possible to explain the main problem: how did the qualitative leap from inanimate to living occur. Indeed, for the self-reproduction of nucleic acids, enzyme proteins are needed, and for the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids.

Give possible arguments "for" and "against" the hypothesis of panspermia.

Answer. Arguments for:

Life at the level of prokaryotes appeared on Earth almost immediately after its formation, although the distance (in terms of the difference in the level of complexity of organization) between prokaryotes and mammals is comparable to the distance from the primordial soup to the paryotes;

In the case of the origin of life on any planet of our galaxy, it, as shown, for example, by A.D. Panov’s estimates, can “infect” the entire galaxy over a period of only a few hundred million years;

Findings in some meteorites of artifacts that can be interpreted as the result of the activity of microorganisms (even before the meteorite hit the Earth).

The hypothesis of panspermia (life brought to our planet from the outside) does not answer main question how life arose, but transfers this problem to some other place in the Universe;

Complete radio silence of the Universe;

Since it turned out that our entire Universe is only 13 billion years old (that is, our entire Universe is only 3 times older (!) Of planet Earth), then there is very little time left for the origin of life somewhere far away ... The nearest star to us, a-centauri, is 4 sv. of the year. A modern fighter (4 speeds of sound) will fly to this star ~ 800.000 years.

Ch. Darwin wrote in 1871: “But now ... in some warm reservoir containing all the necessary ammonium and phosphorus salts and accessible to light, heat, electricity, etc., a protein was chemically formed, capable of further , increasingly complex transformations, then this substance would immediately be destroyed or absorbed, which was impossible in the period before the emergence of living beings.

Confirm or refute this statement of Charles Darwin.

Answer. The process of the emergence of living organisms from simple organic compounds was extremely long. In order for life to originate on Earth, it took an evolutionary process that lasted for many millions of years, during which complex molecular structures, primarily nucleic acids and proteins, were selected for stability, for the ability to reproduce their own kind.

If now on Earth somewhere in areas of intense volcanic activity quite complex organic compounds can arise, then the probability of any prolonged existence of these compounds is negligible. The possibility of the re-emergence of life on Earth is excluded. Now living beings appear only through reproduction.

A hypothesis is an argument about a particular phenomenon, which is based on the subjective view of a person who directs his actions in some established direction. If the result is still unknown to a person, then a generalized assumption is created, and checking it allows you to adjust the general direction of the work. This is the scientific concept of a hypothesis. Is it possible to simplify the meaning of this concept?

Explanation in "non-scientific" language

A hypothesis is the ability to predict, predict the results of work, and this is the most important component of virtually everyone. scientific discovery. It helps to calculate future errors and misses and reduce their number significantly. At the same time, a hypothesis born directly during the work can be proved in a partial way. With a known result, the assumption makes no sense, and then hypotheses are not put forward. Here is a simple definition of the concept of a hypothesis. Now we can talk about how it is built, and discuss its most interesting types.

How is a hypothesis born?

Creating an argument in the human head is not an easy thought process. The researcher must be able to create and update the acquired knowledge, and he must also be distinguished by the following qualities:

1. problematic vision. This is the ability to show the paths of scientific development, to establish its main trends and to link disparate tasks together. Adds a problematic vision with the skills and knowledge already acquired, the intuition and abilities of a person in research.
2. Alternative character. This trait allows a person to draw the most interesting conclusions, to find something completely new in known facts.
3. Intuition. This term denotes an unconscious process and is not based on logical reasoning.

What is the essence of the hypothesis?

The hypothesis reflects the objective reality. In this it is similar to different forms of thinking, but it also differs from them. The main specificity of the hypothesis is that it displays the facts in the material world in a hypothetical way, it does not assert categorically and reliably. Because a hypothesis is an assumption.

Everyone knows that when establishing a concept through the nearest genus and difference, it will also be necessary to indicate distinctive features. The closest genus for a hypothesis in the form of any result of activity is the concept of “assumption”. What is the difference between a hypothesis and conjecture, fantasy, prediction, guessing? The most shocking hypotheses are not based on speculation alone, they all have certain signs. To answer this question, it is necessary to highlight the essential features.

Signs of a hypothesis

If we talk about this concept, then it is worth establishing it characteristics.

1. A hypothesis is a special form of development of scientific knowledge. It is hypotheses that allow science to move from individual facts to a specific phenomenon, generalization of knowledge and knowledge of the laws of development of a particular phenomenon.
2. A hypothesis is based on making assumptions, which is associated with a theoretical explanation of certain phenomena. This concept acts as a separate judgment or a whole line of interrelated judgments, natural phenomena. Judgments are always problematic for researchers, because this concept refers to probabilistic theoretical knowledge. It happens that hypotheses are put forward on the basis of deduction. An example is the shocking hypothesis of K. A. Timiryazev about photosynthesis. It was confirmed, but initially it all started from assumptions in the law of conservation of energy.
3. A hypothesis is a reasonable assumption that is based on some specific facts. Therefore, a hypothesis cannot be called a chaotic and subconscious process, it is a completely logically harmonious and regular mechanism that allows a person to expand his knowledge to obtain new information - to cognize objective reality. Again, we can recall the shocking hypothesis of N. Copernicus about the new heliocentric system, which revealed the idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun. He outlined all his ideas in the work “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres”, all the guesses were based on a real factual basis and the inconsistency of the then-current geocentric concept was shown.

These distinguishing features, taken together, will make it possible to distinguish a hypothesis from other types of assumption, as well as to establish its essence. As you can see, a hypothesis is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of a particular phenomenon, the reliability of which cannot now be verified and proven, but this assumption allows us to explain some of the causes of the phenomenon.

It is important to remember that the term "hypothesis" is always used in a double sense. A hypothesis is an assumption that explains some phenomenon. They also speak of a hypothesis as a method of thinking that puts forward some kind of assumption, and then builds the development and proof of this fact.

Hypothesis is often built in the form of an assumption about the cause of past phenomena. An example is our knowledge of the formation solar system, the earth's core, about the birth of the Earth and so on.

When does a hypothesis cease to exist?

This is possible only in a couple of cases:

1. The hypothesis receives confirmation and turns into an already reliable fact - it becomes part of general theory.
2. The hypothesis is refuted and becomes only false knowledge.

This can happen during hypothesis testing, when the accumulated knowledge is sufficient to establish the truth.

What is included in the structure of a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is built from the following elements:

• basis - the accumulation of various facts, statements (substantiated or not);
• form - the accumulation of various inferences, which will lead from the foundation of a hypothesis to an assumption;
• assumption - conclusions from the facts, statements that describe and justify the hypothesis.

It is worth noting that the hypotheses are always the same in logical structure, but they differ in content and functions.

What can be said about the concept of hypothesis and types?

In the process of evolution of knowledge, hypotheses begin to differ in cognitive qualities, as well as in the object of study. Let's take a closer look at each of these types.

According to the functions in the cognitive process, descriptive and explanatory hypotheses are distinguished:

1. A descriptive hypothesis is a statement that refers to the properties inherent in the object under study. Usually, the assumption allows you to answer the questions “What is this or that object?” or “What properties does the object have?”. This type of hypothesis can be put forward in order to reveal the composition or structure of an object, reveal its mechanism of action or features of its activity, and determine functional features. Among descriptive hypotheses, there are existential hypotheses that speak of the existence of some object.
2. An explanatory hypothesis is a statement based on the reasons for the appearance of an object. Such hypotheses allow us to explain why a certain event occurred or what are the reasons for the appearance of an object.

History shows that with the development of knowledge, more and more existential hypotheses appear that tell about the existence of a particular object. Next, descriptive hypotheses appear that tell about the properties of those objects, and in the end, explanatory hypotheses are born that reveal the mechanism and reasons for the appearance of the object. As you can see, there is a gradual complication of the hypothesis in the process of learning something new.

What hypotheses are there for the object of study? Distinguish between public and private.

1. General hypotheses help substantiate assumptions about regular relationships and empirical regulators. They play the role of a kind of scaffolding in the development scientific knowledge. Once hypotheses are proven, they become scientific theories and contribute to science.
2. A private hypothesis is an assumption with justification about the origin and quality of facts, events or phenomena. If there was a single circumstance that caused the appearance of other facts, then knowledge takes the form of hypotheses.
3. There is also such a type of hypothesis as a working one. This is an assumption put forward at the beginning of the study, which is a conditional assumption and allows you to combine facts and observations into a single whole and give them an initial explanation. The main specificity of the working hypothesis is that it is accepted conditionally or temporarily. It is extremely important for the researcher to systematize the acquired knowledge given at the beginning of the study. After they need to be processed and outline a further route. This is exactly what a working hypothesis is for.

What is a version?

The concept of a scientific hypothesis has already been clarified, but there is another such unusual term - version. What it is? In political, historical or sociological research, as well as in judicial and investigative practice, often when explaining certain facts or their totality, a number of hypotheses are put forward that can explain the facts in different ways. These hypotheses are called versions.

Versions are public and private.

1. The general version is an assumption that tells about the crime as a whole in the form of a single system of certain circumstances and actions. This version answers not one, but a number of questions.
2. A private version is an assumption that explains the individual circumstances of a crime. One common version is built from private versions.

What are the requirements for a hypothesis?

The very concept of a hypothesis in the rules of law must meet certain requirements:

• it cannot have multiple theses;
• the judgment must be framed clearly, logically;
• the argument should not include judgments or concepts of an ambiguous nature that cannot yet be clarified by the researcher;
• judgment must include a method of solving the problem in order to become part of the study;
• when presenting an assumption, it is forbidden to use value judgments, because the hypothesis must be confirmed by facts, after which it will be tested and applied to a wide range;
• the hypothesis must correspond to a given topic, subject of research, tasks; all assumptions that are unnaturally tied to the topic are eliminated;
• a hypothesis cannot contradict existing theories, but there are exceptions.

How is a hypothesis developed?

Human hypotheses are a thought process. Of course, to provide a general and single process it is difficult to construct a hypothesis: all due to the fact that the conditions for developing an assumption depend on practical activities and on the specifics of a particular problem. However, it is still possible to single out the general boundaries of the stages of the thought process that lead to the emergence of a hypothesis. This:

• putting forward a hypothesis;
• development;
• examination.

Now we need to consider each stage of the emergence of the hypothesis.

Hypothesis

To put forward a hypothesis, you will need to have some facts related to a certain phenomenon, and they must justify the likelihood of the assumption, explain the unknown. Therefore, at first there is a collection of materials, knowledge and facts related to a certain phenomenon, which will be further explained.

Based on the materials, an assumption is made about what the given phenomenon is, or, in other words, a hypothesis is formulated in a narrow sense. Assumption in this case represents a certain judgment that is expressed as a result of processing the collected facts. The facts on which the hypothesis is made can be logically comprehended. This is how the main content of the hypothesis appears. The assumption should answer questions about the essence, the causes of the phenomenon, and so on.

Development and validation

After the hypothesis is put forward, its development begins. If we assume the proposed assumption to be true, then a number of definite consequences should appear. At the same time, logical consequences cannot be identified with the conclusions of the causal chain. Logical consequences are thoughts that explain not only the circumstances of the phenomenon, but also the causes of its occurrence, and so on. Comparison of the facts from the hypothesis with the already established data allows you to confirm or disprove the hypothesis.

This is possible only as a result of testing the hypothesis in practice. A hypothesis is always generated by practice, and only practice can decide whether a hypothesis is true or false. Testing in practice allows you to transform the hypothesis into reliable knowledge about the process (false or true). Therefore, it is not worthwhile to reduce the truth of a hypothesis to a definite and single logical action; when checking in practice, different methods and methods of proof or refutation are used.

Confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis

The work hypothesis is used frequently in the scientific world. This method allows you to confirm or refute certain facts in legal or economic practice through perception. Examples include the discovery of the planet Neptune, the discovery of clean water in Lake Baikal, the establishment of islands in the Arctic Ocean, and so on. All this was once hypotheses, and now - scientifically established facts. The problem is that in some cases it is difficult or impossible to act in practice, and it is not possible to test all assumptions.

For example, now there is a shocking hypothesis that the modern Russian language is more muffled than Old Russian, but the problem is that now it is impossible to hear oral Old Russian speech. It is impossible to check in practice whether the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible was tonsured a monk or not.

In cases where prognostic hypotheses are put forward, it is inappropriate to expect their immediate and direct confirmation in practice. Therefore, in the scientific world they use such a logical proof or refutation of hypotheses. Logical proof or refutation proceeds in an indirect way, because phenomena from the past or present time are known, which are inaccessible to sensory perception.

The main ways of logical proof of a hypothesis or its refutation:

1. inductive way. A more complete confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis and the derivation of certain consequences from it thanks to arguments that include laws and facts.
2. deductive path. Derivation or refutation of a hypothesis from a number of others, more general, but already proven.
3. The inclusion of a hypothesis in a system of scientific knowledge, where it is consistent with other facts.

Logical proof or refutation can proceed in direct or indirect form of proof or refutation.

The important role of the hypothesis

Having revealed the problem of the essence, structure of the hypothesis, it is also worth noting its important role in practical and theoretical activities. A hypothesis is a necessary form of development of scientific knowledge; without it, it is impossible to understand something new. It plays an important role in the scientific world, serves as a foundation for the formation of virtually every scientific theory. All significant discoveries in science arose far from ready-made; these were the most shocking hypotheses, which sometimes they did not even want to consider.

Everything always starts small. All of physics was built on countless shocking hypotheses, which were confirmed or disproved thanks to scientific practice. Therefore, it is worth mentioning some interesting ideas.

1. Some particles move from the future to the past. Physicists have their own set of rules and prohibitions, which are considered to be canon, but with the advent of tachyons, it would seem that all the norms were shaken. Tachyon is a particle that can violate all the accepted laws of physics at once: its mass is imaginary, and it moves faster than the speed of light. A theory has been put forward that tachyons can move backwards in time. Introduced particle theorist Gerald Feinberg in 1967 and announced that tachyons are a new class of particles. The scientist claimed that this is actually a generalization of antimatter. Feinberg had a lot of like-minded people, and the idea took root for a long time, however, refutations nevertheless appeared. Tachyons have not completely left physics, but still no one has been able to detect them either in space or in accelerators. If the hypothesis were correct, people would be able to communicate with their ancestors.
2. A drop of water polymer could destroy the oceans. This one of the most shocking hypotheses suggests that water can be transformed into a polymer - a component in which individual molecules become links in a large chain. In this case, the properties of water must change. The hypothesis was put forward by the chemist Nikolai Fedyakin after an experiment with water vapor. The hypothesis for a long time frightened scientists, because it was assumed that one drop of a water polymer could turn all the planet's water into a polymer. However, the refutation of the most shocking hypothesis was not long in coming. The experiment of the scientist was repeated, there was no evidence of the theory.

There were a lot of such most shocking hypotheses at one time, but many of them were not confirmed after a series of scientific experiments, but they were not forgotten. Fantasy and scientific justification - these are the two main components for every scientist.