Pope Sixtus 4. Sixtus IV: biography. Papal tomb without grave rest

October 31, 2018

The Apostolic Palace, which is the official residence of the Pope, houses one of the greatest artistic and cultural treasures of the Vatican - the Chapel of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Better known as the Sistine Chapel, the chapel is famous primarily for the frescoes that decorate its interior and ceiling.

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The Sistine Chapel is named after Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere (1471-1484). He decided to build a new building on the site of the former chapel of Pope Nicholas V, built in 1368, known as the Magna Chapel. At that time, the old chapel was used for public meetings of members of the papal court and could hardly accommodate more than 200 people within its walls - cardinals, representatives of religious orders and important families, a large number of laity and employees.

Pope Sixtus IV

In addition, due to the tense relations between the Pope and the Medici family - at that time the rulers of Florence - the new building was also conceived as a small fortress as a defensive structure.

Sistine Chapel building

The project, designed by the architect Baccio Pontelli, involved using the foundations of the previous building and a third of the height of the existing medieval walls. According to some researchers, the dimensions of the Sistine Chapel hall (40.23 meters long, 13.4 meters wide and 20.7 meters high) were copied from the great Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD. e.

Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Reconstruction

The construction of the chapel, begun in 1475, proclaimed by Sixtus IV of the Jubilee, was practically completed by the spring of 1481. The ceiling of the chapel was designed by the Italian artist Pirmatteo Lauro di Amelio (1445 – 1503), decorating it with gold stars on a blue background.

Ceiling of the chapel of the artist Pirmatteo Lauro di Amelio. 19th century engraving

To paint the walls of the room, the Pope called the most famous artists from Florence - Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Cosimo Rosselli, Signorelli, as well as masters from Umbria - Pietro Perugino and Pinturicchio. The painters decorated the side walls of the Sistine Chapel with frescoes, the subjects of which were taken from biblical history and highlighted some episodes from the life of Moses and Jesus Christ.

Made by the sculptors Mino da Fiesoli, Andrea Brego and Giovanni Dalmata, exquisite marble balustrades topped with candelabra originally divided the entire area of the chapel into two equal parts. The space within the sanctuary near the altar was reserved for members of the papal court, while the rest of the room was reserved for pilgrims and lay believers. At the end of the 16th century, the balustrade was moved back somewhat to expand the platform for the clergy.

Balustrade of the Sistine Chapel

On August 15, 1483, on the feast of the Assumption of the Holy Virgin, the Sistine Chapel was consecrated by the Pope. In it, as in the previous chapel, liturgies and the most solemn ceremonies were held. To this day, the highest clergy gathers here on special occasions.

Meeting of the Supreme Council of Cardinals

In the spring of 1504, as a result of subsidence of the southern wall of the chapel, a large open crack appeared on its vault, damaging the painting on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The nephew of Sixtus IV, Pope Julius II, who headed the papal throne (1503 - 1513), turned to (1475 - 1564) so that he could somehow correct the destroyed painting of the vault. The letter sent to the master was a kind of act of reconciliation in the disagreements that arose with Michelangelo, as a result of which the sculptor left Rome.

Having accepted the Pope's offer, he began to carry out a new order in 1508. After four years of work, on October 31, 1512, the new painting of the Sistine Chapel vault was unveiled to the parishioners. On 512 square meters of ceiling, the artist reproduced scenes from the Book of Genesis, touching on themes of human history in the period preceding the coming of Jesus Christ.

Fragment of the vault of the Sistine Chapel, decorated with frescoes by Michelangelo

In 1532, more than twenty years later, a request was received from Pope Clement VII to make a new painting above the altar of the chapel, the wall behind which was covered with cracks due to the continuing shrinkage of the building. Michelangelo worked on one of his most famous frescoes from 1536 to 1541, finishing it at the age of 66. It is believed that he completed all the work himself, without the help of other artists or assistants. Covering the entire wall behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel, the Last Judgment painting covers an area of more than 200 square meters and contains approximately 390 figures. The theme of the painting presented by the master reveals the inevitable fate of every person in this world, over which God is the absolute judge and arbiter.

Michelangelo's fresco "The Last Judgment" above the altar of the Sistine Chapel (1508-1512)

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The fresco became the subject of an acute conflict between Michelangelo and Cardinal Caraf, who accused the artist of immorality due to the nudity of many of the figures depicted on it. The master of ceremonies of Pope Biagio da Cesena said that “in such a sacred place as the papal chapel there should be no such shame, and this work is most suitable for a public bath or tavern.”

Fragment of Michelangelo's fresco "The Last Judgment"

In 1564, shortly after Michelangelo's death, the Council of Trent condemned nudity in religious art. The decision was made to remove the murals, which were perceived as immoral. However, this was prevented by the death of Pope Pius IV at the end of 1565, since the Sistine Chapel had to be prepared as quickly as possible for the election of a new pontiff. They decided to paint over the genitals, entrusting this work to the artist Daniele da Volterra, for which he received the derogatory nickname “il Braghettone,” that is, “the artist of the pants.”

Fragment of the fresco “The Last Judgment”

Over time, the soot of candles and the dirt accumulated over many centuries deteriorated the condition of the frescoes so much that from 1980 the Sistine Chapel was completely closed for restoration, which lasted until 1994. The removed layer of dirt revealed unexpectedly vibrant colors, reviving the paints applied by artists during the Renaissance.

Fresco "Prophet Daniel" before and after restoration

The official opening of the entire restored chapel took place on December 11, 1999, becoming a world-famous event on the eve of the Jubilee Year proclaimed by Pope John Paul II.

The Sistine Chapel - the pearl of the Vatican

In 1478, after an unsuccessful assassination attempt on the Medici brothers,
conceived by Pope Sixtus IV, it was revealed to the whole world,
what lies on the builder of the famous Sistine Chapel
the bloody stain of a low conspirator,
who did not disdain any means
in order to achieve your goals.

“This pope was the first to prove how much power he has and how many things that later turned out to be mistakes can be hidden under the cloak of papal authority,” wrote N. Machiavelli.

With the election of Pope Sixtus IV (in the world - Francesco della Rovere), an atmosphere of venality was established in the Vatican Palace. Already at the beginning of his reign in 1471, Sixtus IV appointed his relatives as cardinals. Nepot fraudster Pietro Riario, having become a cardinal, increased his income to 250 thousand marks. The grocery merchant Girolamo Riario, who had not previously been in the clergy, received Imola and Forli as a nepotus and became one of the richest men in Italy. Giovanni Riario received the principality of Sinigaglia and Copy from his uncle and was appointed prefect of Rome. For the sake of the “beloved nephews,” new taxes were introduced, tithes were collected for many years in advance, bishops were removed and transferred from one place to another, each time receiving various penalties in favor of the pope and his nepos; bundles and boxes of indulgences were sent throughout the “Christian world”. The greedy, insatiable hoarder Sixtus IV competed in wealth with the famous Florentine banking house of the Medici.

The papacy had long been convinced that the richest and most powerful states were lost to it, that without its own state, the papacy would be forced to share the stolen goods with secular power, and any strengthening of secular power meant a decrease in the share of spiritual power. Since at this time the strong central power in the Italian city-republics took on a monarchical form and “tyrants” became their leaders, the popes decided to follow the same road, with the help of nepotism.

The example of secular tyrants attracted the viceroy of God: after all, relatively recently, the banking house of the Medici established its dominance over Florence and neighboring lands, Sforza did the same in Milan - why doesn’t the papacy strengthen itself in the Church region, suppress individual feudal lords in it and turn it into strong and centralized monarchical state? And Sixtus IV began to conquer the vast and rich Romagna, rounding up the Papal States and allocating the conquered lands to his nepot Girolamo Riario in the form of a separate principality.

Standing in the way of such a rounding of papal possessions were the Medici, who dreamed of turning Florence into a rich and powerful state. The clash of political interests of the Medici “dynasty” and the “dynasty” of Sixtus IV gave the earlier monetary conflict such urgency that Sixtus IV’s associates began talking about the need to put an end to the powerful Florentine house by force. At the instigation of Sixtus IV, the Medici rival banker Pazzi, the Archbishop of Pisa Salviasi and several feudal nobles took up the task of eliminating the Medici. These individuals decided to kill Lorenzo de' Medici and his brother Giuliano and create a regime in Florence that suited their interests.

The murder of the Florentine dictator and his brother was supposed to occur during the official reception of Cardinal Sansoni-Riario, who arrived in Florence. For some random reason, the plan was frustrated. Then the conspirators decided to attack the Medici brothers in the church during a solemn service. However, only Giuliano was killed. The dictator of Florence, Lorenzo de' Medici, took refuge in the cathedral's sacristy. The coup d'etat on April 27, 1478 failed: the mass of townspeople did not follow the feudal nobles, behind whom stood Pope Sixtus IV. The papal “nephews” Cardinal Sansoni-Riario and Prince Girolamo Riario, the right hand and favorite of Sixtus IV, were imprisoned.

According to the plan of the conspirators, after the assassination of the Medici, Girolamo was to be proclaimed dictator of Florence. The Pope tried to save Girolamo from prison and vigorously protested against the fact that such insidious plans as the murder of representatives of the republic in the church were attributed to him and his closest friends. Sixtus IV stated that he did not think that by “elimination,” even violent, of the Medici brothers one should mean their “murder.”

However, the pope's assurances were not taken seriously; The imposition of an interdict on Florence did not help either. Venice and Milan opposed the policies of Sixtus IV...

In history, Sixtus IV forever branded his name with the introduction of the Inquisition in Spain. He lived to see the first major burnings of heretics in this country. The first such burning took place in February 1481 in Seville.

Until November 4, 1481, that is, during the first ten months of the functioning of the inquisitorial tribunal, 298 people were burned in Seville; 79 heretics were sentenced to life imprisonment. It goes without saying that the property of the condemned was confiscated, and the chroniclers of these sorrowful events claim that “under the double weight of fear of the plague and the inquisitorial tribunal,” people began to leave hospitable Seville.

These were the first results of the bull of the “philanthropist” Sixtus IV. As a result, this bull significantly contributed to the transformation of Spain into the darkest, most ignorant country, where back in the 20s of the 19th century. bonfires burned in the name of the triumph of the “true” Catholic faith. Over the three and a half centuries of its existence, the Inquisition burned 36,212 people alive in Spain, 19,790 in the image (dead or fled), and 289,624 people were sentenced to heavy punishments. Total: 345,626 heretics became victims of the Spanish Inquisition...

When Sixtus IV died, a pogrom began in Rome. The people crushed his fellow Genoese, who enjoyed the pope's favor. They were looking for Genoese throughout the city in order to pour out the anger that had accumulated over these decades and a half. Many Genoese were killed, and many of their houses were destroyed. The pope's favorite, Girolamo Riario, fled Rome in time. His house was completely destroyed, even the garden surrounding his rich mansion was destroyed. There were demonstrations throughout the city, and in many places there was an inscription: “Rejoice, Nero, Sixtus has surpassed even you in depravity.”

On the base of a marble fragment attached to the Orsini Palace, several “funeral words” appeared: “Dishonor, famine, devastation, the flourishing of covetousness, thefts, robberies - everything that is the most vile in the world, Rome suffered under your rule. Death! How grateful Rome is to you, although you came too late. Finally you bury all crimes in Sixtus's bloody grave. And you, Sixtus, attacked even God, now go stir up hell. Finally, Sixtus, you are a corpse. Let all libertines and libertines, pimps, brothels and taverns dress in mourning.”

Sources:
S.G. Lozinsky "History of the Papacy"
Popes: Kowalski's catalog
E. Gergey "History of the Papacy"
Wikipedia.ru

Posted on Oct. 1st, 2010 at 01:44 pm | | |

Capturing the scale of Leonardo da Vinci's personality is impossible. A person who became a legend during his lifetime remains a legend and an unattainable ideal in the modern world.

The genius or, as he is often called, the titan of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci, is a truly unique personality. His life is an amazing kaleidoscope - in all areas that he undertook, from painting to complex engineering inventions, he achieved incredible heights. Meanwhile, we know almost nothing about Leonardo himself - he was a very secretive and lonely person, and the first biography was written 30 years after his death by Giorgio Vasari.

Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452 in the small town of Vinci in northwestern Italy. The history of his family holds several mysteries, since it is unknown who his mother was. All sources indicate that her name was Katerina, but what she did is an open question. Traditionally it is believed that she was a simple, young peasant woman. Leonardo's father was the notary Piero da Vinci, who was 25 years old at that time. The father was present at the child's baptism and recognized him, but for unknown reasons, Leonardo spent the first 4 years of his life in the village of Anhiano. In the year of his son's birth, Piero marries Albier Amador and only 4 years later takes his son to live with him. The position of a notary in those days was considered quite noble, so Leonardo spent his childhood and youth in prosperity and prosperity. The father was married 3 times, had 12 children and lived to be 77 years old. But he, as Vasari noted, was an ordinary person, which makes Leonardo’s extraordinariness even more interesting. One way or another, the father still gave his son a good home education, albeit unsystematic, which Leonardo later mentioned in his notes.

The young man's talent manifested itself at an early age. An interesting episode is in which Pierre da Vinci asked his son to paint a large wooden shield as a gift to one of his neighbors. Leonardo approached the matter with joy and great responsibility, choosing the image of the Gorgon Medusa for the design on the shield. The drawing was made so realistically that when my father saw it, he literally reeled in horror. Of course, he could not give such a masterpiece as a gift and kept it for himself. Now a copy of this shield by Caravaggio is kept in one of the museums in France. It was probably after this incident that Piero decided to send his son to study in Florence, where Leonardo, under the edification of the famous artist Verrocchio, studied painting. Thus began a period in the life of Leonardo da Vinci, called the Florentine period.

Florence at that time was one of the main centers of the intellectual elite of all Western Europe. Leonardo, having found himself among such famous artists as Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Bellini and many others, stands out for his detachment and loneliness. It is clearly evident in his notes that his loneliness is conscious. He believed that “if you are lonely, then you are completely your own,” and did not seek to make close acquaintances with anyone. This is partly why he was not part of the circle of intellectuals of the Florentine ruler Lorenzo de' Medici. But not only because of this he could not get into the intellectual environment of that time. One of the reasons was something that Leonardo himself was annoyed about - his poor knowledge of Latin, which until modern times was considered the main language of science. But another reason was more important - Leonardo was an artist, and during the Renaissance, artists were considered more likely to be artisans or even professional painters carrying out orders; artists were treated like servants. Not appreciated by the circle of humanist intellectuals, da Vinci's talent amazed Verrocchio. While working in the workshop, the teacher instructed Leonardo to paint an angel on one of his canvases. The figure of an angel painted by da Vinci impressed the teacher so much that, according to Vasari, he never picked up a brush again. The student surpassed the teacher. Soon Leonardo opens his own workshop.

At this time, Pope Sixtus IV invited the best Tuscan craftsmen to work in the Vatican. Among them were Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, Perugino, Philip Lippi, Signorelli and many others, but not Leonardo. It is possible that the underrated genius felt some annoyance at what happened and decided to move to Milan. In addition, his engineering and scientific inclinations were already increasingly mastering him, and Milan at that time was almost the opposite of sophisticated Florence - it was an industrial city, where many craftsmen, gunsmiths and artisans established strong production. Leonardo asks for patronage from local businessman Lodovico Sforza, and positions himself primarily not as an artist, but as an engineer, talking in a letter about his own engineering ideas, such as cannons, closed chariots, catapults and ballistas, and only mentions in one line about his artistic activities. Sforza takes Leonardo to court and gives him various tasks, both engineering and related to art. One of the tasks was the construction of a monument to the founder of the Sforza dynasty - Francesco Sforza. The statue in the form of a horse with a rider was supposed to become a symbol of the legitimacy and majesty of the family’s power, and Leonardo set to work. Work on the monument continued for 16 years. After several unsuccessful castings, a clay statue of the horse was made, but due to the French invasion of Milan in 1499, it was lost forever. Fortunately, the drawings have been preserved, from which one can judge the extraordinary nature of Leonardo’s idea.

The Milanese period increasingly confirmed the engineering and artistic talent of Leonardo da Vinci. It was then that his paintings “Lady with an Ermine”, “Madonna Litta”, “Madonna in the Grotto”, “The Last Supper”, and many anatomical and simple pencil drawings appeared. One of the most famous drawings by Leonardo da Vinci is the Vitruvian Man - the figure of a man in two superimposed positions, inscribed in a circle and a square. The drawing measures 34.3×24.5 cm and is made in ink and watercolor. The figure of a man shows the mathematical proportions of the human body in accordance with data from the treatises of the Roman architect Vitruvius. The Vitruvian man is a kind of symbol of the natural ideality of man, his internal symmetry and mathematical proportionality. The drawing is thus both a work of art and a scientific work.

Da Vinci's engineering developments and ideas, which have come down to us in his notes, cannot but surprise. It’s amazing how a person at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries could be so far ahead of his time! The drawings preserved designs for a rotating chain for a bicycle, machines for mass production, various aircraft, machine tools and much more. He developed projects for urban improvement, designed locks, dams, canals, mills, and even calculated the cost of these projects, but, unfortunately, no one took on them. Da Vinci’s irrepressible and intense inventive and engineering activity seemed to be a protest against those circles of intellectuals where he was not included. He proved to himself that he was still part of this circle, and that he was doing it head and shoulders above others.

After the invasion of French troops, Leonardo returns to Florence. Here he receives an assignment from the Senoria to participate in the painting of the Great Council Hall of the Palace of the Senoria, where Michelangelo was already working at that time. So the two giants of the era began to work together, although without any particular affection for each other. As Vasari notes, from time to time the then young Raphael came to see the work of the masters. A truly incredible situation! Around the same time, Leonardo painted his main masterpiece - the world-famous “La Gioconda” or “Mona Lisa”. The history of this painting attracts art historians from all countries, and the mysterious Mrs. Lisa del Giocondo does not leave viewers indifferent. The most famous work of painting in the world had an incredible impact on global artistic culture, and Leonardo da Vinci himself did not part with his masterpiece, even when he left for France. He had three such favorite paintings: “Mona Lisa”, “John the Baptist” and “St. Anne with the Madonna and Child Christ”.

Leonardo again spent some time in Milan in the service of the French king Louis XII, and then in Rome with Pope Leo X. In 1516, da Vinci was invited to the court by the new king of France, Francis I. He received the title of the first royal artist, engineer and architect, but in essence it was just a “decoration” of the court - it was prestigious for the king to have “that same Leonardo”, who had already become a legend. Unfortunately, the artist’s health was deteriorating, his right arm was paralyzed, it was increasingly difficult for him to move without assistance, so he could carry out his official duties. Then Francis I purchased the Mona Lisa from Leonardo, thereby ensuring its safety for centuries.

Shortly before his death, the artist moved to the small town of Amboise, on the Loire River. At the age of 67, Leonardo da Vinci was already bedridden. In full consciousness, he writes a will: all his manuscripts and books went to one of his students, Francesco Melzi. On May 2, 1519, Leonardo da Vinci quietly passed away.

The phenomenon of a brilliant artist, scientist, and writer still excites the minds of researchers. The personality of Leonardo da Vinci does not fit into any human size, the scope of his activities is enormous, and the influence he had on the entire world culture is incredibly amazing. Leonardo is truly inexhaustible; modernity is considering more and more new aspects of his life and work, trying to comprehend the secrets of the “universal man”. An asteroid is named after him, many authors use the prototype of Leonardo da Vinci in their works, films and TV series are being made in one way or another related to the legacy of the great da Vinci, and much more. He became more than just a historically significant figure - he became an image, a titan and an unattainable ideal.

“This pope was the first to prove how much power he has and how many things that later turned out to be mistakes can be hidden under the cloak of papal authority,” wrote N. Machiavelli.

With the election of Pope Sixtus IV (in the world - Francesco della Rovere), an atmosphere of venality was established in the Vatican Palace. Already at the beginning of his reign in 1471, Sixtus IV appointed his relatives as cardinals. Nepot fraudster Pietro Riario, having become a cardinal, increased his income to 250 thousand marks. The grocery merchant Girolamo Riario, who had not previously been in the clergy, received Imola and Forli as a nepo and became one of the richest men in Italy. Giovanni Riario received the principality of Sinigaglia and Copy from his uncle and was appointed prefect of Rome. For the sake of the “beloved nephews,” new taxes were introduced, tithes were collected for many years in advance, bishops were removed and transferred from one place to another, each time receiving various penalties in favor of the pope and his nepos; bundles and boxes of indulgences were sent throughout the “Christian world”. The greedy, insatiable hoarder Sixtus IV competed in wealth with the famous Florentine banking house of the Medici.

According to the plan of the conspirators, after the assassination of the Medici, Girolamo was to be proclaimed dictator of Florence. The Pope tried to save Girolamo from prison and vigorously protested against the fact that such insidious plans as the murder of representatives of the Republic in the church were attributed to him and his closest friends. Sixtus IV stated that he did not think that by “elimination,” even violent, of the Medici brothers one should mean their “murder.”

However, the pope's assurances were not taken seriously; The imposition of an interdict on Florence did not help either. Venice and Milan opposed the policies of Sixtus IV...

On the base of a marble fragment attached to the Orsini Palace, several “funeral words” appeared:

“Dishonor, hunger, devastation, the flourishing of covetousness, thefts, robberies - everything that is most vile in the world, Rome suffered under your rule. Death! How grateful Rome is to you, although you came too late. Finally you bury all crimes in Sixtus's bloody grave. And you, Sixtus, attacked even God, now go stir up hell. Finally, Sixtus, you are a corpse. Let all libertines and libertines, pimps, brothels and taverns dress in mourning.”

Sources:

S.G. Lozinsky "History of the Papacy"

Popes: Kowalski's catalog

The reign of Sixtus IV can be characterized by two main features: energy and shamelessness. His actions led, perhaps, to a somewhat contradictory result. On the one hand, the political position of the church has strengthened - in terms of material power; on the other hand, there have been few cases in history when the authority of the clergy fell so low, and quite deservedly so, as during the reign of Sixtus IV. He justified his illegibility with the old principle “Similia similibus carantur”. It cannot be said that this explanation satisfied all his contemporaries, but nevertheless the policy of the new pope turned out to be quite effective - in the sense that he managed to achieve most of his goals.

Sixtus IV donned the tiara at a very turbulent time for the Holy See, when the power of the Catholic Church noticeably wavered. In 1453, Stefano Porcaro led a rebellion against papal authority that was nearly successful. And the passionate speeches and pamphlets of the educated and fearless Lorenzo Valla inspired the Italians to new acts of disobedience.

Messer Valla, a talented translator of Homer, Herodotus and Thucydides, made a huge contribution to introducing his contemporaries to the philosophical and literary heritage of the ancient world. Service under King Alfonso of Aragon, at whose court he had been since 1453, provided him with a sufficiently independent position to make the most desperate - from the point of view of the Vatican - statements; each of them would have cost the scientist his life if he had ended up in Rome then. Long years of studying classical antiquities gave Lorenzo much more definite views on the norms of law and virtue than most of the people around him, and also taught him to express his thoughts clearly and figuratively. A quill pen in the hand of such a person was more dangerous than a thousand steel swords, and the successors of St. Peter was very soon convinced of this.

Equally well versed in both Scripture and Roman law, Lorenzo Valla never tired of proving the sinfulness and unnaturalness of the union of spiritual and secular authorities in the same hands. He demanded secularization, that is, the alienation of church lands in favor of the Italian states, and argued that political activity was incompatible with serving God. It is easy to guess what feelings such statements evoked among the pope and the cardinals. “Ut Papa tantum Vicarius Christi sit, at non etiam Caesari,” wrote Lorenzo, and the irritation of the Holy See from such passages was the stronger, the more difficult it was to find objections. The restless historian published the book “On the Forged Gift of Constantine,” in which he argued - and quite rightly - that the first Christian emperor never had the opportunity or desire to give Rome under the rule of the pope. The assertion that this most important document for the Catholic Church was a later forgery was accompanied by an exposure of the corruption that permeated the entire Roman clergy from top to bottom.

The kingdom of Aragon is not Rome, but the Catholic Church, despite all its internal quarrels, still remained united, and the attack on its foundations did not remain without consequences for Messer Lorenzo. He was imprisoned by the Inquisition, and only the intervention of King Alfonso saved him from the fire.

After such a lesson, Walla calmed down for a while, but the accusations he made thundered throughout Europe. Never before has the position of the world church been so precarious in a political sense, and it is very possible that only the unprincipled Sixtus IV saved it from final defeat in the fight against the freedom-loving patrician families.

His election was achieved through an extensive system of bribery, mainly in the form of simony, and the same simony gave Sixtus IV the means to fight opponents and detractors of papal power. Contemporaries had no illusions about this. In his “Tale of a Bitter Time” (“De calamitatibus Temporum”), Battista Mantovano writes that “under him, venality exceeded all custom, and everything became the subject of trade, from the cardinal title to the smallest permissions.”

It would be possible to find some moral justification for such actions if the funds received were directed only to general church needs, but, alas! - having discovered a reliable and inexhaustible source of income, Sixtus IV drew from it for his personal needs.

Nepotism at that time also reached unprecedented heights. Four “nephews” became the subject of constant concern for the new pope (at least two of them, Piero and Girolamo Riario, were widely considered his sons).

Twenty-year-old Pierrot was a simple monk of the Minorite Order when his father took the throne of St. Petra. Less than a year had passed when the unknown Brother Minor became Patriarch of Constantinople and at the same time Cardinal of St. Sixta, with an annual income of 60,000 florins.

Cardinal Ammanati, a participant in the Siena festivities already familiar to us, mentions in a letter to Francesco Gonzaga that “the luxury with which Cardinal Riario surrounded himself surpasses everything that our predecessors have ever achieved and that our descendants will ever be able to imagine.” Machiavelli also joins this opinion; in his History of Florence we find several lines dedicated to Riario. Although Machiavelli himself was inclined to praise rather than condemn people, he writes with clear disapproval of a cardinal who, “having been born and brought up in a low rank, began to show unbridled ambition as soon as he had time to put on a red hat. According to rumors, even a possible pontificate did not seem to him a sufficient reward. And the holiday he organized in Rome would have done honor to any king - the cost of decorating the city and public entertainment amounted to 20,000 florins.”

In 1474, Riario visited Venice and then Milan, where he entered into secret negotiations with Duke Galeazzo Maria. Their plans, as it later became known, included the creation of a Lombard kingdom under the rule of Galeazzo; if successful, the new king had to give the cardinal an army to march on Rome and seize the papal throne.

It is unknown to what extent Sixtus IV managed to find out about his filial intrigues. But the political struggle in Italy, the intertwining and clashing of interests of various cities and kingdoms, was too complex and turbulent for Riario’s ambitious plans to have any consequences other than the embitterment and anxiety of his neighbors. Possessing neither diplomatic talent nor real power, he built castles in the sand. Without caring about maintaining secrecy, he signed his own death sentence. Soon after returning to Rome, in January 1474, Cardinal St. Sixta died “from abuse of excess.” It is generally believed that Riario was poisoned by the Venetians.

His brother Girolamo behaved more modestly. Not being elevated to the clergy, he decided to strengthen his position by marriage. His wife was Caterina Sforza, daughter of the same Milanese Duke Galeazzo. There were no obstacles to the wedding, and to the dowry of the young beauty - a rich city - His Holiness, who did not want to yield to the Duke in generosity, added his gift - the city of Forli.

But the only one of the four “nephews” who managed to leave a noticeable mark on history not only because of high kinship, but also due to personal qualities, was Giuliano della Rovere; It is curious that even omniscient rumor never ranked him among the sons of Sixtus IV. Choosing a spiritual career, he was soon elevated to the dignity of Cardinal of San Pietro di Vincoli; and thirty-two years later, already under the name Julius II, he was to become famous as one of the most energetic and militant popes in the history of the Roman church.

How were things going at that time for our hero, Cardinal Borgia? His position in the conclave strengthened and his influence grew; he again managed to prove his necessity. As in the case of Pius II, his vote - along with the votes of Orsini and Gonzago, members of the noblest families of Italy - played a decisive role in the elections. True, the service was not disinterested: the new pope paid generously for the loyalty shown at the council. The rich and flourishing Abbey of Subiaco was only the first sign of his gratitude to Borgia. The first mention of the connection between Cardinal Rodrigo and Giovanna de Catanei dates back to this time.

Nothing is known about the origin of this woman. Later historians and writers considered her a Roman, but there is, in fact, no basis for such a statement - the surname Catanei is often found in many regions of Italy. Giovanna’s appearance and spiritual qualities were also not reflected either on canvas or on paper, but, knowing Borgia’s spoiled taste and his ability to choose lovers, we can say for sure that she was very beautiful and, at least, smart enough to don't bore the cardinal. In general, the only historically reliable evidence of her that has survived to this day is a tombstone in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo. The inscription on the stone allows us to establish that Giovanna (or, as the Romans called her, Vanozza) of Catanei was born on the thirteenth of July 1442; This means that by the beginning of the pontificate of Sixtus IV she was thirty years old. This woman was to become the mother of the main character of our book, Cesare Borgia.

It should be said that the origin of Cesare has repeatedly caused controversy among historians. Two chroniclers, Infessura and Guicciardini, mention Rodrigo's attempts - after occupying the papal throne - to declare the father of Cesare a certain Domenico d'Arignano, a man to whom he was supposedly going to marry his mistress. The basis for this version was the then existing ban on illegitimate highest positions in the church hierarchy - Cesare, not recognized by his own father, could not subsequently become a cardinal. In reality, in this case, no problem with paternity arose. Firstly, already in 1480 Sixtus IV, who did not forget the services of Rodrigo Borgia, with a special bull of October 1, he freed the young Cesare from the need to prove the legality of his origin. And secondly, establishing nominal paternity, if his Eminence had wished for it, would not have been difficult, since the beautiful Vanozza had a legal husband - Giorgio della Croce, secretary of the papal chancellery. The couple lived in a house in Pizzo di Merlo, today's Sforza Cesarini, not far from the vice-chancellor's palace.

The Milanese della Croce was, apparently, a completely ordinary person and did not experience any particular inconvenience due to the ambiguity of his position. The exact date of his wedding with Giovanna is unknown, but it is difficult to agree with the opinion expressed more than once that Cardinal Borgia himself arranged this marriage in order to conceal his relationship with the young woman. As we have already seen, the seductive prelate was not at all concerned about maintaining secrecy or even disguising his entertainment and pleasures. But the most insignificant efforts, a little hypocrisy and caution - and the wits would have lost the opportunity to chat about the cardinal's pranks at all the crossroads of Rome. So the patronage shown to Vanozza’s husband - Borgia placed him in a position that was very profitable at that time - was, presumably, not due to selfish motives; it was just the contemptuous generosity of a nobleman towards a humble plebeian.

In 1447 and 1476, Vanozza gave Rodrigo two sons: Cesare, the protagonist of our story, and Giovanni, the future Dukes of Valentino and Gandia, and in 1479 a daughter, Lucrezia Borgia.

Now it is difficult to establish with complete certainty which of the brothers was born first - the available evidence, mostly of an indirect nature, often contradicts each other. Yet in most documents Cesare is called the elder brother; The mentioned tombstone inscription also agrees with this, where he is the first to be mentioned among Giovanna’s children.

Meanwhile, the restless reign of Sixtus IV entered a new stage: the ambition and greed of the pope plunged almost all of Italy into the abyss of war. It is not known how far his plans extended, but, in any case, they included the capture of the central region of the country - Romagna; and so the troops under the command of Giuliano della Rovere besieged Città di Castello. Florence came to the aid of the besieged - the far-sighted Lorenzo Medici, who knew well the former general of the Order of St. Francis, understood that the conquest of Romagna would only be a prologue to further conquests.

The Pope decided to nip evil in the bud, and hired killers were sent to the Medici brothers. But the assassination attempt did not achieve its goal: although Giuliano Medici, pierced with a dagger, bled to death, the elder brother managed to fight back and escape, receiving minor injuries. Now the Florentines rallied even more closely around Lorenzo the Magnificent.

The only possible course of action remained - open war. Sixtus IV imposed an interdict on the rebellious city, and this served as a signal for an all-Italian quarrel. Venice and Milan sided with the Florentines - while, of course, each city fought for its own interests, which could only be satisfied at the expense of its rivals. After several skirmishes in 1480, the parties concluded a truce, but three months later the pope again began hostilities against Florence, and the whole country turned into a seething cauldron. Venice considered that the moment had come to seize new possessions on the continent, and, finding fault with an insignificant pretext, declared war on the Duke of Ferrara. It was joined by Genoa and the small principalities of central Italy. Ferrara found itself squeezed by enemies from the east and west, but Florence, Mantua, Bologna and Naples, having formed a powerful coalition, moved to its aid. Venice's mercenary troops blockaded Ferrara, hoping that starvation would quickly force the city's defenders to surrender; in the north there were battles between the troops of Genoa and Milan, and in the central part of the country the papal guards repelled the attacks of the Neapolitans who were trying to break through to the aid of the besieged Ferrara.

Sixtus IV did not expect such a development of events. The strategic situation required immediate action, but the enmity with Florence had already faded into the background - the main enemy from now on was Venice, whose strengthening absolutely everyone was afraid of. And if in the west the mutual claims of Genoa and Milan somehow balanced each other, then the emergence in the eastern part of a new enclave around a rich and greedy merchant republic did not promise peace in the future for any of the Italian states, including the Vatican. Realizing this, Sixtus entered into an alliance with the Kingdom of Naples and allowed its troops passage through the Papal States. Now food was freely delivered to Ferrara from the south, and the siege lost all meaning. A more reasonable politician would probably have limited himself to this and waited for further developments, but Sixtus IV, carried away by his temperament, cursed Venice and called on all Italian states to campaign against it. The cauldron began to boil again, and chaotic military actions, which no longer brought any benefit to anyone, continued until the middle of 1484 - only by this time, tired of fighting, the cities made peace, and the enemy armies retreated from Ferrara.

The peace treaty signed in Bagnolet in August of the same year literally became the cause of the death of Sixtus, who, sad as it is to admit, died of anger. Having familiarized himself with the articles of the Banyol treatise, the pope became indescribably furious, shouting that he would never agree to such humiliating conditions. His old heart could not stand it, and the next day, the twelfth of August 1484, Rome learned of the death of Sixtus IV.

There is no doubt that the spiritual authority of the Catholic Church suffered greatly during his reign. But the political power of the Vatican rather increased - this was facilitated by the militancy of the former Franciscan, as well as the abundant, although not without sin, income that enriched the church treasury under him. The name of Sixtus IV, greedy, ambitious and hopelessly mired in worldly concerns, was immortalized only thanks to the construction of the Sistine Chapel, the decoration of which was worked on by the best painters of Tuscany - Alexandro Filipepi (Botticelli), Pietro Vannucci (Perugino) and Domenico di Tommaso Bigordi (Ghirlandaio). But the chapel acquired truly unique beauty only later, under Julius II - through the efforts of the titanic genius Michelangelo.

And the family of Cardinal Borgia in the early eighties brought their unofficial head either joy or grief. In 1481, Vanozza gave birth to her third son, Jofre; and six months later, twenty-two-year-old Pedro Luis, the son of an unknown woman, already engaged to Princess Maria of Aragon, died. In January 1482, the wedding of fifteen-year-old Girolama Borgia took place with Giovanni Andrea Cesarini, a scion of one of the most noble patrician families in Rome. This marriage strengthened the long-standing friendship between the two families, but the young spouses were destined for tragically short-lived happiness: both died from an unknown illness in less than a year.

We draw information about the life of Cesare relating to the same period mainly from papal bulls, granting little Borgia one sinecure after another: in July 1482 he was granted income from the monastery in Valencia; the following month, a seven-year-old boy receives the office of papal notary and the powers of canon of Valencia. In April 1484 he was appointed provost of Alba, and in September - treasurer of the Cartagena church. But young Cesare was by no means languishing under the yoke of many responsible positions; he lived peacefully and cheerfully with his brothers under his mother's roof, in a house in Pizzo di Merlo.

Cardinal Borgia was fifty-three years old, and in the prime of his life, power and wealth. His excellent health did not fail him, largely due to the habit of simplicity and moderation developed from his youth... but only in food; food is perhaps the only area in which the cardinal’s tastes coincided with the gospel precepts. In all other respects, Rodrigo de Borgia's home life shone with royal luxury. Numerous profitable abbeys in Spain and Italy, three bishoprics (in Valencia, Porto and Cartagena), as well as high church positions, including vice-chancellorship - all this provided him with a well-deserved reputation as one of the richest nobles of Rome. Stories about his precious utensils, pearls and golden trinkets, and his rare library were passed on from mouth to mouth. However, the library served as an object of admiration for the guests rather than for the owner himself - the cardinal had too active a nature to devote significant time to books. Volterra, who met with Borgia in 1486, spoke of him in one of his letters as follows: “... This is a far-sighted and multi-talented man; his speech is elegant and entertaining for the interlocutor, for his natural mind compensates his eminence for not being very well read. He is also characterized by incomparable dexterity in handling all undertakings..."

That year Giorgio della Croce died. Vanozza did not remain a widow for long - after three months she married a certain Mantuan man named Carlo Canale. A former secretary to Cardinal Gonzaga, he moved to Rome after the death of his master.

As can be seen from the marriage contract, the aged mistress of Rodrigo de Borgia was already a fairly wealthy woman: in addition to her own home, she owned a flourishing estate in Suburra and a small hotel in Rome.

Giovanna's second marriage drew a final line in her relationship with the cardinal. From that moment on, the children of Don Rodrigo - Lucrezia and Jofre - left their mother's house and moved to the palace on Monte Giordano: from now on, Signora Adriana Orsini, the widow of Lodovico Orsini and godfather of Cardinal Borgia, was supposed to take care of their upbringing. They had to share shelter with Adriana's son, Orso, who had recently been engaged to one of the most beautiful girls in Italy, Giulia Farnese.

Julia's beauty earned her the nickname "La Bella"; all the Romans admired her. She subsequently served as a model for two famous artists. Pinturicchio's brush captured her on canvas in the image of the "Madonna in the Tower", and Guglielmo della Porta's chisel depicted her in marble, in the form of an allegorical statue of Truth, on the tombstone of her brother Alessandro Farnese (the future Pope Paul III). Julia often visited Adriana Orsini's house, and here Rodrigo de Borgia first saw her. This golden-haired beauty could not leave any of her contemporaries indifferent - and the 56-year-old cardinal fell in love with a sixteen-year-old girl. He knew how to wish and knew how to achieve what he wanted - immediately after the wedding with the young Orsini, “Giulia la Bella” became the cardinal’s mistress. This explains the rapid rise of the Farnese family at the end of the 15th century - the influence and support of the almighty Borgia soon brought the cardinal's purple to Julia's handsome and frivolous brother. Years will pass, and under the name of Paul III he will become the archpastor of the Catholic world; however, it should be noted that this will only serve the glory of his family, but not the glory of the church.

In 1490, of the children of Giovanna de Catanei, only Lucrezia lived in Rome. Giovanni Borgia departed for Spain, where he was to take possession of the Duchy of Gandia - the inheritance of the deceased Pedro Luis. And fifteen-year-old Cesare studied ancient languages and oratory at the University of Perugia, and, according to the enthusiastic reviews of Paolo Pompilio, even then he showed such outstanding abilities that those around him called him the beauty and hope of the Borgia family. A year later he continued his studies at the University of Pisa. The high-born student was accompanied everywhere by the Spanish nobleman Giovanni (Juan) Bera; Subsequently, Don Rodrigo will give him the rank of cardinal, in gratitude for taking care of his son.

Cesare, of course, was prepared for a spiritual career, and the most famous professors in Italy initiated him into all the intricacies of canon law. He led a brilliant life, but studied diligently. However, the reward for academic success for him was not hopes of recognition in the future, like other students, but things that were much more real and impressive: while still listening to lectures in Pisa, Cesare learned about the new positions obtained for him by his father: notary general of the church and bishop Pamplonsky. The newly minted seventeen-year-old bishop, accustomed from childhood to the golden rain of sinecures raining down on him, thanked his Eminence and returned to his studies.

What was happening at that time in the Eternal City? As we remember, Sixtus IV died in 1484, and the death of the pope, as almost always happened, caused considerable unrest in Rome. The crowd broke into Riario's palace and plundered it; Girolamo, the "nephew" - in reality the son - of the deceased, armed his followers and servants, made his way to the castle of St. Angela and settled there.

The detachments of Orsini and Colonna besieged the castle, and the city was overwhelmed by a wave of violence, massacres and petty civil strife. The Holy College hastily assembled and demanded that Girolamo surrender the captured fortifications, disband his army and leave Rome. Not wanting to incur the wrath of the future pope, whoever he was, Riario obeyed the decision of the cardinals, surrendered and returned safely to Imola.

Having restored at least a semblance of order in the city, the college proceeded to vote, and Cardinal Giovanni Battista Cibo, a native of Genoa, received the majority of votes; after his enthronement he took the name Innocent VIII. Of course, this time the elections were not without bribery. So, the Aragonese cardinal, brother of the Neapolitan king, and Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, brother of the Milanese Duke Lodovico, staged something like an auction, offering their votes to the candidate who would fork out a large sum. But it was not possible to keep the auction secret - the scandalous shamelessness of the resourceful prelates caused a storm of indignation throughout Italy, becoming the prologue to the short and inglorious reign of the new pope.

Innocent VIII, possessing all the shortcomings and vices of his predecessor, did not have even a shadow of the fierce energy of Sixtus IV. Questions of his own prestige, authority and power of the church did not worry him at all, but not at all because of Christian humility - it was simply that Innocent’s vital interests were limited to blind greed and the pursuit of all kinds of pleasures that his old age could allow him. The unbridled nepotism of the Genoese also exceeded all conceivable limits of decency, astonishing even seasoned Romans: he hastily awarded profitable positions to his sons - and there were seven of them, without paying attention to either church laws or public opinion.

The trade in indulgences and titles experienced an unprecedented rise. Under Innocent VIII, it was possible to acquire with equal ease both the rank of cardinal and absolution from parricide, as long as there was enough money. Things were no better in legal proceedings: corruption and indifference to the law permeated the entire pyramid of city power from top to bottom. Robberies in broad daylight became common, and bodies were found in the streets every morning. No one was looking for the criminals, and if a detachment of guards accidentally witnessed a robbery in progress, they willingly left, having received the required bribe. Only losers who had not yet managed to cut off someone else’s wallet risked ending up in prison or in the hands of the executioner. In general, it is not surprising that Infessura in his chronicle calls the day of the death of Innocent VIII “blessed,” “which rid the world of a true monster.”

This day came in 1492. Dad became completely decrepit and could no longer take any other food except... human milk; several carefully selected nurses diligently fed his Holiness. Soon he began to have seizures - apparently cataleptic - during which Innocent showed no signs of life for a long time, and this more than once misled the courtiers. Infessura cites a terrible story, which, however, has not been confirmed by other sources, so one cannot vouch for its authenticity: that a certain Jewish doctor who came to the Vatican claimed that he had a miraculous recipe that could restore the health and strength of the pope. The method of rejuvenation he proposed was blood transfusion. Innocent VIII, who did not disdain anything, agreed to this procedure, which was clearly reprehensible from a Christian point of view and completely hopeless from a medical point of view: people of the 15th century had no idea even about the circulatory system, not to mention blood groups. Three twelve-year-old boys were chosen as donors, each of whom received a gold ducat. Surprisingly, Innocent, perhaps, had the opportunity to go down in history as a martyr pope: his chances of surviving during the transfusion were zero, and he would have become the first and only pope to die at the hands of an enemy of the faith of Christ. But it all ended much sadder - apparently, the doctor overestimated his abilities, and the unfortunate children died from loss of blood. Upon learning of this, dad was horrified; he ordered the villain to be captured and brought to justice, but he managed to escape. “Judeus quidem aufugit, et Papa sanatus non est,” - this is how Infessura concludes his story.

Innocent VIII died on the twenty-fifth of July 1492.