Born on September 20, 1754. From an early age he was taught literacy and various sciences. The future Emperor studied history, mathematics, foreign languages and geography.

According to the recollections of his teachers, Paul was a man of a lively mind, beautifully gifted by nature. His childhood was difficult, he lost his father early. Moreover, he lost, as he himself believed, through the fault of his mother. Pavel loved Pyotr Fedorovich very much, and could not forgive his mother for his death.

At the age of 17, Catherine II married her son to Princess Wilgemina, who was named Natalya Alekseevna at baptism. During childbirth, Natalia died.

In 1776, Paul I married for the second time. The wife of the heir to the Russian throne was Sophia-Dorota, who at baptism took the name Maria Feodorovna. Maria Feodorovna was related to the Prussian king. Apparently under the influence of his wife, he began to like many German customs.

Meanwhile, relations between Pavel Petrovich and Catherine II became more and more cool. After the wedding, Catherine II presented the spouses with Gatchina. In fact, this was a real link, an attempt to remove the heir from the court.

Here in Gatchina, Paul I has his own army, he is sent half a company of sailors, an infantry battalion, a cuirassier regiment. Pavel Petrovich devotes a lot of time to his soldiers. Organizes various exercises and reviews.

In 1777 he had a son named Alexander. The boy was immediately taken away from his parents, and people appointed by the empress herself were engaged in his upbringing.

Paul and Mary could visit their son only on special days. Pavel tried to participate in the political life of the country, but his mother stopped any of his undertakings and initiatives.

After the death of Catherine II, Paul I was crowned king. Pavel Petrovich entered the throne without great skills government controlled. When he became monarch, he was already 42 years old. He was already an established, bright and outstanding personality.

His very first act on the Russian throne was the coronation of Peter III. The ashes of the father were removed from the grave, the coronation ceremony was held, and the subsequent reburial of Peter III in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, next to Catherine II.

Domestic policy of Paul I

On April 5, 1797, Paul I was anointed king. On the same day, a decree on succession to the throne was issued. Now the direct descendants of the monarch in the male line became the heirs of the Russian throne. Women could take the Russian throne only in the absence of male representatives from the ruling dynasty

Paul I restored the State Council, created under Catherine II, but not functioning for a long time. Increased the number of council members from 7 to 17 people. In 1796, the Senate was also reformed, which could not cope with its duties due to the increased number of cases.

The number of the Senate has increased, new rules of office work have appeared, aimed at speeding up the work of the Senate. The internal policy of Paul I caused dissatisfaction among the nobles, because. the emperor tried to alleviate the situation of the peasantry. Such actions caused certain discontent in the nobility.

He also with his decrees canceled Catherine's "charter to the nobility". Now the nobles were forbidden to ask for resignation if they had served in the rank of officer for less than a year. Were abolished noble assemblies. Great dissatisfaction was caused by the reform of the army carried out by Paul I. Prussian orders were established in the Russian army, an uncomfortable uniform was introduced. The army lived by one combat training, in conditions of the strictest discipline.

Foreign policy of Paul I

In his foreign policy, Paul I at first decided to defend only the interests of Russia. But the location of forces in Europe obliged the Russian Empire to actively participate in the affairs of European states. In alliance with Turkey, the Russian army and navy took Corfu, under the leadership of Fedor Fedorovich Ushakov. And Suvorov smashed the French on the continent, making incredible crossings through the Alps.

At that time, dissatisfaction with the emperor grew more and more among the courtiers. So, on the night of March 11-12, 1801, a group of conspirators broke into his chambers and demanded that he abdicate the throne. Paul I refused and, in the ensuing fight, was killed by the conspirators. His son, Alexander I Pavlovich, was proclaimed the new Russian emperor. On the personality of Paul I, the "Era of palace coups" ended.

Results

Pavel Petrovich is of great interest to historians, and is the subject of many disputes. Some sincerely consider him a tyrant, others - a wonderful reformer. It is impossible to unambiguously answer the question of who Emperor Paul I was. Many characterize the period of his reign as knightly autocracy. In fact, he was a man of honor.

Unfortunately, the Emperor's psyche was really not all right. But there is an explanation for this. In childhood, he lost his father, whom he loved very much. Throughout his life, he was afraid that he would share the fate of Pyotr Fedorovich. During his reign, the distrust and caution of the entire court reached its climax.

Russian empire was overflowing with various spies and scammers who praised themselves before the emperor and denounced others. Paul I was a changeable person, and often made conflicting decisions. People quickly fell out of favor with him, and just as quickly became his favorites. Paul I ruled Russia for only 5 years.

• There are three versions of the origin of Emperor Paul I. He is the son of Peter III and Catherine II.
• Son of Catherine II and Count Sergei Saltykov.
• Son of unknown Chukhons parents.
  

S. Schukin "Portrait of Paul I"

Emperor Paul I did not have an attractive appearance: short stature, snub-nosed short nose ... He knew about this and could, on occasion, joke about his appearance and his entourage: “My ministers ... oh, these gentlemen really wanted to lead me by the nose, but unfortunately for them, I don't have it!"

Paul I tried to establish a form of government that would eliminate the causes that gave rise to wars, riots and revolutions. But some of Catherine's nobles, accustomed to licentiousness and drunkenness, weakened the opportunity to realize this intention, did not allow it to develop and establish itself in time to change the life of the country on a solid basis. The chain of accidents is linked into a fatal pattern: Paul could not do this, and his followers no longer set this task as their goal.

F. Rokotov "Portrait of Paul I in childhood"

Pavel I (Pavel Petrovich; (September 20, 1754 - March 12, 1801) - Emperor of All Russia from November 6, 1796, from the imperial family of the Romanovs, Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov dynasty, Grand Master of the Order of Malta, Admiral General, son of Peter III Fedorovich and Catherine II Alekseevna.

The fate of this emperor was tragic. He was brought up without parents (from birth he was taken away from his mother, the future empress, and brought up by nannies. At the age of eight, he lost his father, Peter III, who was killed as a result of a coup d'etat) in an atmosphere of neglect from his mother, like an outcast, forcefully removed from power . Under these conditions, he developed suspicion and irascibility, combined with brilliant abilities in the sciences and languages, with innate ideas about knightly honor and state order. The ability for independent thinking, close observation of the life of the court, the bitter role of an outcast - all this turned Paul away from the lifestyle and politics of Catherine II. Still hoping to play some role in state affairs, Pavel at the age of 20 submitted to his mother a draft military doctrine of a defensive nature and concentration of state efforts on internal problems. She was not taken into account. He was forced to try out military regulations in the Gatchina estate, where Catherine resettled him out of sight. There, Paul's conviction was formed about the benefits of the Prussian order, with which he had the opportunity to get acquainted at the court of Frederick the Great - a king, commander, writer and musician. The Gatchina experiments later became the basis of the reform, which did not stop even after the death of Paul, creating an army new era- Disciplined and well trained.

Often the reign of Paul I is spoken of as a time of discipline, drill, despotism, and arbitrariness. In fact, he fought against laxity in the army and in general in the life of Russia at that time and wanted to make public service the highest valor, stop embezzlement and negligence, and thereby save Russia from the collapse that threatened her.

Many anecdotes about Paul I were spread in those days by the nobles, whom Paul I did not allow to live a free life, demanding that they serve the Fatherland.

Succession reform

The decree on succession to the throne was issued by Paul I on April 5, 1797. With the introduction of this decree, the uncertainty of the situation in which the Russian imperial throne found itself with each change of reign and with constant coups and seizures of supreme power after Peter I as a result of his legislation ended. Love for the rule of law was one of the brightest traits in the character of Tsarevich Paul at that time of his life. Clever, thoughtful, impressionable, as some biographers describe him, Tsarevich Pavel showed an example of absolute loyalty to the culprit of his removal from life - until the age of 43 he was under undeserved suspicion from the Empress Mother in attempts on the power that rightfully belonged to him. more than she herself, who ascended the throne at the cost of the lives of two emperors (Ivan Antonovich and Peter III). A sense of disgust at coups d'état and a sense of legitimacy was one of the main stimuli that prompted him to reform the succession to the throne, which he considered and decided almost 10 years before its implementation. Paul canceled the Peter's decree on the appointment of his successor on the throne by the emperor himself and established a clear system of succession to the throne. From that moment on, the throne was inherited through the male line, after the death of the emperor, he passed to the eldest son and his male offspring, and if there were no sons, to the next oldest brother of the emperor and his male offspring, in the same order. A woman could occupy the throne and pass it on to her offspring only when the male line was suppressed. By this decree, Paul excluded palace coups, when emperors were overthrown and erected by the power of the guard, the reason for which was the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne (which, however, did not prevent the palace coup on March 12, 1801, during which he himself was killed). Pavel restored the system of colleges, attempts were made to stabilize the financial situation of the country (including the famous action of melting palace services into coins).

Postage stamp "Paul I signs the Manifesto on the three-day corvee"

Prerequisites

The corvee economy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century was the most intensive form of exploitation of peasant labor and, unlike the quitrent system, led to the utmost enslavement and maximum exploitation of the peasants. The growth of corvee duties gradually led to the appearance of a month (daily corvee), and small peasant farming was in danger of disappearing. The serfs were not legally protected from the arbitrary exploitation of the landowners and the burden of serfdom, which took forms close to slavery.

During the reign of Catherine II, the problem of legislative regulation of peasant duties became the subject of public discussion in an atmosphere of relative publicity. New drafts of regulation of peasant duties appear in the country, heated discussions are unfolding. A key role in these events was played by the activities of the Free Economic Society and the Legislative Commission, created by Catherine II. Attempts to legislatively regulate peasant duties were initially doomed to failure due to the harsh opposition of the nobility and landowner circles and the political elite associated with them, as well as due to the lack of real support for reform initiatives from the autocracy.

Even before his accession, Paul I took real measures to improve the situation of the peasants on his personal estates in Gatchina and Pavlovsk. So, he reduced and reduced peasant duties (in particular, on his estates for a number of years there was a two-day corvée), allowed the peasants to go to work in their free time from corvée work, issued loans to the peasants, built new roads in the villages, opened two free medical hospital for his peasants, built several free schools and colleges for peasant children (including disabled children), as well as several new churches. He insisted on the need for a legislative settlement of the position of serfs. "Human, Paul wrote, - the first treasure of the state", "saving the state - saving the people"("Discourse on the state"). Not being a supporter of radical reforms in the field of the peasant question, Paul I admitted the possibility of some limitation of serfdom and the suppression of its abuses.

Manifesto

GOD'S MERCY

WE PAUL THE FIRST

Emperor and Autocrat

ALL-RUSSIAN,

and other, and other, and other.

We declare to all OUR faithful subjects.

The Law of God in the Decalogue taught to US teaches US to dedicate the seventh day to it; why on this day we were glorified by the triumph of the Christian faith, and on which WE were honored to receive the sacred anointing of the world and the Royal wedding on OUR Ancestral Throne, we consider it our duty to the Creator and to confirm all blessings throughout OUR Empire about the exact and indispensable fulfillment of this law, commanding everyone and everyone to watch, so that no one, under any circumstances, would dare to force the peasants to work on Sundays, especially since for rural products the six days remaining in the week, according to an equal number of them, are generally shared, both for the peasants themselves and for their work in favor of the landowners, the following, with good disposal, will be sufficient to satisfy all economic needs. Given in Moscow on the day of Holy Pascha, April 5, 1797.

Evaluation of the Manifesto by contemporaries

Representatives of foreign powers saw in him the beginning of peasant reforms.

For the Manifesto on the three-day corvee, Paul was sincerely praised by the Decembrists, noting the sovereign's desire for justice.

The Manifesto was greeted with a muffled murmur and widespread boycott by conservative noble and landlord circles, who considered it an unnecessary and harmful law.

The peasant masses saw hope in the Manifesto. They regarded it as a law that officially protected their interests and alleviated their plight, and tried to complain about the boycott of its norms by the landlords.

But the implementation of the norms and ideas of the Manifesto on the three-day corvee, issued by Emperor Paul I, was initially doomed to failure. The ambiguity of the wording of this law and the lack of development of mechanisms for its implementation predetermined the polarization of opinions of government and judicial officials of the country in the interpretation of its meaning and content and led to complete inconsistency in the actions of the central, provincial and local structures that controlled the implementation of this law. The desire of Paul I to improve the plight of the peasant masses was combined with his stubborn unwillingness to see the serf peasantry as an independent political force and social support for the anti-serfdom undertakings of the autocracy. The indecision of the autocracy led to the lack of strict control over the observance of the norms and ideas of the Manifesto and the connivance of its violations.

Military reform of Paul I

G. Sergeev "Military exercise on the parade ground in front of the palace" (watercolor)

1. Introduced single soldier training and improved content.
2. A defense strategy has been developed.
3. 4 armies were formed in the main strategic directions.
4. Military districts and inspections were created.
5. New statutes have been introduced.
6. The guards, cavalry and artillery were reformed.
7. The rights and duties of military personnel are regulated.
8. General privileges have been reduced.

The reforms in the army caused discontent on the part of the generals and the guards. The guardsmen were required to serve as they should. All officers assigned to the regiments were required to report for duty from long-term leave, some of them and those who did not appear were expelled. Unit commanders were limited in the disposal of the treasury and the use of soldiers for household work.

The military reform of Paul I created the army that defeated Napoleon.

Jokes about Paul were fanned for political purposes. The indignant nobility did not understand that Paul "tightening the screws" extended the dominance of the "service class" for a hundred years.

Paul's contemporaries adapted to him. He brought order and discipline, and this met with approval in society. True military men quickly realized that Pavel is hot-tempered, but quick-witted, understands humor. There is a known case that allegedly Paul I sent a whole regiment from the watch parade to Siberia; in fact, Pavel showed dissatisfaction in a sharp form, reprimanding the commander before the ranks. In annoyance, he said that the regiment was worthless, that it should be sent to Siberia. Suddenly the regimental commander turns to the regiment and gives the command: “Regiment, march to Siberia!” Here Pavel was taken aback. And the regiment marched past him. Of course, the regiment caught up and turned back. And the commander had nothing. The commander knew that Pavel would eventually like such a trick.

Dissatisfaction with Paul was manifested primarily by a part of the higher nobility, who fell into disfavor under Paul for various reasons: either because they constituted the “Catherine court” hated by the emperor, or were held accountable for embezzlement and other offenses.

F. Shubin "Portrait of Paul I"

Other reforms

One of the first attempts to create a code of laws was made. All subsequent rulers of Russia up to the present time have tried to create a code like the "Napoleon Code" in France. Nobody succeeded. The bureaucracy interfered. Although under Paul there was a "training" of the bureaucracy, but from this training it only became stronger.
* Decrees were declared not to be considered laws. During the 4 years of the reign of Paul I, 2179 decrees were issued (42 decrees per month).

* Proclaimed the principle: "Income of the state, not the sovereign." Audits carried out public institutions and services. Significant sums were collected in favor of the state.
* The issuance of paper money was discontinued (by this time, one paper ruble was worth 66 silver kopecks).
* Emphasis was placed on the distribution of land and peasants into private hands (during the reign - 4 years), 600 thousand souls were granted, for 34 years Catherine II granted 850 thousand souls. Paul believed that the landowners would be better off supporting the peasants than the state.
* A "Loan Bank" was established and a "bankruptcy charter" was adopted.
* The family of Academician M. Lomonosov was exempted from the head salary.
* Polish insurgents led by T. Kosciuszko were released from prison.

Death of Paul I

The conspiracy against Paul matured already in 1800. The inspirers of the conspiracy were Catherine's nobleman Count N.P. Panin and St. Petersburg military governor P.A. Palen. The English ambassador C. Whitworth actively helped the conspirators.

In March 1801, Pavel learned about the impending conspiracy and shared the news with P.A. Palen. On March 11, Paul summoned his sons Alexander and Constantine to the court church and demanded a second oath from them. The conspirators began to hurry. In total, about 60 dignitaries and guards officers participated in the conspiracy. On the night of March 12, drunken conspirators burst into the emperor’s bedroom, attacked him, and one of them broke the emperor’s head with a heavy snuffbox. It was announced that he had died of "apoplexy". The guards soldiers, who ran to the palace in alarm, did not believe Palen. This once again confirms the social composition of the conspirators.

Reforms of Paul I (briefly)

The main characteristic of the reign of Paul I can be called the complete destruction of everything that was done under his mother. The purpose of all his new laws, prohibitions, orders and decrees was only a sharp absolutization of autocracy in the Russian state.

For example, strict censorship was introduced for printed publications, private independent printing houses were closed, and the import of book products from other powers was prohibited.

Even at the very beginning of the reign of Paul the First, a close military-police regime was introduced in the state. The Prussian order was observed in the army, and the whole life of his subjects was regulated.

The military reform carried out by Paul the First introduced the Prussian military training system, while emphasizing that the most important thing is the observance of strict discipline.

He abolished many of the privileges that were bestowed by Paul's mother Catherine II. He made the most severe demands on the nobility:

Restoration of physical and financial punishment of nobles;

Restriction of the nobility in rights;

imposition of considerable taxes;

obligatory military service nobles.

But during the reign of Emperor Paul some rights and indulgences were awarded to the peasantry. IN holidays, as well as on Sunday, all peasants were completely freed from work. In addition, the so-called three-day corvee was established, and the grain tax and recruitment were abolished.

The main feature as domestic policy Emperor Paul the First was to emphasize his features and highlight his contrast in comparison with his mother, which also affected the conduct foreign policy states.

He made a promise to maintain peaceful relations with each of the states, and he was also not at all interested in the affairs that were happening in the West.

In 1797, Paul the First takes under his protectorate the knightly order of St. John, which miraculously survived in Malta from the time of the crusades. After that, he assumes the title of Grand Master of the order, thereby causing a flurry of indignation from representatives of the Russian clergy.

However, the capture of Malta in 1798 by Napoleon became the impetus for the Russian Empire to join the anti-French coalition together with England and Austria. But already in 1800 there was a break in these relations and a rapprochement between Russia and Napoleon.

Domestic policy of Paul I.

The policy of Paul I was controversial. Having ascended the throne at the age of 42, he sought to do a lot in defiance of his mother, Catherine II. On April 5, 1797, he issued a new decree on succession to the throne, according to which the throne was to pass only through the male line from father to son, and in the absence of sons to the eldest of the brothers.

After becoming emperor, Paul tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and free thinking. Characteristic features of the reign of Paul I were harshness, imbalance and irascibility. He believed that everything in the country should be subject to the orders established by the monarch; I prioritized efficiency and accuracy.

Pavel strove for maximum centralization, regulations in all spheres of life. He attached great importance to the army, into which he introduces Russian orders. He pays much attention to parades and parades. From the highest ranks, 7 field marshals and more than 300 generals were dismissed. The officers from the non-nobles were dismissed. At the same time, Paul showed concern for the soldiers. Military schools were created for orphans of soldiers. Distinguished soldiers received the right to be dismissed before the end of their service life, 100 rubles each for arranging and land allotment.

Laws concerning the position of the peasants were passed. In 1767 a decree was issued. Prohibiting the sale of peasants and courtyards at the auction. The prohibition to split up peasant families. It was forbidden to sell serfs without land. State peasants received a 15-tithe mental allotment and a special class administration. The decree of 1796 finally prohibited the independent transition of peasants (from place to place). The distribution of the state peasants to the nobles continued. During the 4 years of his reign, Paul distributed 530 thousand souls of peasants, while Catherine II distributed 850 thousand souls into private hands in 34 years.

In 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was published. He forbade landlords to use peasants for field work on Sundays, recommending that corvée be limited to three days a week.

The attack on noble privileges, petty regulation in various spheres of life turned the nobility against Paul I. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the emperor was killed by conspirators in the newly rebuilt Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg. The preparation of the conspiracy was led by the military governor of St. Petersburg P.A. Palen. The eldest son of Pavel, Alexander, was also aware of the plans of the conspirators.

Foreign policy of Paul I

In foreign policy, Paul I continues the struggle with France, which was striving for dominance in Europe. In 1798 Russia joined the anti-French coalition consisting of England, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples. Military operations were concentrated in Italy, Switzerland and the Mediterranean Sea. The Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov liberated the Ionian Islands from the French, the island of Corfu was captured with an impregnable fortress (1799), then with the help of landing forces the French were expelled from Naples and Rome.

Russian land army under the command of A.V. Suvorov successfully operated in Northern Italy. In the autumn of 1799, Paul I ordered the transfer of A.V. Suvorov to Switzerland to join the corps of A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov and the allied Austrian troops. The Russian army, led by a 70-year-old commander, under incredibly difficult conditions, overcame the Saint Gotthard Pass and crossed the Alps, defeating the French at the Devil's Bridge. However, due to the betrayal of the Austrians, Rimsky-Korsakov's corps was defeated. Disagreements within the anti-French coalition led to a sharp turn in the foreign policy of Paul I. Russia withdrew from the coalition, and Russia began to rapprochement with France.

Lecture 33

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first halfXIXcentury

By the beginning of the nineteenth century. the territory of the country was 18 million square meters. km, population 74 million people. Russia was an absolutist and feudal state. Until 1861, the entire population was divided into estates: the nobility, the clergy, the merchants, the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, the Cossacks. The privileged estates were: the nobility and the clergy. Merchants had significant privileges. The estate system of Russia hindered the development of new bourgeois relations, but could not stop them. New classes were born - the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie was formed from the wealthy burghers and peasants, the proletariat - from the peasantry and the urban poor.

The political structure of the country and the social system held back the development of the economy. Serfdom hindered the growth of productive forces and hindered the modernization of the country (the creation of a hired force market, the process of capital accumulation and the development of market relations). In the first half of the 19th century, the preconditions for the abolition of serfdom were taking shape.

AGRICULTURE. Russia remained an agrarian country. IN agriculture 9/10 of the total population was employed. The landlord economy made up half of the agricultural sector. The other half was occupied by the system of state feudalism, in which the state was the owner of the land and peasants.

During the first half of the nineteenth century. quitrent increased by 2-5 times, working off the corvée by the peasants reached several days a week. One of the means of intensifying exploitation was the so-called "month" - depriving the peasants of land and transferring them to corvée. The lack of land of the peasants made it impossible to develop commodity production and barely provided a living wage for their families. Therefore, the issue of allocating land to the peasants became central.

In general, agriculture, which remained the basis of the country's economy, was dominated by serfdom, which led to low labor productivity. Although Russia exported grain abroad (in the middle of the 19th century - about 70 million poods), this was carried out mainly at the expense of the peasantry.

INDUSTRY. At the beginning of the nineteenth century. in industrial development, Russia lagged behind other European countries in which capitalist relations already dominated. Russia passed the bourgeois revolution and the country retained its traditional way of life.

First third of the nineteenth century characterized by the growth of capitalist manufactory, and the second third - the beginning of the transition from manufactory to factory. Manual labor was replaced by machine labor, various types of engines began to be used in production, the process of the formation of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat was going on.

Thus, at the turn of the 30-40s. nineteenth century The industrial revolution began in Russia. In connection with the transition to machine technology, labor productivity increased by the mid-1950s. nineteenth century increased 3 times and the share of machine production accounted for more than 2/3 of the output of large-scale industry. At first, machinery was imported mainly from England and Belgium. Gradually began to emerge its own machine-building industry. The first factories appeared in St. Petersburg, Sormovo, Nizhny Novgorod.

TRADE. Gradually, domestic and foreign trade developed, and an all-Russian market was formed. The development of domestic trade is characterized by the expansion of the range of goods, both agricultural and industrial, the emergence of fairs and shops. The development of foreign trade followed the path of export of agricultural products and raw materials, and export exceeded import. They exported bread, timber, hemp, flax. Imports were focused on meeting the needs of the nobility. Imported - clothes, tea, coffee, spices. Russia's trade with European countries was conducted mainly through the Baltic Sea. England was the main trading partner. Part of the production went to Iran, China, Turkey.

TRANSPORT. The internal system of communications has not received sufficient development. The main types of transport remained - water and horse-drawn. The main transport artery of the country is the Volga River. In the second decade of the XIX century. shipping began. The first steamboat appeared on the Neva in 1815. Since 1817, steamboats began to sail along the Volga and Kama. By 1860, there were already 339 steamers on the inland waterways of Russia. In 1837, the first railway line was opened between Tsarskoye Selo and St. Petersburg. In 1839, the construction of the Warsaw-Vienna railway began, which connected Russia with Western Europe. In 1843-1851. work was carried out on the creation of the St. Petersburg - Moscow railway.

FINANCE. In 1839-1841. in Russia, the monetary system was restructured (at the initiative of the Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin). The basis of monetary circulation was the silver ruble. Since 1843, banknotes (paper money, first introduced under Catherine II) began to be withdrawn from circulation by exchanging at the rate (3.5 rubles in banknotes to a silver ruble) for credit notes that could be freely exchanged for silver. The reform strengthened the country's financial system. Due to the developing process of capital accumulation, the money acquired in trade began to be more intensively transferred to industrial production.

Thus, in the first half of the nineteenth century. the existing socio-economic system hindered the development of productive forces and the process of modernization of the country, but Russia did not experience an acute economic crisis. In the bowels of decaying feudalism, a new capitalist structure developed, which became dominant in the second half of the 19th century.

Lecture 34

Reformatory activity of Alexander I: plans and reality.

On the night of March 12, 1801, as a result of the last palace coup in the history of Russia, Emperor Paul I was killed by a group of conspirators. His son Alexander became the new emperor.

The reign of Alexander I can be divided into two stages. The first stage, (1801 - 1812), the time of the predominance of liberal tendencies in government policy; the second, (1815 - 1825) - a change in the political aspirations of tsarism towards conservatism, the departure of the king from power towards religiosity and mysticism. During this period, the omnipotent favorite of the king, A. Arakcheev, actually begins to rule the country.

In order to strengthen his personal authority, immediately upon accession to the throne, Alexander eliminated the laws most hated by the nobility introduced by Paul. He returned to the system of noble elections, announced an amnesty, returned the officers dismissed by Paul from the army, allowed free entry and exit from Russia, and the import of foreign books.

In a manifesto on March 12, 1801, on his accession to the throne, Alexander announced that he "takes upon himself the duty to rule the people according to the laws and according to the heart of his great grandmother." From the first days of his reign, Alexander I declared a sincere desire to put an end to arbitrariness and begin reforms. Some measures were taken immediately: the liberalization of public life, the creation of new government bodies (ministries), the laying of the foundations of public education. Postponed for a while due to Russia's participation in the anti-Napoleonic wars (1805-1807), the reforms resumed after Alexander's meeting with Napoleon in Tilsit and the change of ally.

One of the influential employees of Alexander I was Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky, adviser to the tsar, developer of a plan for state transformation. With his participation, the reform of the central authorities and administration was carried out. In 1802, the Senate was declared the supreme institution of the empire, instead of collegiums, ministries headed by the Committee of Ministers were established. On behalf of the emperor, Speransky began to draw up a project for a gradual transition from autocracy to a constitutional monarchy, which met with resistance from the nobility. Speransky was dismissed from the service.

Beginning in 1815, the policy of Alexander I became more and more ambiguous, and his actions increasingly began to diverge from previously proclaimed intentions. In foreign policy, he changed Russia's position on the Greek and Balkan issues. Domestically, the granting of a constitution to Poland was taken as a harbinger of future reforms, but it did not continue, except for some semi-secret projects.

The turn to reaction began to be associated with the name of A. Arakcheev, whose despotism reached its limit in the early 1920s: the tightening of censorship, purges in universities and the persistent, despite numerous disobediences, continued destructive experiments with military settlements. Planting military settlements with an iron hand, he achieved that for his passion for drill the regime was dubbed "Arakcheevshchina", although in fact he himself did not possess the power that is attributed to him. The king instructed him to prepare a plan for the liberation of the peasants, which was never carried out. With the accession to the throne of Nicholas I, Arakcheev fades into the shadows.

Lecture 35

Decembrist movement

After the death of Alexander I in November 1825, Konstantin, who was at that time in Warsaw, was to ascend the throne. But even during the reign of Alexander I, he declared that he did not have the slightest desire and intention to reign and rule Russia. On November 30, an oath of allegiance to the new Emperor Constantine was taken in Moscow. Having received a letter from Constantine, Nicholas writes a manifesto about his accession to the throne.

The revolutionaries-nobles decided to take advantage of the interregnum.

Motion background

The objective basis is the aggravation of the contradictions of the feudal-serf system, the obvious discrepancy between the power of Russia, the rise of its culture and barbarian serfdom. Awareness of this contradiction contributed to the widespread dissemination in Russia of the ideology of the Enlightenment (Montesquieu, Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau). Especially the publishing activity of Novikov. With all their acuteness, these problems were posed as early as Radishchev's book (1790).

Row historical events that contributed to the awareness of the need for transformation:

The French Revolution is an important prerequisite for the orientation towards a military conspiracy in accordance with the formula "for the people, but without the people."

The War of 1812 - the awakening of national consciousness and social activity ("we are the children of 1812").

Secret organizations of noble revolutionaries

1816-1818 - "Union of Salvation", or "Society of True and Faithful Sons of the Fatherland".

Consisted of 10-12 people.

1818-1821 - "Prosperity Union". The main goal is the introduction of a constitution, civil liberties, the decision of the fate of serfs, ordinary soldiers. Numbered more than 200 people.

In 1821, the Union of Welfare split into the Southern and Northern Society.

1821-1825 - Northern society. Petersburg. Leaders: S. Trubetskoy, N. Muravyov, E. Obolensky. The program document is the “Constitution” by N.M. Muraviev.

1821-1825 - Southern society. Ukraine. Leaders: P. Pestel, S. Muravyov-Apostol, M. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. The program document is "Russian Truth" by P.I.Pestel.

Differences in the program documents of the Southern and Northern societies

The officers of the conspiratorial Northern Society, who advocated a constitutional monarchy (led by N.M. Muravyov), united with the radicals of the Southern Society, who preferred a republic (they were led by P.I. Pestel), intending to seize power with the support of Konstantin.

However, armed uprisings in St. Petersburg on December 14 (26) and in Ukraine on December 29 (January 10) were brutally suppressed, and their leaders were executed.

Lecture 36

Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 19th century.

In the first quarter of the XIX century. Russia had significant opportunities for the effective solution of its foreign policy tasks. They included the protection of their own borders and the expansion of the territory in accordance with the geopolitical, military-strategic and economic interests of the country. This implied the folding of the territory of the Russian Empire in its natural borders along the seas and mountain ranges and, in connection with this, the voluntary entry or forcible annexation of many neighboring peoples.

The diplomatic service of Russia was well-established, intelligence - branched. The army numbered about 500 thousand people, was well equipped and trained. Russia's military-technical lag behind Western Europe was not noticeable until the early 1950s. This allowed Russia to play an important and sometimes decisive role in the European concert.

In the foreign policy of Russia in 1801-1825 during the reign of Alexander I, a number of stages can be distinguished:

1801 - 1812 - before Patriotic War with Napoleon

Patriotic War of 1812

1813-1815 - the time of foreign campaigns of the Russian army, the completion of the defeat of Napoleonic France.

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the XIX century. become:

EASTERN- the purpose of which was to strengthen positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans

WESTERN(European) - suggesting the active participation of Russia in European affairs and anti-Napoleonic coalitions.

Lecture 37

Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War of 1812 should be singled out as a special stage in Russia's foreign policy activity. The war was caused by the aggravation of relations between Russia and France.

The main reasons for the war were: Russia's participation in the continental blockade of England (by 1812, Russia had practically ceased to fulfill the conditions of the blockade); French hegemony in Europe as the main source of military danger.

The nature of the war: On the part of France, the war was unfair, predatory in nature. For the Russian people - it became liberation, led to the participation of the broad masses of the people, having received the name - Patriotic.

Start of hostilities.

The plans of the French command: On July 12 (24), 1812, about 600 thousand Napoleonic soldiers crossed the Neman River and invaded Russia. Napoleon sought to defeat the main forces of the Russians in border battles, capture Moscow and force Russia to capitulate.

Russian troops (numbering 240 thousand people) united in three armies: 1 under the command of Barclay de Tolly, 2 - P.I. Bagration, 3 - A.P. Tormasov.

The Russian command wanted to avoid border battles, retreat and go on the counteroffensive with the forces of the united army. Having united in the Smolensk region, two Russian armies (1 and 2) on July 22, 1812 were defeated in a two-week battle. The war became protracted. Napoleon continued his advance on Moscow. On August 8, instead of Barclay de Tolly, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief.

The general battle took place near the village of Borodino (124 km west of Moscow). As a result, the French withdrew to their original positions, losing more than 50 thousand people; Russian losses - amounted to about 43 thousand people. battle of Borodino was the moral and political victory of the Russian army, the beginning of the end of Napoleon's army.

On September 1 (13), 1812, at a military council in the village of Fili (near Moscow), it was decided to leave Moscow without a fight in order to preserve the army. The population left the city along with the army, Napoleon entered Moscow and stayed there until October 6 (18).

The Russian army was transferred from Moscow, from the Ryazan road to the Kaluga road, to the village of Tarutino (80 km from Moscow, the so-called Tarutinsky march).

This made it possible to avoid the pursuit of the French, gain time, close the road to the south - to Kaluga and the Tula arms factories; carry out a reorganization.

The guerrilla war began. Partisan detachments were led by both hussar officers (colonel and poet D. I. Denisov) and ordinary people (Gerasim Kurin, Fyodor Potapov, Yermolai Chetvertakov, Vasilisa Kozhina). The peak of the partisan war came in October-December 1812.

On October 7, 1812, Napoleon retreated from Moscow along the Kaluga road. The French army was demoralized by hunger, fires, and suffered from frost. Russian troops, without engaging in battles with Napoleon, destroyed his army in parts. On October 12, in the battle of Maloyaroslavets, the French were stopped and turned onto the Smolensk road, which they had devastated, in the hope of spending the winter in Smolensk. But under the blows of the Russian troops, their retreat turned into a flight.

In the battle at the river Berezina (November 14-16, 1812), Napoleon's army was defeated. The losses of the French amounted to 30 thousand people (only about 9-10 thousand crossed to the other side).

On December 25, 1812, Alexander issued a Manifesto on the end of the war. Russia managed to defend its independence. Society felt the need for change even more acutely. The Russian people defended the country from foreign invasion. The victory strengthened the authority of Russia and marked the beginning of the liberation of the peoples of Central and Western Europe from Napoleon. France was dealt a blow from which she could not recover.

During her lifetime, Catherine actually removed Paul from power, their relationship was very cool. In 1794, she tried to deprive him of the right to inherit the throne and transfer power to her grandson. However, the empress could not fulfill this intention.

Having become emperor, Paul changed the order that existed at the court of Catherine. His policy in all areas was extremely inconsistent. He restored the abolished collegiums, changed the administrative division of Russia, reducing the number of provinces, and returned the former forms of administration of the provinces of Russia. Pavel deprived the nobility of privileges, limited the effect of letters of commendation, and constrained local self-government. In 1797, he established the norm of peasant labor (three days of corvée a week), this was the first restriction of landlord power. However, during the four years of his reign, he distributed to the landowners more than 600 thousand peasants belonging to the state.

In his activities, Paul the 1st allowed extremes and pursued an inappropriate policy. He banned the words "club", "council", "fatherland", "citizen". Banned the waltz, some details of clothing. He granted amnesty to politically motivated prisoners arrested under Catherine the 2nd, but at the same time continued to fight against revolutionary manifestations in society. In 1797-1799. he established the most severe censorship, banning 639 publications. On July 5, 1800, many printing houses were sealed for censorship. Paul interfered in the affairs of religion, trying to introduce elements of Catholicism into Orthodoxy.

The emperor repealed the law prohibiting the purchase of peasants to work in enterprises. Without any justification, he restored the collegiate system, abolished by Catherine the 2nd.

Among the innovations introduced by the emperor, the creation of the Medical and Surgical Academy, the Russian-American Company, and the school for military orphans stand out positively.

The emperor attached great importance to regulations in military relations. The drill in the army acquired unprecedented proportions, which caused discontent among the guards and among the senior officers.

In 1798, an anti-French coalition was created, which included England, Austria, Turkey and Russia. The Black Sea squadron under the command of F.F. was sent to the Mediterranean Sea. Ushakov. The Russian fleet liberated the Ionian Islands and southern Italy from French occupation. In February 1799, a major battle took place for the island of Corfu, where a three thousandth French garrison was defeated. Russian troops entered Naples and Rome.

In 1799, Russia began the land phase of the war. At the insistence of the allies, the command of the troops was entrusted. For a month and a half of hostilities, Russian troops managed to oust the French from Northern Italy. Fearing the growth of Russian influence in Italy, Austria achieved the transfer of Suvorov's troops to Switzerland. August 31, 1799 to assist the troops of General A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov Suvorov made a heroic transition from Northern Italy through the Alps to Switzerland. Russian troops in the battles near Saint Gotthard and the Devil's Bridge defeated the enemy. But help came too late, and Rimsky-Korsakov's troops were defeated.

In 1800, Paul the 1st changes the course of foreign policy. He stops hostilities, withdraws troops to Russia and breaks the alliance with England and Austria. Having made peace with France, Paul the 1st enters into an alliance with Prussia against Austria, as well as with Prussia, Switzerland and Denmark against England. The aggravation of relations with England caused discontent among the nobility, since England was Russia's main partner in trade and the purchase of bread.

On the night of March 11-12, 1801, he interrupted plans for a war against England. Pavel 1 was killed as a result of this coup, organized by the highest guard officers, who did not forgive him for the oppression and the will taken from them.