The first intelligence tests were developed in France by Alfred Binet. The emergence and development of the testing method Psychological and pedagogical tests
Between the theoretical positions developed within the framework general psychology, and the basics of psychodiagnostics there is a close internal relationship. Ideas about the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche are the starting point when choosing psychodiagnostic methodology, designing psychodiagnostic techniques, and their use in practice.
The history of psychodiagnostics is both the history of the emergence of basic psychodiagnostic methods and the development of approaches to their creation based on the evolution of views about the nature and functioning of the psyche. In this regard, it is interesting to trace how some important psychodiagnostic methods were formed within the framework of the main schools of psychology.
Test methods are related to theoretical principles behaviorism. The methodological concept of behaviorism was based on the fact that there are deterministic relationships between the organism and the environment. The body, reacting to environmental stimuli, strives to change the situation in a direction favorable to itself and adapts to it. Behaviorism introduced into psychology the leading category of behavior, understanding it as a set of reactions to stimuli accessible to objective observation. Behavior, according to the behaviorist concept, is the only object of study of psychology, and all internal mental processes must be interpreted by objectively observable behavioral reactions. In accordance with these ideas, the purpose of diagnosis was initially reduced to recording behavior. This is exactly what the first psychodiagnosticians did, who developed the test method (the term was introduced by F. Galton).
The first researcher to use the term intelligence test in psychological literature was J. Cattell. This term became widely known after J. Cattell's article “Intelligence Tests and Measurements,” published in 1890 in the journal Mind. In his article, J. Cattell wrote that applying a series of tests to a large number individuals will allow us to discover the patterns of mental processes and thereby lead to the transformation of psychology into an exact science. At the same time, he expressed the idea that scientific and practical value tests will increase if the conditions for conducting them are uniform. Thus, for the first time, the need to standardize tests was proclaimed in order to make it possible to compare their results obtained by different researchers on different subjects.
J. Cattell proposed 50 tests as a sample, including various types of measurements:
- sensitivity;
- reaction time;
- time spent naming colors;
- time spent naming the number of sounds reproduced after a single listening, etc.
Returning to America after working in the laboratory of W. Wundt and lecturing in Cambridge, he immediately began to use tests in the laboratory he had set up at Columbia University (1891). Following J. Cattell, other American laboratories began to use the test method. There was a need to organize special coordination centers for the use of this method. In 1895-1896 In the USA, two national committees were created to unite the efforts of testologists and give a general direction to testological work.
Initially, ordinary experimental psychological tests were used as tests. In form they were similar to laboratory research techniques, but the meaning of their application was fundamentally different. After all, the task of a psychological experiment is to clarify the independence of a mental act from external and internal factors, for example, the nature of perception - from external stimuli, memorization - from the frequency and time distribution of repetitions, etc.
During testing, the psychologist records individual differences mental acts, evaluating the results obtained using some criterion and in no way changing the conditions for the implementation of these mental acts.
The test method is becoming widespread. A new step in its development was taken by the French physician and psychologist A. Vinet (1857-1911), the creator of the most popular at the beginning of the 20th century. series of intellectual tests.
Before A. Wiene, as a rule, differences in sensorimotor qualities were tested - sensitivity, reaction speed, etc. But practice required information about higher mental functions, usually designated by the terms “mind”, “intelligence”. It is these functions that ensure the acquisition of knowledge and the successful implementation of complex adaptive activities.
In 1904, the French Ministry of Education commissioned A. Vine to develop methods with which it would be possible to separate children capable of learning from those suffering from congenital defects and unable to study in a normal school. The need for this arose in connection with the introduction of universal education. At the same time it was necessary to create special schools for mentally handicapped children. A. Binet, in collaboration with T. Simon, conducted a series of experiments to study attention, memory, and thinking in children of different ages (starting from three years). Experimental tasks carried out on many subjects were tested according to statistical criteria and began to be considered as a means of determining intellectual level.
The first series of tests - the Binet-Simon Intelligence Development Echelle - appeared in 1905. Then it was revised several times by the authors, who sought to remove from it all tasks requiring special education. A. Binet proceeded from the idea that the development of intelligence occurs independently of learning, as a result of biological maturation.
The Binet scale in subsequent editions (1908,1911) was translated into German and English languages. The most widespread was the second edition of the Binet scale, which was distinguished by the fact that it expanded the age range of children - up to 13 years, increased the number of tasks and introduced the concept of mental age. The last (third) edition of the scale, published in the year of A. Binet’s death, did not introduce any significant changes.
The second edition of the Binet scale served as the basis for the translation, adaptation, verification and standardization work carried out at Stanford University (USA) by a team of employees led by L. M. Theremin (1877-1956). The first adaptation of the Binet test scale was proposed in 1916 and had so many serious changes compared to the main one that it was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. There were two main innovations compared to the Binet tests:
- introduction of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) as an indicator for the test, derived from the relationship between mental and chronological age;
- application of a new test evaluation criterion, for which the concept of a statistical norm is introduced.
Coefficient<(ЙЙдаент/Qбыл предложен В. Штерном, считавшим существенным Недостатком показателя умственного возраста то, что одна и та же разность между умственным и хронологическим возрастом для различных возрастных ступеней имеет неодинаковое значение. Чтобы устранить этот недостаток, В. Штерн предложил определять частное, получаемое при делении умственного возраста на хронологический. Этот показатель, умноженный на 100, он и назвал коэффициентом интеллектуальности. Используя этот показатель, можно классифицировать нормальных детей по степени умственного развития.
Another innovation of Stanford psychologists was the concept of a statistical norm. The norm became the criterion with which it was possible to compare individual test indicators and thereby evaluate them and give them a psychological interpretation.
The Stanford-Binet scale is designed for children aged 2.5 to 18 years. It consisted of tasks of varying difficulty, grouped according to age criteria. For each age, the most typical, average performance indicator was equal to 100, and the statistical measure of dispersion, deviation of individual values from this average (o) was equal to 16. All individual indicators on the test that fell within the interval x ± a, i.e., limited by the numbers 84 and 116 were considered normal, corresponding to the age norm of performance. If the test score was above the test norm (more than 116), the child was considered gifted, and if below 84, then mentally retarded.
The Stanford-Binet scale has gained popularity all over the world. It had several editions (1937,1960,1972,1986). In the latest edition, it is still used today. The IQ score, obtained on the Stanford-Binet scale, has become synonymous with intelligence for many years. The newly created intelligence tests began to be tested by comparison with the results of the Stanford-Binet scale.
At the beginning of the 20th century, in the system of special schools for children with mental retardation and mental retardation, a diagnostic system was needed to separate normal children.
Simon and Binet conducted a series of experiments to study thinking, memory, and perception in children from 3 years old.
In 1905 he created a system intelligence tests, then the tasks were improved, and in 1908 the second edition of the tests was published Binet-Simone, in 1911 the last edition was published.
The most significant changes occurred in 1908. The range of subjects by age was expanded (from 3 to 13 years), the number of tasks was increased, and the concept "mental age" Intellectual development was assessed with its help.
These tests are individual intelligence tests(with only one child).
Each age category has its own tasks.
Of all the developed tasks, the test system included those that were completed by 80-90% of children of this age.
Children under 6 years old - 4 tasks, older - 6 tasks.
3 years - show your nose, ear, carry out a simple order (give a key), ability to repeat a word.
6 years - discrimination between right and left; task of several links, repeat the phrase.
8 years - repeat all the months of the year, retelling a simple text.
13 years old - ability to operate with abstract concepts (the difference between happiness and pleasure).
Diagnosis using Binet-Simon tests.
Presentation of all tasks corresponds to chronological age. If you completed yours, then you were given tasks of an older age.
The maximum age was determined - basic mental age(when all tasks were solved)
Mental months were awarded for those that were solved for the next age.
If the mental age is lower than chronological, then the child was considered to have mental retardation or mental retardation. Or vice versa, then it was considered that the child was gifted to some extent.
Binet saw the disadvantage that his problems were not solved by children who developed in an unfavorable environment. They could not know the names of some objects.
The attentiveness of a psychologist is required: replace an unfamiliar word, use the observation method.
In general, this technique is very effective and has been beneficial in the department of children who are unable to study in a regular school.
Gained popularity all over the world. Translation and adaptation of this technique at Stanford University.
Stanford-Binet test (American method)
1. For the first time, they began to use IQ - intelligence quotient.
2. The concept was introduced "statistical norm".
Instead of mental age, Americans began to use the concept of IQ, since mental age had a significant drawback (in 1912, Stern pointed out): the same difference between the mental age of two people at different age levels had different meaning. For example, at 3 and 4 years old, at 13 and 14 years old.
Relative indicator: divide mental age by chronological and multiply by 100:
IQ= (mental age: chronological age) x 100
1916 - first edition by Stanford-Binet.
The statistical norm is a criterion used in psychodiagnostic methods for comparing individual indicators and their evaluation.
In 1937 - second edition Stanford-Binet.
Ages from 2 to 18 years, a scale of 17 tests. One test for children from 2 to 14 years old and 4 more tests for average adults (16-18 years old).
The technique is of very high quality, is still used today and is considered an example of an intellectual test..
All new tests are validated using the Stanford-Binet test.
The Binet-Simon and Stanford-Binet tests are individual.
Then they began to appear group intelligence tests. This is due to the limited use of individual tests.
During the First World War, it was necessary to evaluate the intellectual development of recruits in order to distribute them to different branches of the military and institutions.
Arthur Otis- developed the first system of group intellectual tests - army. First published in 1917-1919.
Two forms: Alpha form - for those who know English (tasks, words); Beta form - for illiterate and foreigners (graphic images).
Army tests still exist for professional selection purposes, updated.
Group tests- mass testing tools (dramatic reduction in time). We simplified the instructions, the procedure and the processing of results.
Not psychologists, but specially trained people were involved in testing.
They are used in education, industry and the army.
Limitations of intellectual testing - it is impossible to predict the success of performing narrow types of activities.
It is impossible to select a narrow focus; other psychological characteristics must also be assessed.
A direction has appeared diagnostics of special abilities. The impetus was the powerful development of professional consultation.
Tests of special abilities - musical, artistic.
The theoretical basis was factor analysis- highlighting the general things that were required in narrowly focused activities.
Especially developed psychotechnics- use of psychology data in industry and economics.
The impetus for its development was the system of labor intensification (Taylor).
We need accurate knowledge about the psychological characteristics of workers.
Munstenberg proposed 2 methods of testing special abilities:
analytical direction- methods for diagnosing each mental function using separate techniques.
synthetic modeling- the most crucial moments of professional work, the most essential things were modeled.
Individual tests of special abilities were combined and batteries of tests of special abilities were created for a limited number of professional activities.
Batteries are used to select people for appropriate professional activities.
An individual profile of the candidate is drawn, which correlates with the normative profile.
Achievement tests (learning success). Special group. Instead of teacher grades, it is assessed how successfully the program has been mastered.
Replacement of oral examinations with written ones in 1845.
They are now used to evaluate student performance instead of regular exams.
Stanford Achievement Test(since 1923) - a combined test, used in schools to assess the level of learning in various subjects (understanding of spoken language, written text).
1. Scientist who received a prize in 1862 for an experiment proving the impossibility of
Option 1
spontaneous generation of life
A) L. Pasteur
B) V.I.Vernadsky
C) A.I.Oparin
D) S. Miller
E) F. Redi
2. Contributed to the synthesis of the first organic substances on Earth from inorganic ones
A) low temperature
B) high volcanic activity
C) attenuation of volcanic activity
D) people
E) plants
3. In order to experimentally test Oparin’s hypothesis, S. Miller modeled in his flask:
A) the primordial ocean
B) model of the Earth
C) DNA model
D) aquarium
E) a real ocean
4. Organic substances in the primordial “Broth” could exist indefinitely for
Earth due to:
A) the presence of plants
B) the presence of mushrooms
C) the presence of oxygen
D) lack of water
E) absence of bacteria and fungi
5. In the primary ocean of the Earth, clumps began to form, called:
A) prokaryotes
B) catalysts
C) vitamins
D) coacervates
E) eukaryotes
B) Metabolism.
C) Breathing.
D) Photosynthesis.
6. The process that led to the formation of the atmosphere:
A) Reproduction.
E) Fertilization.
7. With the advent of photosynthesis, the following began to accumulate in the atmosphere:
A) Nitrogen.
B) Hydrogen.
C) Carbon.
D) Oxygen.
E) Carbon dioxide.
8. In 1953, he synthesized the simplest fatty acids and several amino acids from ammonia,
methane and hydrogen:
A) L. Pasteur.
B) F. Redi.
C) A.I. Oparin.
D) S. Miller.
E) V.I. Vernadsky.
9. Author of the hypothesis of the abiogenic origin of life on Earth:
A) F. Redi.
B) A.I. Oparin.
C) S. Miller.
D) L. Pasteur.
E) V.I. Vernadsky.
10. Synthesized the simplest fatty acids and several amino acids from ammonia, methane and
hydrogen:
A) S. Miller
B) L. Pasteur
C) A.I. Oparin
D) V.I. Vernadsky
E) F. Redi.
11. A Florentine doctor experimentally demonstrated that spontaneous generation of flies in rotten meat
impossible:
A) F,Redi.
B) L. Pasteur.
C) A.I. Oparin.
D) S. Miller.
E) V.I.Vernadsky.
12. Multicellular organisms began
A) Mosses.
B) Green algae.
C) Mushrooms.
D) Ancient single-celled creatures.
E) Lichens.
13. In the primary ocean of the Earth, clumps began to form, called:
A) Prokaryotes.
B) Catalysts.
C) Vitamins.
D) Coacervates.
E) Eukaryotes.
14. In order to experimentally test Oparin’s hypothesis, S. Miller modeled in his
flask:
A) Primary ocean.
B) Model of the Earth.
C) DNA model.
D) Aquarium.
E) A real ocean.
15. Organic substances in the primary “broth” could
exist indefinitely on Earth due to:
A) Presence of plants.
B) Presence of fungi.
C) Presence of oxygen.
D) Lack of water.
E) Absence of bacteria and fungi.
Thematic test “The emergence of life on Earth.”
Option 2
1. Contributed to the synthesis of the first organic substances on Earth from inorganic to
process of photosynthesis:
A) Low temperature.
B) High volcanic activity.
C) People.
D) Decay of volcanic activity.
E) Plants.
2. The impossibility of spontaneous generation of microorganisms was proven by:
A) L. Pasteur.
B) S. Fox.
C) A.I. Oparin.
D) S. Miller.
E) F. Engels.
3. The first true living organisms:
A) Mushrooms.
B) Prokaryotes.
C) Animals.
D) Algae.
E) Plants.
4. Biogenesis is a theory
A) the origin of living things only from living things.
B) the historical development of the organic world.
C) individual development.
D) development of living and non-living things.
E) the development of the organism from the moment of fertilization to the moment of death.
5. The impossibility of spontaneous generation of microorganisms was proven
A) F. Engels
B) L. Pasteur
C) A.I. Oparin
D) S. Miller
E) S. Fox
6. In the primary ocean of the Earth, clumps began to form, called:
A) prokaryotes
B) coacervates
C) vitamins
D) eukaryotes
E) catalysts
7. Within the framework of the theory of the origin of life on Earth, 2 hypotheses are most significant
A) Oogenesis, biogenesis
B) Phylogeny, abiogenesis
C) Abiogenesis, biogenesis
D) Ontogenesis, metamorphosis
E) Embryogenesis, phylogenesis
OPTION #1
A1. Which scientist first suggested the composition of the Earth's primary atmosphere:
1- A.I. Oparin 3- L. Pasteur
2- S. Miller 4- F. Redi
A2. What type of nutrition were the first organisms?
1-autotrophs 3-heterotrophs
2-mixotrophs 4-chemotrophs
A3. There are several stages in the process of the emergence of life on Earth. Name the first one:
1- concentration of substances 3- emergence of self-replicating molecules
2-abiogenic synthesis of organic substances 4- occurrence of photosynthesis
A4. The general metabolic reaction for all early organisms was:
1-anaerobic glycolysis 3-oxidative phosphorylation
2-glucose synthesis in chloroplasts 4-photolysis of water
A5. In 1953, S. Miller and G. Ury synthesized organic substances by passing electrical discharges through a mixture of gases. Indicate the gas that was absent in the experiment:
1-methane 3-oxygen
2- ammonia 4-hydrogen
1-concentration of substances 2-abiogenic synthesis of organic substances
3- Earth – gas-dust cloud 4- hot planet
5- cooling of the planet 6- heavy rains
A-F. Redi 1- creationism
B. D. Haldane 2 – biochemical evolution
V-A.I. Oparin 3-spontaneous generation
Mr. Van Helmont
D-Usher
B3. The composition of the primary atmosphere included:
1-hydrogen sulfide 4-ammonia
2-methane 5-neon
3-oxygen 6-hydrogen
Q4. Select the properties that the coacervate drop had:
1- height 4-heredity
2-cellular structure 5-irritability
3-metabolism 6-reproduction
B5. The modern theory of the origin of planets is based on the works of:
1- I. Kant 4- D. Jeans
2- J. Buffon 5-O.Yu. Schmidt
3- P. Laplace 6- L. Pasteur
C1. Why were the first organisms on Earth heterotrophs?
C2. What properties of nucleotides played a significant role in the emergence of life?
Test “The Origin of Life on Earth”
OPTION #2
A1. What served as a source of energy for the very first primitive forms of life on Earth:
1-solar energy 3-electric discharges
2-chemical energy 4-thermal energy
A2. Name the scientist who was the first to put forward the hypothesis of the abiogenic origin of organic compounds:
1- A.I. Oparin 3- L. Pasteur
2- S. Miller 4- F. Redi
A3. In 1953, S. Miller and G. Urey synthesized organic substances by passing electrical discharges through a mixture of gases. Indicate the substance they did not receive:
1-glycine 3-urea
2- ATP 4- glutamine
A4. One of the most important stages in the emergence of life can be considered:
1- appearance of amino acids 3- appearance of nucleic acids
2- appearance of carbohydrates 4- appearance of lipids
A5. The most important property of organic molecules from the point of view of the “emergence of life” turned out to be:
1- ability for a variety of chemical reactions
2- ability to self-organize and reproduce 3- structural complexity
4-fragility of internal chemical bonds
B1. Place in the correct order the stages of the origin of life according to the theory of A.I. Oparina:
1- anaerobic prokaryotic heterotrophs 2- transformation of the planet
3- abiogenic synthesis of organic substances 4- eukaryotic heterotrophs 5- formation of coacervates 6- appearance of self-replicating structures
B2. Match scientists and theories of the origin of life:
A-D. Bernal 1- panspermia
B. S. Miller 2 – biochemical evolution
B- Aristotle 3-spontaneous generation
Mr. Louis Pasteur
D-Richter
B3. Select the characteristics of the first organisms:
1-autotrophs 4-multicellular
2-heterotrophs 5-unicellular
3-prokaryotes 6-eukaryotes
Q4. What are the first sources of energy on Earth:
1-volcanism 4-hydropower
2-lightning discharges 5-radioactive energy
3-wind energy 6-energy of decomposition of inorganic substances
B5. What are the merits of A.I. Oparina:
1- was the first to put forward the hypothesis of abiogenic synthesis of organic substances
2- formulated a natural scientific theory of the origin of life
3- proved the impossibility of spontaneous generation of living organisms
4- synthesized organic substances through electrical discharges
5 – developed the coacervate theory
6- proved the impossibility of spontaneous generation of microorganisms
C1. What caused the appearance of autotrophic organisms?
C2. What was the significance of the appearance of the membrane in protobionts for biological evolution?
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