Preparation for the State Examination in Social Studies (Brief Theory). Theory for the OGE in social studies "Man and Society" Materials for preparing for the OGE social studies in brief

Topic: Society and man.

Scientists believe that social life began simultaneously with the appearance of man on Earth. Even ancient people united into a tribal community, a tribe. The unification and interaction of ancient people helped the human race to survive in difficult times. natural conditions, defend against enemies, explore new territories. This is where the concepts of “community” and “society” come from.

The concept of society is used in a broad and narrow sense.

In a broad sense:

Society- it is a part of the material world that is isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

In a narrow sense:

Society - this is a collection of people according to some characteristics.

The concept society has many meanings:

Stage in human history

(primitive society, slaveholding, etc.)

(Union)

Circle of people united

common goals, interests

(sport Club)

Region, country, state

(Russia, European Society)

All of humanity

(global community)

Question for students.

Tell me, can a person develop outside of society?

No, only in society can a person satisfy his material and spiritual needs. And also in society, social relationships develop between people.

Social relations are the relationships that develop between members of different social groups.

Society not only arises with the appearance of man, but also develops with him, which means societyit is a dynamic system.

Character traits society as a dynamic system .

Self-development, self-regulation, the ability to adapt and integrate, the dying off of old parts, the emergence of new ones.

Society has subsystems (parts of the system)

Spheres of public life

Political

State and authorities state power

(president, government, parties, army, police, tax and customs services)

Spiritual

(morality, culture, science, education, art and religion)

Economic

(goods, services, enterprises (firms), production process.

Social

Interaction of various social groups, segments of the population, personality.

All societies can be divided into 3 historical types:

Pre-industrial (traditional or agricultural) – people are engaged in agriculture, predominates manual labor, primitive tools, communal way of life, low social mobility, cultural backwardness.

Industrial – people are engaged in industrial production, the development of private property, machine labor predominates, the growth of cities and urban populations, collective values, average social mobility, social life and cultural development.

Post-industrial – people are mainly employed in the service and information sectors, they predominate information Technology, computerization and automation of labor, the value of the individual, human rights and freedoms, high social mobility, the influence of the media.

(social mobility -change in the position of a person or group in society)

Interaction between society and nature

It is important to realize that society and nature are interconnected and influence each other.

Nature- this is the natural habitat of man.

Differences between society and nature

Creates culture

Develops under the influence of human activity.

The difference between nature and society

Capable of developing independently of humans

Has its own laws that do not depend on the will and desires of man

Human.

Human -biosocial being, i.e. it intertwines the social and the biological.

Individual is a representative of the human race with unique natural traits. (one of the people; single)

Individuality – uniqueness, originality, richness of the inner world, traits that are characteristic only of a certain person.

Personality - this is a person as a social being with his inherent traits and relationships, manifested in interactions with people.

Socialization is a process of personality development

Agents of Socialization

Family

Education

Professions

Social environment

State

mass media

Self-education

Stages of socialization

Elementary

Middle (adolescence)

Final

The main differences between humans and animals

Thinking and articulate speech

Conscious, purposeful creative activity

Man is a creator of culture

The ability to make tools and use them.

Human activity.

Activity is human activity aimed at achieving a goal. As a result of his activities, he transforms both nature and society.

Activity structure

1. Subject of the activity (the one who carries out the activity)

2. The object of the activity (what it is aimed at) or (what your attention is directed to.

The object can be not only objects, but also people (the teacher teaches students).

When starting any activity, a person sets a goal.

Target -what we expect as a result of our activities.

In order to achieve the goal we need :

1 .Facilities

2 .Actions

3 .Result

Motive- what motivates us to action. (Vasya reads the newspaper (action) to find out sports news (motive).

Human activity is aimed at satisfying needs.

Three groups of needs (or classification of needs):

Biological (food, sleep, air, water, etc.. They are innate, bring us closer to animals)

Social (communication, self-realization, self-affirmation)

Spiritual (needs for knowledge of the surrounding world and the person himself)

This classification is not the only one. American psychologist A. Maslow .

Physiological (food, breathing, movement)

Existential (safety, comfort, confidence in the future)

(1.2 – innate needs)

Social (in communication, in caring for others, in understanding)

Prestigious (selfish) - in self-esteem, achieving success, recognition

Spiritual (self-actualization, self-expression)

(3-5 – purchased)

Main activities - Work, play, learning.

Activities - practical, spiritual (associated with changing people’s consciousness), destructive (wars, acts of vandalism, deforestation), labor, educational, creative, etc.

Creative activity -aimed at creating something new.

(helps us create - imagination, fantasy, intuition)

Labor activity – this is an activity that is aimed at obtaining a obviously useful result.

Play or leisure activities - focused not so much on the result, but on the process itself - entertainment, relaxation.

Studies - this is a type of activity whose purpose is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person.

Social and interpersonal relationships person. Communication.

Social relations - It is a relationship between a leader and a subordinate.

Forms social relations: one-sided (hidden, open conflicts), mutual (accessible and clear social reality).

Interpersonal relationships - relationship between friends.

Society is a collection of social groups.

Social group - a group of people identified according to socially significant characteristics.

Functions of a social group

Instrumental - to perform any work (department, dean, team of workers)

Expressive – to satisfy social needs for respect, approval or trust (Alcoholics Anonymous)

Supportive – to ease unpleasant feelings. (protection of the interests of social groups (trade unions, etc.))

Communication - a connection between people as a result of which they exchange information.

Types of communication : speech (verbal), using words and sounds

non-verbal (non-verbal), using facial expressions and gestures

Forms of communication:

Official (business)

Everyday (household)

Persuasive

Ritual (the process of following prescribed behavior)

Intercultural

In terms of content and semantic orientation:

Story

Message

Talk

Report

Compliments

Opinion exchange

Interpersonal conflicts

Interpersonal conflicts - it is a clash of different points of view.

Methods for resolving conflicts

1.Dialogue - communication between people.

2. Compromise agreement based on mutual concessions.

3. Consensus is a form of expressing agreement with the opponent’s arguments in a dispute.

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Society is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it.

Society in a broad sense is a set of forms of association of people, ways of their interaction.

Society is a dynamic system, because individual elements are interconnected and can change and develop. A system means it consists of elements, integrity.

Society together with nature forms surrounding a person material world.

Structure of society: social, economic, political, spiritual spheres, or subsystems of society.

3 types of society:

Traditional (agrarian) - low social mobility, a significant role of religion, the population is employed in agriculture, the owner of resources is the state, there is a community, a traditional economy.

Industrial - social mobility has increased, the role of science is great, the industrial revolution has occurred, the population is employed in industry, private property, a market economy, individuality and initiative have been encouraged.

Post-industrial (informational) – the role of information and information is great. technology, science.

Evolution – gradual changes, changes. A quick transition to something new is a revolution. The transformation of any aspect of social life without destroying the foundations of the existence of the social structure is reform.

Global problems of humanity - problems that arose in the 2/2 of the 20th century. and posing a threat to human existence. Terrorism, ecological problem, raw materials, demographics, war and peace, poverty of the “third world” countries. THEY CANNOT BE SOLVED by the efforts of SEVERAL countries, only all together, and they AFFECT ALL COUNTRIES without exception.

Man is a biosocial being. Differences from animals - creative activity, ability to transform environment, articulate speech, labor activity.

An individual is a set of external characteristics (eye color, hair, height, etc.).

Individuality is the uniqueness of the natural and social in a person.

Personality – socially significant qualities of a person (helps others); only in interaction with other people can one express oneself as a person.

Socialization is the assimilation of knowledge and social roles. Without it, a person will not become a part of society.

Need is a person's need for something. Biological - caring for offspring, food, clothing, water, self-preservation, physical development, health. Social – the need for communication, respect, creative fulfillment, education. Inclinations are a predisposition to activity, but they develop into abilities only in society, in the learning process. Those. makings - the basis of abilities. Capabilities - individual characteristics personality that allows her to successfully engage in certain activities. The formation of abilities depends on natural prerequisites - inclinations.

Activities:play, work, study, communication.

Structure of activity: motive, goal, means, actions, result.

Self-knowledge is the process of studying one’s “I”, gaining ideas about one’s abilities, one’s appearance. It can be carried out in communication, play, work, and requires special knowledge and effort. In the process of self-knowledge, a person compares himself with others and listens to people’s opinions.

Cognition is the desire to obtain objective information, true knowledge about a subject.

2 types: Sensory cognition: sensation (reflection in the human mind of individual aspects of an object), perception (reflection of the object in its integrity), performance (preserving the image of an object even without contact with it).

Rational: concept, judgment, inference.

Ordinary knowledge - obtained in practical activities. Scientific is the result of purposeful activity. Art – in the form of artistic images.

A distinctive feature of social cognition is the coincidence of the object and subject of cognition, because man studies man.

Culture is everything created by man; all types of industrial, social and spiritual activities. "Culture" from lat. "methods of cultivating the land." Culture is second nature.

3 forms of culture: folk (folklore), mass (for everyone, pop culture), elite (for connoisseurs - classical music).

Art - painting, architecture, sculpture, theater, literature, dance, music, etc. Characterized by subjectivity, sensory reflection of reality, and the use of artistic images.

Education is the process of familiarization with the values ​​of humanity.

basic general (9 classes) required.

11 classes – secondary (complete) general.

College, technical school - secondary specialized. University - institute, academy, university - higher education.

School education: primary, basic, complete general.

Economy: two meanings – as an economy – production of goods and services; as a science - it studies how the economy and individual processes operate.

Economic goods are goods and services that satisfy needs.

The production of economic goods requires resources, or factors of production. Labor, land, capital, entrepreneurial abilities. Income of FP owners: labor - wages, land - rent, capital - interest, enterprise. abilities - profit.

The main problem of economics is that needs are unlimited and available resources are limited.

Three main questions of economics: what to produce? how to produce? for whom to produce?

Depending on how society answers these questions, a certain type of economic system is formed: traditional, command (planned, directive), market.

Traditional - mostly subsistence farming, everything according to tradition, there is practically no market, the supreme owner of the land is the state.

Command - USSR, the state determines production volumes, prices, distributes goods and services, and is the owner of all resources.

Market - based on private property, market mechanisms - the laws of supply and demand, the state intervenes in the economy only in case of crisis, regulation consists of determining the rules of the market - licensing, legal framework. It is more correct to call this system mixed, because A purely market economy cannot exist.

Law of Demand – other things being equal, the demand for a product changes by reverse depending on the price. Those. the price falls - demand increases.

Law of supply– the supply of a product (the desire to sell it, the number of sellers of this product) changes in straight depending on the price (the more expensive the product, the more people want to sell it).

When demand and supply interact, it is establishedmarket equilibrium. If there is more product than the demand for it, there is an excess of product. If it is less than demand, there is a shortage.

State budget - a plan for government expenditures and revenues. Compiled by the government and adopted by the Federal Assembly. The main source of income is taxes.

The economically active population, or labor force, includes the employed (including farmers, deputies, students, schoolchildren) and the unemployed. Housewives are not classified as unemployed, because... are not looking for work. They are unoccupied.

The main goal of the company is profit. It = revenue minus production costs.

Costs are constant (do not depend on production volumes - rent of a company office, salary of management personnel, payment for landline phones) and variables (depends on how much the company produces - costs for raw materials, fuel costs, workers' salaries).

According to another criterion, costs are divided into external (when resources are leased or purchased from another person) and in internal (for example, the company’s office belongs to the owner, and he does not pay for it. But he could rent it out and, perhaps, get more).

Law is a set of generally binding rules of behavior established by the state and ensured in the event of non-compliance with state coercion.

Law is a set of normative legal acts. The most important is the Basic Law of the country - the Constitution (adopted by popular vote - referendum - December 12, 1993). In second place are federal laws (they are adopted by the Federal Assembly). Everything that is below the law is by-laws: Presidential Decrees, Government Decrees, Orders and instructions of ministries.

Power in the Russian Federation is divided into three branches:

Legislative (represented by the Federal Assembly)

Executive (government, consists of ministers)

Judicial (magistrates, district and city courts, regional, federal). Federal courts: Supreme (highest authority for criminal, administrative, family, civil offenses), Supreme Arbitration (economic disputes between legal entities), Constitutional (checks all legal acts for compliance with the Constitution, makes comments on the Basic Law).

A social group is an association of people based on some characteristic: profession, age, origin, common interests. Groups are formal (their activities are recorded in documents) and informal (yard company).

Social status is a person’s position in society. Determined by origin, level of income, power, education, and includes gender.

Status - 2 types: achieved (one must make mental efforts to achieve - engineer, driver, military man, student) and prescribed (biological characteristics - pensioner, 20 years old, woman, man).

Human behavior within the framework of social status is a social role. Accepting a role is personal. For example, social role - teacher. But one is strict, the other is democratic.

The division of society into social groups is social stratification, because group, layer is often called a stratum.

In India, society was divided into castes, in the Middle Ages and modern times - estates, in the USSR - into classes.

Marginalized people are people in an intermediate state (refugees, migrants). Lumpen - the social bottom - homeless people, tramps.

The transition of a person from one social group to another is social mobility.

Horizontal – moving without changing social status. For example, a teacher moved from one school to another.

Vertical – increase or decrease in social status. If you were promoted - upward vertical mobility - you were a cadet and became a group commander. Demotion – downward vertical mobility. For example, a military man was demoted.

Social norms are the rules of human behavior in society. Moral - reflect ideas about good and evil. Legal – established and supported by the state.

Deviant behavior (deviant) is a violation of social norms. It could also be positive (the engineer stayed to work after the end of the working day). Therefore, it does not always entail punishment.

Social control– society monitors the implementation of social services. normal A measure of the negative or positive impact on a person from society - social. sanction.

Sanctions can be formal and informal, negative and positive.

A person can control his own behavior by self-control.

Family functions – reproductive (reproduction), leisure, social status, emotional. The family differs from other social groups by the presence of consanguinity.

Types of families: extended (3 generations living together) and nuclear (parents + children); patriarchal (the man is in charge) and partnership.

Interethnic relations have two trends: integration (EU) and differentiation (the desire to isolate, separate, separatism).

Human and society

In a broad sense, society is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their association.

In a narrow sense, society -

1. A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly.

2.A specific specific society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society).

3.Historical stage in the development of humanity (for example, feudal society, capitalist society).

4. Humanity as a whole

Public relations- these are diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups(or inside them).

– interacting parts of society, its main components.

Social norms- rules of behavior that were developed in accordance with the needs of society.

The emergence of man and the emergence of society is single process. No person - no society. If there is no society, there is no person. One might argue: Robinson Crusoe, having found himself on a desert island, found himself outside of society, but he was a man. However, those who think so forget: Robinson was able to survive only because he had knowledge and experience in various types activities, in addition, he found some items from the lost ship. Knowledge, labor skills, and objects are all products of society. Let us remember that not a single child who grew up among animals had knowledge, work skills, or knew how to use objects created in human society.

IN Everyday life society is sometimes called a group of people who are part of someone's social circle; societies are also called some voluntary associations of people for any activity (society of book lovers, Red Cross society, etc.). In science, society is a part of the world that differs from nature. In the broadest sense of the word, this is all of humanity. It includes not only all living people. Society is understood as continuously developing. This means that it has not only a present, but also a past and a future. Generations of people who lived in the distant and very recent past did not leave without a trace. They created cities and villages, technology, and various institutions. From them people living today received language, science, art, and practical skills. If it were not so, then each generation would be forced to begin with the invention of the stone axe.

Functions of society:

production of vital goods; systematization of production; human reproduction and socialization;

distribution of labor results; ensuring the legality of the state's management activities;

structuring political system; formation of ideology; historical transmission of culture and spiritual values

The structure of society is complex. It includes large and small groups of people. As society develops, interactions and relationships not only between individuals, but also between various large and small groups of people become more and more complex and diverse. The relationships and interdependencies that people enter into in the process of their activities are called public relations.

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All four spheres interact with each other. The basis for delimiting spheres of public life are basic human needs. Need is a state of a person created by the need he feels for objects and actions necessary for his existence and development and serving as a source of his activity, organizing cognitive processes, imagination and behavior.

Groups of needs: biological: needs for food, sleep, air, warmth, etc.

social, which are generated by society and are necessary for a person to interact with other people.

spiritual: needs for knowledge of the surrounding world and the person himself.

:

Physiological: need for food, eating, breathing, movement, etc.

Existential: the need for security, comfort, confidence in the future, etc.

Social: the need for communication, caring for others, understanding, etc.

Prestigious: the need for self-esteem, recognition, success, etc.

Spiritual: the need for self-expression, self-actualization.

.

It means that:

This system, while changing, retains its essence and qualitative certainty.

Society as a dynamic system changes its forms and develops

The connection between all spheres of society’s life follows from the integrity of society as a system

Above a complex system

Multi-level (each individual is included in various subsystems)

A highly organized, self-governing system (the control subsystem is especially important)

Traditional society is a concept denoting a set of societies, social structures, standing at different stages of development and not having a mature industrial complex. The defining production sphere of such societies is agriculture. Main public institutions- church and army.

Industrial society is a society characterized by a developed and complex system of division of labor with high degree its specializations, mass production of goods, automation of production and management, widespread introduction of innovations into production and people's lives. The defining production sphere of an industrial society is industry.

Post-industrial society- this is a society in whose economy, as a result of the scientific and technological revolution and a significant increase in household incomes, there has been a transition from the primary production of goods to the production of services. Information and knowledge become productive resources. Scientific developments are the main driving force economy.

Human and society

Nature in the broad sense of the word is the whole world in all the infinity of its forms and manifestations. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the entire material world, with the exception of society, i.e. the totality of natural conditions of existence of human society. The concept of “nature” is used to designate not only natural, but also the material conditions of its existence created by man – “second nature”, to one degree or another transformed and shaped by man.

Society, as a part of nature isolated in the process of human life, is inextricably linked with it. This relationship looks like this: in society people act who are gifted with consciousness and have goals, while in nature blind, unconscious forces act.

The separation of man from the natural world marked the birth of a qualitatively new material unity, since man has not only natural properties, but also social ones.

Society has come into conflict with nature in two respects: 1) as a social reality, it is nothing other than nature itself; 2) it purposefully influences nature with the help of tools, changing it.

At first, the contradiction between society and nature acted as their difference, since man still had primitive tools with the help of which he obtained his means of living. However, in those distant times, man was no longer completely dependent on nature. As the tools of labor improved, society had an increasing impact on nature. Man cannot do without nature also because technical means that make his life easier are created by analogy with natural processes.

As soon as it was born, society began to have a very significant impact on nature, sometimes improving it, and sometimes worsening it. But nature, in turn, began to “worse” the characteristics of society, for example, by reducing the quality of health of large masses of people, etc. Society, as an isolated part of nature, and nature itself have a significant influence on each other. At the same time, they retain specific features, which allow them to coexist as a dual phenomenon of earthly reality. This close relationship between nature and society lies the basis of the unity of the world.

So, man, society and nature are interconnected. Man simultaneously lives in nature and in society, is a biological and social being. In social studies, nature is understood as the natural habitat of humans. It can be called the biosphere or the active shell of the Earth, creating and protecting life on our planet. Industrialization and scientific and technological revolution led in the 20th century to the disruption of the natural human environment, to the maturation of a conflict between human society and nature - an ecological crisis. In the modern world, in 15 years, as many natural resources are consumed as were used by humanity during its entire previous existence. As a result, the area of ​​forests and lands suitable for Agriculture. Happening climate change, which can lead to a deterioration in living conditions on the planet. Environmental changes negatively affect people's health. New diseases are appearing, the carriers of which (germs, viruses and fungi) become more dangerous due to increasing population density and weakening of the human immune system. The diversity of flora and fauna is decreasing, and this threatens the stability of the earth's shell - the biosphere. Every year, about 1 billion tons of fuel equivalent are burned, hundreds of millions of tons of harmful substances, soot, ash, and dust are released into the atmosphere. Soils and waters become clogged with industrial and domestic wastewater, oil products, mineral fertilizers, and radioactive waste. Nature has also always influenced human life. Climate and geographical conditions are all significant factors that determine the development path of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and way of life.

Main spheres of social life

Society can be divided into four areas, or spheres.

The economic sphere is largely decisive in relation to other spheres. It includes industrial and agricultural production, relations between people in the production process, exchange of products of industrial activity, and their distribution.

The social sphere includes layers and classes, class relations, nations and national relations, family, family and household relations, educational institutions, medical care, and leisure.

The political sphere of social life includes state power, political parties, and people’s relationships associated with the use of power to realize the interests of certain social groups.

The spiritual sphere covers science, morality, religion, art, scientific institutions, religious organizations, cultural institutions, and related human activities.

So, we have identified four main areas modern society. They are closely related and influence each other. For example, if the country’s economy does not fulfill its tasks, does not provide the population with a sufficient number of goods and services, and does not expand the number of jobs, then the standard of living declines sharply, there is not enough money to pay salaries and pensions, unemployment appears, and crime increases. In other words, success in one, economic, sphere affects well-being in another, social one. Economics also influences politics. When in the early 90s economic reforms in Russia led to a sharp stratification of the population, i.e. With the emergence of very rich people at one pole and very poor people at the other, political parties oriented toward communist ideology became more active.

1.4. Biological and social in man

(Baranov P.A. Social studies: Express tutor for preparing for the Unified State Exam: “Man.” “Cognition” / P.A. Baranov, -M: ACT: Astrel, 2009. P. 15 - 17)

Man is the highest stage of development of living organisms on Earth. Man is essentially a biosocial being. It is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. The biological and social in man are fused together, and only in such unity does he exist. The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition of existence, and sociality is the essence of a person. The biological nature of a person is manifested in his anatomy and physiology; it has circulatory, muscular, nervous and other systems. Its biological properties are not strictly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various living conditions. Man as a social being is inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with others. The social essence of a person is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.

The main differences between humans and animals

 A person has thinking and articulate speech

 A person is capable of conscious, purposeful creative activity.

 A person, in the process of his activity, transforms the surrounding reality, creates the material and spiritual benefits and values ​​he needs.

 Man is capable of making tools and using them as a means of producing material goods.

 A person reproduces not only his biological, but also his social essence and therefore must satisfy not only his material, but also his spiritual needs.

Personality is understood as a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society. Personality is a product of social development and the inclusion of individuals in the system of social relations through active substantive activity and communication. The behavior of an individual as an individual depends significantly on his relationships with the people around him.

Adolescence is a stage of personality development that usually begins at 11-12 and continues until 16-17 years old - the period when a person enters “adulthood”.

This age is a period of growing up, characterized by intense psychological and physical changes, rapid physiological restructuring of the body. The teenager begins to grow rapidly - the growth rate can only be compared with the prenatal period and the age from birth to 2 years. Moreover, the growth of the skeleton is faster than the development of muscle tissue, hence the awkwardness, disproportion, and angularity of the figure. The volume of the heart and lungs and the depth of breathing increase sharply to provide the growing body with oxygen. Significant fluctuations in blood pressure, often upward, and frequent headaches are also characteristic.

Serious hormonal changes and puberty are underway. In girls, the amount of estrogen increases, in boys - testosterone. Representatives of both sexes experience an increase in the level of adrenal androgens, causing the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Hormonal changes cause sudden mood swings, increased, unstable emotionality, uncontrollability of mood, increased excitability, and impulsivity.

In some cases, symptoms such as depression, restlessness, poor concentration, and irritability appear. Your teen may experience anxiety, aggression, and problem behavior. This can be expressed in conflicting relationships with adults. Risk-taking and aggression are methods of self-affirmation. Unfortunately, this may result in an increase in the number of juvenile offenders.

Studying ceases to be the main and most important task. According to psychologists, the leading activity at this age is personal communication with peers. The productivity of mental activity decreases due to the fact that abstract, theoretical thinking is being formed, that is, concrete thinking is replaced by logical thinking. It is a new mechanism for a teenager logical thinking and explains the increase in criticality. He no longer accepts the postulates of adults on faith; he demands evidence and justification.

At this time, the teenager’s life self-determination occurs, plans for the future are formed. There is an active search for one’s “I” and experimentation in different social roles. The teenager changes himself, tries to understand himself and his capabilities. The demands and expectations placed on him by other people change. He is forced to constantly adjust, adapt to new conditions and situations, but this does not always happen successfully.

A strong desire to understand oneself (self-knowledge) often harms the development of relationships with outside world. The internal crisis of a teenager’s self-esteem arises in connection with the expansion and growth of opportunities, on the one hand, and the preservation of child-school status, on the other.

Many psychological problems arise: self-doubt, instability, inadequate self-esteem, most often low.

During this same period, the formation of a worldview took place. young man. It sometimes goes through the rejection of values, active rejection and violation of established rules, negativism, the search for oneself and one’s place among others. The teenager experiences an internal conflict: emerging adult worldview questions create a feeling of global unsolvability. Minors often believe that their own problems and experiences are unique, which creates feelings of loneliness and depression.

Characteristic is the desire for leadership in a peer group. The sense of belonging to a special “teenage” community that arises in a teenager, the values ​​of which are the basis for his own moral assessments, is very important. The teenager strives to follow fashion and the ideals accepted in the youth group. The media have a huge influence on their formation. This age is characterized by the desire to recognize one’s own merits in one’s significant teenage environment. An urgent need for recognition and self-affirmation comes to the fore. The world around is falling apart into “us” and “strangers,” and the relationships between these groups in the minds of teenagers are sometimes sharply antagonistic.

Psychologists note that the contradiction of adolescence often lies in the fact that the child strives to gain adult status and adult opportunities, but is in no hurry to assume the responsibility of adults and avoids it. A teenager often refuses to accept his parents’ assessments and life experiences, even if he understands that they are right. He wants to get his own unique and unrepeatable experience, make his own mistakes and learn from them.

The behavior of an individual as an individual depends significantly on his relationships with the people around him. Such relationships with one person or group (large or small) are called interpersonal relationships. They can be classified on various grounds.

1. Official and unofficial. Official are the relationships that develop between people due to their official position (for example, a teacher - a student, a school director - a teacher, the President of the Russian Federation - the head of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.). Such relations are built on the basis of official approved rules and norms (for example, based on the Charter educational institution, Constitution of the Russian Federation, etc.), subject to any formalities. Relationships that arise between people in connection with their working together, can also be called business.

2. Informal relationships (often called personal relationships) are not regulated by law; there is no corresponding legal basis for them. They develop between people, regardless of the work performed and are not limited by established formal rules.

Interpersonal relationships are based on certain feelings of people, their attitude towards another person. Feelings fluctuate between two poles - sympathy (internal disposition, attractiveness of a person) and antipathy (internal dissatisfaction with a person, dissatisfaction with his behavior). A person perceives another person primarily on the basis of external appearance, and then, adding up his impressions of his words, actions and character traits, he forms a general impression of him. Consequently, the basis for the perception of any personality is the relationship between a person’s character, behavior and appearance.

Psychologists identify several factors that interfere with correctly perceiving and evaluating people. These include:

inability to distinguish between the intentions and motives of people’s actions;

inability to understand the state of affairs and the well-being of people at the time of observing them;

the presence of predetermined attitudes, assessments, beliefs that a person has long before the first acquaintance (for example: “What can he tell me that I don’t know?..”);

the presence of stereotypes, according to which all people are pre-assigned to a certain category (for example: “All boys are rude,” “All girls don’t know how to keep their mouths shut”);

the desire to make premature conclusions about a person’s personality long before sufficient and comprehensive information has been received about him;

lack of desire and habit of listening to the opinions of other people, the desire to rely only on one’s own opinion.

Normal relationships between people develop when there is a desire and need to sympathize, empathize with other people, and put oneself in the position of another person.

Interpersonal relationships are relationships between individuals. They are often accompanied by emotional experiences and express the inner world of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following types: Official and informal; Business and personal; Rational and emotional; Subordination and parity.

The broadest form of interpersonal relationships is acquaintance. Under certain conditions, acquaintance develops into closer interpersonal relationships - friendship and love. Friendship can be called positive interpersonal relationships based on mutual openness, complete trust, common interests, devotion of people to each other, constant readiness to come to each other’s aid at any time.

Love is the highest spiritual feeling of a person, rich in a variety of emotional experiences, based on noble feelings and high morality, accompanied by a willingness to do everything possible for the well-being of a loved one.

The psychology and behavior of an individual as an individual significantly depend on the social environment in which people are united in numerous, diverse, more or less stable connections, called groups. They are divided into large (state, nation, party, class, etc.) and small groups. A person always depends primarily on the influence of a small group, which is a small association of people - from 2-3 (for example, a family) to 20-30 (for example, a school class), engaged in some common cause and in direct relationships with each other. friend. Such small groups represent the elementary unit of society; it is in them that a person spends most of his life.

Participants in a small group are characterized by common goals, activity objectives, psychological and behavioral characteristics. The measure of psychological community determines the cohesion of the group.

Based on joint activities, the following types of small groups are distinguished: industrial, family, educational, sports, etc.

Based on the nature of the relationships between group members, they are divided into formal (official) and informal (unofficial). Formal groups are created and exist only within officially recognized organizations (for example, a school class, the Spartak sports team, etc.). Informal groups usually arise and exist on the basis of the personal interests of their members, and may coincide or diverge from the goals of formal organizations. These include, for example, a poetry club, a club for lovers of bard songs, an organization of fans of a football club, etc.

One and the same person is simultaneously a member of indefinitely many small groups, and in each of them his position (status) changes. For example, the same person is a younger brother, a student in class, the captain of the national football team, a bass player in a rock band, etc.

A group always has a significant influence on a person’s psychology and behavior through his relationships with the rest of the group members. And this influence can be both positive and negative. The positive impact on a person of a small group is that:

relationships between people that develop in groups teach a person to comply with existing social norms; they carry value guidelines that are internalized by the individual;

the group is the place where a person practices his communication skills;

from group members a person receives information that allows him to correctly perceive and evaluate himself, preserve and strengthen everything positive in his personality, get rid of the negative and shortcomings;

the group gives a person self-confidence, provides him with a system positive emotions necessary for its development.

For normal psychological development, a person must have the most objective knowledge about himself. He cannot obtain this knowledge otherwise than from other people, in the process of direct communication with them. The group and its constituent people are a kind of mirror for the individual, in which the human “I” is reflected. The accuracy and depth of reflection of an individual in a group directly depends on the openness, intensity and versatility of communication between this individual and other members of the group. For the development of the individual as a personality, the group seems indispensable, especially if the group is a close-knit, highly developed team.

In addition to the positive impact, a group can also have a negative impact on a person. This happens, for example, when the goals of a group are achieved by infringing on the interests of individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society. In psychology this is called group egoism.

Another possible negative consequence of group influence may be the impact that usually occurs on gifted creative personalities. The famous scientist V.M. Bekhterev, having conducted a series of individual and group experiments in which indicators were compared creative work group and individual, found out that in creativity a group can be inferior to especially gifted individuals. Their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and such individuals, being under strong psychological pressure from the majority, are restrained and suppressed in their development. History of Russia in the 20th century. I knew many examples when outstanding composers, artists, scientists, writers were excluded from trade unions and even persecuted.

Sometimes a person, in order to remain in a group, goes into internal conflict and behaves conformally, becomes a conformist. Conformal is the behavior of a person in which he, consciously disagreeing with the people around him, nevertheless agrees with them, based on some considerations.

There are three ways a person can respond to group pressure. The first is suggestibility, when a person unconsciously accepts a line of behavior, the opinion of a group. The second is conformism, i.e. conscious external agreement with internal disagreement with the opinion of the group. The third way to respond to a group’s demand is conscious agreement with the group’s opinion, acceptance and active defense of its values, norms and ideals.

Forms of communication: interpersonal, intergroup, intersocietal, between the individual and society, between the group and society.

Interpersonal conflicts (Latin conffictus - clash) are a clash of opposing interests, views, aspirations, a serious disagreement, an acute dispute between individuals in the process of their social and psychological interaction. The causes of such conflicts are both social and psychological differences. They occur due to misunderstanding between people, loss and distortion of information in the process of interaction between people, differences in the ways of assessing each other’s activities and personality, psychological incompatibility, etc. Psychological incompatibility is understood as an unsuccessful combination of temperaments and characters of interacting persons, a contradiction in life values, ideals, motives, goals of activity, a discrepancy in worldview, ideological attitudes, etc.

Subject of the conflict
Phases of conflict:

Conflict resolution– a decision by the parties to the conflict to reconcile and end the confrontation. The conflict is considered resolved if the parties managed to reach an agreement (friends made peace). When reconciliation is impossible, it is an unresolved conflict. Conflicts are inevitable in human society. Therefore, an important skill of every person living in society is the ability to seek and find a way out of conflicts.

In conflicts, as a rule, one of the participants evaluates the behavior of the other as unacceptable. The causes of conflicts can also be insufficient psychological stability, an overestimated or underestimated level of aspirations, a choleric type of temperament, etc.

In adolescents, the causes of conflicts can be a heightened sense of self-esteem, maximalism, categorical and unambiguous moral criteria, assessment of facts, events, and one’s behavior.

To successfully resolve a conflict you must:

Adopt a mindset to resolve the conflict to a mutually beneficial agreement.

Adjust your behavior towards your opponent: try to control your emotions, listen to a different point of view, identify true goals, needs, needs of the opponent.

Try to find common ground in your position and that of your opponent.

Preparing and conducting negotiations to resolve a conflict situation. If necessary, invite a mediator.

There are 2 negotiation models:

The “mutual benefits” model, when they try to find solutions to the problem that fully satisfy the interests of both parties;

Model of “concessions - rapprochement”.

It is favorable to organize joint activities at all stages of conflict resolution, to involve a partner in the joint process of searching for possible options for resolving the conflict.

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Human and society

1.1. Society as a form of human life

In a broad sense, society is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their association.

In a narrow sense, society is

1. A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly.

2. A separate specific society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society).

3.Historical stage in the development of humanity (for example, feudal society, capitalist society).

4. Humanity as a whole

Public relations- these are diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them).

Spheres (areas) of society– interacting parts of society, its main components.

Social norms- rules of behavior that were developed in accordance with the needs of society.

The emergence of man and the emergence of society is a single process. No person - no society. If there is no society, there is no person. One might argue: Robinson Crusoe, having found himself on a desert island, found himself outside of society, but he was a man. However, those who think so forget: Robinson was able to survive only because he had knowledge, experience in various activities, and in addition, he found some items from the sunken ship. Knowledge, labor skills, and objects are all products of society. Let us remember that not a single child who grew up among animals had knowledge, work skills, or knew how to use objects created in human society.

In everyday life, society sometimes refers to a group of people who are part of someone's social circle; societies are also called some voluntary associations of people for any activity (society of book lovers, Red Cross society, etc.). In science, society is a part of the world that differs from nature. In the broadest sense of the word, this is all of humanity. It includes not only all living people. Society is understood as continuously developing. This means that it has not only a present, but also a past and a future. Generations of people who lived in the distant and very recent past did not leave without a trace. They created cities and villages, technology, and various institutions. From them people living today received language, science, art, and practical skills. If it were not so, then each generation would be forced to begin with the invention of the stone axe.

Functions of society:

production of vital goods; systematization of production; human reproduction and socialization;

distribution of labor results; ensuring the legality of the state's management activities;

structuring the political system; formation of ideology; historical transmission of culture and spiritual values

The structure of society is complex. It includes large and small groups of people. As society develops, interactions and relationships not only between individuals, but also between various large and small groups of people become more and more complex and diverse. The relationships and interdependencies that people enter into in the process of their activities are calledpublic relations.

Main spheres of social life.

All four spheres interact with each other. The basis for delimiting spheres of public life are basic human needs. Need is a state of a person created by the need he feels for objects and actions necessary for his existence and development and serving as a source of his activity, organizing cognitive processes, imagination and behavior.

Groups of needs: biological: needs for food, sleep, air, warmth, etc.

social, which are generated by society and are necessary for a person to interact with other people.

spiritual: needs for knowledge of the surrounding world and the person himself.

Need groups according to A. Maslow:

Physiological: need for food, eating, breathing, movement, etc.

Existential: the need for security, comfort, confidence in the future, etc.

Social: the need for communication, caring for others, understanding, etc.

Prestigious: the need for self-esteem, recognition, success, etc.

Spiritual: the need for self-expression, self-actualization.

Society is a dynamic system.

It means that:

This system, while changing, retains its essence and qualitative certainty.

Society as a dynamic system changes its forms and develops

The connection between all spheres of society’s life follows from the integrity of society as a system

Super complex system

Multi-level (each individual is included in various subsystems)

A highly organized, self-governing system (the control subsystem is especially important)

Types of societies (traditional, industrial, post-industrial)

Traditional societyis a concept denoting a set of societies, social structures, standing at different stages of development and not having a mature industrial complex. The defining production sphere of such societies is agriculture. The main public institutions are the church and the army.

Industrial societyis a society characterized by a developed and complex system of division of labor with a high degree of specialization, mass production of goods, automation of production and management, widespread introduction of innovations into production and people’s lives. The defining production sphere of an industrial society is industry.

Post-industrial society- this is a society in whose economy, as a result of the scientific and technological revolution and a significant increase in household incomes, there has been a transition from the primary production of goods to the production of services. Information and knowledge become productive resources. Scientific developments are the main driving force of the economy.

Human and society

1.2. Interaction between society and nature

Nature in the broad sense of the word is the whole world in all the infinity of its forms and manifestations. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the entire material world, with the exception of society, i.e. the totality of natural conditions of existence of human society. The concept of “nature” is used to designate not only natural, but also the material conditions of its existence created by man – “second nature”, to one degree or another transformed and shaped by man.

Society, as a part of nature isolated in the process of human life, is inextricably linked with it. This relationship looks like this: in society people act who are gifted with consciousness and have goals, while in nature blind, unconscious forces act.

The separation of man from the natural world marked the birth of a qualitatively new material unity, since man has not only natural properties, but also social ones.

Society has come into conflict with nature in two respects: 1) as a social reality, it is nothing other than nature itself; 2) it purposefully influences nature with the help of tools, changing it.

At first, the contradiction between society and nature acted as their difference, since man still had primitive tools with the help of which he obtained his means of living. However, in those distant times, man was no longer completely dependent on nature. As the tools of labor improved, society had an increasing impact on nature. Man cannot do without nature also because technical means that make his life easier are created by analogy with natural processes.

As soon as it was born, society began to have a very significant impact on nature, sometimes improving it, and sometimes worsening it. But nature, in turn, began to “worse” the characteristics of society, for example, by reducing the quality of health of large masses of people, etc. Society, as an isolated part of nature, and nature itself have a significant influence on each other. At the same time, they retain specific features that allow them to coexist as a dual phenomenon of earthly reality. This close relationship between nature and society lies the basis of the unity of the world.

So, man, society and nature are interconnected. Man simultaneously lives in nature and in society, is a biological and social being. In social studies, nature is understood as the natural habitat of humans. It can be called the biosphere or the active shell of the Earth, creating and protecting life on our planet. Industrialization and the scientific and technological revolution led in the 20th century to the disruption of the natural human environment and to the maturation of a conflict between human society and nature - an ecological crisis. In the modern world, in 15 years, as many natural resources are consumed as were used by humanity during its entire previous existence. As a result, the area of ​​forests and land suitable for agriculture is decreasing. Climate changes are occurring, which can lead to a deterioration in living conditions on the planet. Environmental changes negatively affect people's health. New diseases are appearing, the carriers of which (germs, viruses and fungi) become more dangerous due to increasing population density and weakening of the human immune system. The diversity of flora and fauna is decreasing, and this threatens the stability of the earth's shell - the biosphere. Every year, about 1 billion tons of fuel equivalent are burned, hundreds of millions of tons of harmful substances, soot, ash, and dust are released into the atmosphere. Soils and waters become clogged with industrial and domestic wastewater, oil products, mineral fertilizers, and radioactive waste. Nature has also always influenced human life. Climate and geographical conditions are all significant factors that determine the development path of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and way of life.

1.3. The main spheres of public life, their relationship

Main spheres of social life

Society can be divided into four areas, or spheres.

The economic sphere is largely decisive in relation to other spheres. It includes industrial and agricultural production, relations between people in the production process, exchange of products of industrial activity, and their distribution.

The social sphere includes layers and classes, class relations, nations and national relations, family, family and household relations, educational institutions, medical care, and leisure.

The political sphere of social life includes state power, political parties, and people’s relationships associated with the use of power to realize the interests of certain social groups.

The spiritual sphere covers science, morality, religion, art, scientific institutions, religious organizations, cultural institutions, and related human activities.

So, we have identified four main areas of modern society. They are closely related and influence each other. For example, if the country’s economy does not fulfill its tasks, does not provide the population with a sufficient number of goods and services, and does not expand the number of jobs, then the standard of living declines sharply, there is not enough money to pay salaries and pensions, unemployment appears, and crime increases. In other words, success in one, economic, sphere affects well-being in another, social one. Economics also influences politics. When, in the early 90s, economic reforms in Russia led to a sharp stratification of the population, i.e. With the emergence of very rich people at one pole and very poor people at the other, political parties oriented toward communist ideology became more active.

1.4. Biological and social in man

(Baranov P.A. Social studies: Express tutor for preparing for the Unified State Exam: “Man.” “Cognition” / P.A. Baranov, -M: ACT: Astrel, 2009. P. 15 - 17)

Man is the highest stage of development of living organisms on Earth. Man is essentially a biosocial being. It is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. The biological and social in man are fused together, and only in such unity does he exist. The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition of existence, and sociality is the essence of a person. The biological nature of a person is manifested in his anatomy and physiology; it has circulatory, muscular, nervous and other systems. Its biological properties are not strictly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various living conditions. Man as a social being is inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with others. The social essence of a person is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.

The main differences between humans and animals

A person has thinking and articulate speech

A person is capable of conscious, purposeful creative activity.

A person, in the process of his activity, transforms the surrounding reality, creates the material and spiritual benefits and values ​​he needs.

Man is capable of making tools and using them as a means of producing material goods.

A person reproduces not only his biological, but also his social essence and therefore must satisfy not only his material, but also his spiritual needs.

1.5. Personality. Features of adolescence

Personality is understood as a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society. Personality is a product of social development and the inclusion of individuals in the system of social relations through active substantive activity and communication. The behavior of an individual as an individual depends significantly on his relationships with the people around him.

Adolescence is a stage of personality development that usually begins at 11-12 and continues until 16-17 years old - the period when a person enters “adulthood”.

This age is a period of growing up, characterized by intense psychological and physical changes, rapid physiological restructuring of the body. The teenager begins to grow rapidly - the growth rate can only be compared with the prenatal period and the age from birth to 2 years. Moreover, the growth of the skeleton is faster than the development of muscle tissue, hence the awkwardness, disproportion, and angularity of the figure. The volume of the heart and lungs and the depth of breathing increase sharply to provide the growing body with oxygen. Significant fluctuations in blood pressure, often upward, and frequent headaches are also characteristic.

Serious hormonal changes and puberty are underway. In girls, the amount of estrogen increases, in boys - testosterone. Representatives of both sexes experience an increase in the level of adrenal androgens, causing the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Hormonal changes cause sudden mood swings, increased, unstable emotionality, uncontrollability of mood, increased excitability, and impulsivity.

In some cases, symptoms such as depression, restlessness, poor concentration, and irritability appear. Your teen may experience anxiety, aggression, and problem behavior. This can be expressed in conflicting relationships with adults. Risk-taking and aggression are methods of self-affirmation. Unfortunately, this may result in an increase in the number of juvenile offenders.

Studying ceases to be the main and most important task. According to psychologists, the leading activity at this age is personal communication with peers. The productivity of mental activity decreases due to the fact that abstract, theoretical thinking is being formed, that is, concrete thinking is replaced by logical thinking. It is the mechanism of logical thinking, new for a teenager, that explains the increase in criticality. He no longer accepts the postulates of adults on faith; he demands evidence and justification.

At this time, the teenager’s life self-determination occurs, plans for the future are formed. There is an active search for one’s “I” and experimentation in different social roles. The teenager changes himself, tries to understand himself and his capabilities. The demands and expectations placed on him by other people change. He is forced to constantly adjust, adapt to new conditions and situations, but this does not always happen successfully.

A strong desire to understand oneself (self-knowledge) often harms the development of relationships with the outside world. The internal crisis of a teenager’s self-esteem arises in connection with the expansion and growth of opportunities, on the one hand, and the preservation of child-school status, on the other.

Many psychological problems arise: self-doubt, instability, inadequate self-esteem, most often low.

During this same period, the formation of the young man’s worldview occurs. It sometimes goes through the rejection of values, active rejection and violation of established rules, negativism, the search for oneself and one’s place among others. The teenager experiences an internal conflict: emerging adult worldview questions create a feeling of global unsolvability. Minors often believe that their own problems and experiences are unique, which creates feelings of loneliness and depression.

Characteristic is the desire for leadership in a peer group. The sense of belonging to a special “teenage” community that arises in a teenager, the values ​​of which are the basis for his own moral assessments, is very important. The teenager strives to follow fashion and the ideals accepted in the youth group. The media have a huge influence on their formation. This age is characterized by the desire to recognize one’s own merits in one’s significant teenage environment. An urgent need for recognition and self-affirmation comes to the fore. The world around is falling apart into “us” and “strangers,” and the relationships between these groups in the minds of teenagers are sometimes sharply antagonistic.

Psychologists note that the contradiction of adolescence often lies in the fact that the child strives to gain adult status and adult opportunities, but is in no hurry to assume the responsibility of adults and avoids it. A teenager often refuses to accept his parents’ assessments and life experiences, even if he understands that they are right. He wants to get his own unique and unrepeatable experience, make his own mistakes and learn from them.

1.7. A person and his immediate environment. Interpersonal relationships. Communication

The behavior of an individual as an individual depends significantly on his relationships with the people around him. Such relationships with one person or group (large or small) are called interpersonal relationships. They can be classified on various grounds.

1. Official and unofficial. Official are the relationships that develop between people due to their official position (for example, a teacher - a student, a school director - a teacher, the President of the Russian Federation - the head of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.). Such relations are built on the basis of officially approved rules and norms (for example, on the basis of the Charter of an educational institution, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, etc.), with the observance of any formalities. The relationships that arise between people in connection with their work together can also be called business relationships.

2. Informal relationships (often called personal relationships) are not regulated by law; there is no corresponding legal basis for them. They develop between people, regardless of the work performed and are not limited by established formal rules.

Interpersonal relationships are based on certain feelings of people, their attitude towards another person. Feelings fluctuate between two poles - sympathy (internal disposition, attractiveness of a person) and antipathy (internal dissatisfaction with a person, dissatisfaction with his behavior). A person perceives another person primarily on the basis of external appearance, and then, adding up his impressions of his words, actions and character traits, he forms a general impression of him. Consequently, the basis for the perception of any personality is the relationship between a person’s character, behavior and appearance.

Psychologists identify several factors that interfere with correctly perceiving and evaluating people. These include:

inability to distinguish between the intentions and motives of people’s actions;

inability to understand the state of affairs and the well-being of people at the time of observing them;

the presence of predetermined attitudes, assessments, beliefs that a person has long before the first acquaintance (for example: “What can he tell me that I don’t know?..”);

the presence of stereotypes, according to which all people are pre-assigned to a certain category (for example: “All boys are rude,” “All girls don’t know how to keep their mouths shut”);

the desire to make premature conclusions about a person’s personality long before sufficient and comprehensive information has been received about him;

lack of desire and habit of listening to the opinions of other people, the desire to rely only on one’s own opinion.

Normal relationships between people develop when there is a desire and need to sympathize, empathize with other people, and put oneself in the position of another person.

Interpersonal relationships are relationships between individuals. They are often accompanied by emotional experiences and express the inner world of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following types: Official and informal; Business and personal; Rational and emotional; Subordination and parity.

The broadest form of interpersonal relationships is acquaintance. Under certain conditions, acquaintance develops into closer interpersonal relationships - friendship and love. Friendship can be called positive interpersonal relationships based on mutual openness, complete trust, common interests, devotion of people to each other, constant readiness to come to each other’s aid at any time.

Love is the highest spiritual feeling of a person, rich in a variety of emotional experiences, based on noble feelings and high morality, accompanied by a willingness to do everything possible for the well-being of a loved one.

The psychology and behavior of an individual as an individual significantly depend on the social environment in which people are united in numerous, diverse, more or less stable connections, called groups. They are divided into large (state, nation, party, class, etc.) and small groups. A person always depends primarily on the influence of a small group, which is a small association of people - from 2-3 (for example, a family) to 20-30 (for example, a school class), engaged in some common cause and in direct relationships with each other. friend. Such small groups represent the elementary unit of society; it is in them that a person spends most of his life.

Participants in a small group are characterized by common goals, activity objectives, psychological and behavioral characteristics. The measure of psychological community determines the cohesion of the group.

Based on joint activities, the following types of small groups are distinguished: industrial, family, educational, sports, etc.

Based on the nature of the relationships between group members, they are divided into formal (official) and informal (unofficial). Formal groups are created and exist only within officially recognized organizations (for example, a school class, the Spartak sports team, etc.). Informal groups usually arise and exist on the basis of the personal interests of their members, and may coincide or diverge from the goals of formal organizations. These include, for example, a poetry club, a club for lovers of bard songs, an organization of fans of a football club, etc.

One and the same person is simultaneously a member of indefinitely many small groups, and in each of them his position (status) changes. For example, the same person is a younger brother, a student in class, the captain of the national football team, a bass player in a rock band, etc.

A group always has a significant influence on a person’s psychology and behavior through his relationships with the rest of the group members. And this influence can be both positive and negative. The positive impact on a person of a small group is that:

relationships between people that develop in groups teach a person to comply with existing social norms; they carry value guidelines that are internalized by the individual;

the group is the place where a person practices his communication skills;

from group members a person receives information that allows him to correctly perceive and evaluate himself, preserve and strengthen everything positive in his personality, get rid of the negative and shortcomings;

the group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development.

For normal psychological development, a person must have the most objective knowledge about himself. He cannot obtain this knowledge otherwise than from other people, in the process of direct communication with them. The group and its constituent people are a kind of mirror for the individual, in which the human “I” is reflected. The accuracy and depth of reflection of an individual in a group directly depends on the openness, intensity and versatility of communication between this individual and other members of the group. For the development of the individual as a personality, the group seems indispensable, especially if the group is a close-knit, highly developed team.

In addition to the positive impact, a group can also have a negative impact on a person. This happens, for example, when the goals of a group are achieved by infringing on the interests of individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society. In psychology this is called group egoism.

Another possible negative consequence of group influence may be the impact that usually occurs on gifted creative individuals. The famous scientist V.M. Bekhterev, having conducted a series of individual and group experiments in which the indicators of creative work of a group and an individual were compared, found out that in creativity a group can be inferior to especially gifted individuals. Their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and such individuals, being under strong psychological pressure from the majority, are restrained and suppressed in their development. History of Russia in the 20th century. I knew many examples when outstanding composers, artists, scientists, and writers were excluded from trade unions and even persecuted.

Sometimes a person, in order to remain in a group, goes into internal conflict and behaves conformally, becomes a conformist. Conformal is the behavior of a person in which he, consciously disagreeing with the people around him, nevertheless agrees with them, based on some considerations.

There are three ways a person can respond to group pressure. The first is suggestibility, when a person unconsciously accepts a line of behavior, the opinion of a group. The second is conformism, i.e. conscious external agreement with internal disagreement with the opinion of the group. The third way to respond to a group’s demand is conscious agreement with the group’s opinion, acceptance and active defense of its values, norms and ideals.

Communication is a dialogue interaction between people, a basic human need necessary for a person’s inclusion in society (communication with friends, relatives). Communication is a natural human need from birth. Unlike a monologue, communication is built in the form of improvisation and dialogue. Communication - exchange various points the point of view of the interlocutors, their focus on understanding and active discussion of the partner’s opinion, expectation of an answer, mutual complementarity of the participants’ positions. Communication can be verbal - using oral speech and non-verbal - using signs and symbols for communication (computer language, deaf-mute language). Unlike activity, communication is valuable in itself as a process. Communication involves the exchange of information, the emergence and maintenance of interpersonal contacts.
Forms of communication: interpersonal, intergroup, intersocietal, between the individual and society, between the group and society.

1.8. Interpersonal conflicts, their constructive resolution

Interpersonal conflicts (Latin conffictus - clash) are a clash of opposing interests, views, aspirations, a serious disagreement, an acute dispute between individuals in the process of their social and psychological interaction. The causes of such conflicts are both social and psychological differences. They occur due to misunderstanding between people, loss and distortion of information in the process of interaction between people, differences in the ways of assessing each other’s activities and personality, psychological incompatibility, etc. Psychological incompatibility is understood as an unsuccessful combination of temperaments and characters of interacting persons, a contradiction in life values, ideals, motives, goals of activity, a discrepancy in worldview, ideological attitudes, etc.

Subject of the conflict- a real or imagined problem that causes conflict. The object of the conflict is what the conflict is directed at. There are material and intangible objects of conflict.
Phases of conflict:
the situation that led to the conflict and the awareness of the conflict by the participants in the situation (one friend offended the other);
choice of interaction strategy (conflicting parties decide to make peace or are at enmity with each other);
choosing an action strategy (showing up relationships, arguing about who is to blame).
Conflict resolution– a decision by the parties to the conflict to reconcile and end the confrontation. The conflict is considered resolved if the parties managed to reach an agreement (friends made peace). When reconciliation is impossible, it is an unresolved conflict. Conflicts are inevitable in human society. Therefore, an important skill of every person living in society is the ability to seek and find a way out of conflicts.

In conflicts, as a rule, one of the participants evaluates the behavior of the other as unacceptable. The causes of conflicts can also be insufficient psychological stability, an overestimated or underestimated level of aspirations, a choleric type of temperament, etc.

In adolescents, the causes of conflicts can be a heightened sense of self-esteem, maximalism, categorical and unambiguous moral criteria, assessment of facts, events, and one’s behavior.

To successfully resolve a conflict you must:

Adopt a mindset to resolve the conflict to a mutually beneficial agreement.

Adjust your behavior towards your opponent: try to control your emotions, listen to a different point of view, identify the true goals, needs, demands of your opponent.

Try to find common ground in your position and that of your opponent.

Preparing and conducting negotiations to resolve a conflict situation. If necessary, invite a mediator.

There are 2 negotiation models:

The “mutual benefits” model, when they try to find solutions to the problem that fully satisfy the interests of both parties;

Model of “concessions - rapprochement”.

It is favorable to organize joint activities at all stages of conflict resolution, to involve a partner in the joint process of searching for possible options for resolving the conflict.

• Human and society

  Interaction between society and nature. Spheres of public life. Personality. Human activity. Interpersonal relationships.

• Sphere of spiritual culture

  Science in the life of society. Education and its importance. Religion and freedom of conscience. Morality. Humanism. Patriotism.

• Economy

  The role of economics in the life of society. Goods and services. Resources and needs. Economic systems. Production and labor productivity. Exchange and trade. Market mechanism. Entrepreneurship. Money. Income. Taxes (this part of the program solves one of the main problems among schoolchildren - the inability to solve economic problems).

• Social sphere

  Social structure of society. Family. Social values ​​and norms. Social conflict. Interethnic relations.

• Sphere of politics and social management

  Power. Forms of the state. Political regime. Citizen participation in political life. Elections, referendum. Political parties and movement. Civil society and the rule of law.

• Right

  Rules of law. Offenses. Legal liability. Constitutional system of the Russian Federation. Federal structure of the Russian Federation. State authorities of the Russian Federation. Law enforcement agencies. Protection of human rights and freedoms. Civil relations. Family legal relations. Labor relations. Administrative legal relations. Criminal law (in this section, schoolchildren have a lot of confusion about concepts - we provide information in a convenient diagrammatic form).

• Work with text