The concept of personality in psychology. Psychological structure of personality. The concept of personality and its structure The highest structure of personality includes

Psychological structure personality is intended to present a single personal picture that interacts with the microclimate that does not go beyond its own boundaries.

To define the concept of personality and its characteristics, for this there are scientific approaches. They are based on various techniques, sometimes interacting with each other, or mutually complementing each other. By personality we mean not just a subject, but a person consisting of body and blood, who is a carrier, possessing abilities contained in him, called cognition. A person can experience and empathize, the whole world can transform around him the world, he can come into contact with things and people in the surrounding world.

When starting a conversation about personality, we mean its active behavior, awareness, responsible approach to any business, transformation of realities, adaptability. And this is not a complete list of possessing qualities that together help to react to current events, as well as take part in them and even change their course.

Personality structure: philosophy

By personality we mean a specific person who has unique mental, volitional, emotional and physical properties. The emergence and development of personality took place over a huge period of time, determined by the socio-historical development of mankind, as well as as a result of the labor process.

Psychological and determined by its belonging to the social environment with its inclusion in social relations.

Personality is a social entity, a subject of cognition, an active figure in the development of society. Characteristic signs personality is determined by its consciousness, participation in the performance of social roles, useful activities for society.

Also, one of the qualities of a person is determined by her individuality, that is, a set of peculiar and unique psychological differences in character, temperament, the course of development of the psyche (perception, memory, speech, will, etc.), as well as in the motivating sphere.

But be that as it may, personality is nothing more than a product of one’s own actions and participation in economic relations habitats. The process of studying personality itself is determined historical research, its formation when entering certain conditions of society, as well as the social system.

Personality structure according to Rubinstein

We must not lose sight of the fact that Rubinstein laid the foundation for a special methodological basis, which examines the problems of human psychological development. He categorically denies:

1. idealization of personality;
2. functional analysis, that is, division into separate functions;
3. isolation from life;
4. bringing the individual to awareness.

According to Rubinstein, a person and his activities depend on relations in society and the specific situation in his social existence, the dependence of her consciousness on her actions. According to S. L. Rubinstein, the formation of a person’s personality occurs as a result of interaction with environment, including people.

According to the psychologist, personal core consists of motives for conscious actions, but personality is also characterized by unconscious tendencies or impulses. Personality structure according to Rubinstein varied personal temperament, self-awareness, abilities, character and orientation.

Personality structure according to Platonov

If we turn to Platonov’s approach, then he implies personality as a kind of biosocial hierarchical structure. They identified the following substructures:

1. having experience consisting of knowledge, skills and abilities;
2. presence of direction;
3. the presence of individual abilities expressed in various reflective forms, for example, sensation, memory, perception;
4. Possession of combined behavioral properties.

This includes interpreted general structure personality, as some combined biological and socially determined distinctive features.

Complex of knowledge, skills and abilities can be attributed to the fundamental links that influence the determination of a person’s work activity. In the labor process itself, not only the appearance of the product of labor occurs, but also the formation of it itself in labor activity. Labor activity carried out in conjunction with perception and temperament.

Presence of perception, is sensory awareness in relation to some object or phenomenon.

1. To feel means to reflect a separate sensory quality.
2. Memory is a mental process that records, stores and subsequently reproduces past experiences.
3. Thinking is a process of cognitive actions that are characterized by a generalized and mediated mirror-reflecting reality.

Presence of temperament shows the peculiar individuality of the mental properties that determine the active mental activity a person, the manifestation of which is always recorded to the same extent.

1. Character combines stable individual personality traits, which are made up of activities and.

Personality structure according to Freud

Freud's personality structure consists of three components:

1. “It” is the most primitive matter, covering phenomena of an innate and subordinate nature to the object of pleasure and not at all aware of the realities.
2. “I” is a consciousness that follows the rule of reality, creating mechanisms of adaptation to the environment.
3. The “super-ego” is a resource that reproduces moral and religious feelings, acting as a controlling and punishing agent, and is the final product of influence that comes from another mass of people. Appears from early childhood. “It” conflicts with the “Super-I”.

List of protective mechanisms:

1. deny everything and everyone;
2. suppress internal impulses coming from the “Super-I”;
3. a rational approach that reasonably justifies any actions that contradict internal principles;
4. form reactions when the expression of an unpleasant motive by people is carried out at the expense of a motive in the opposite type;
5. the formation of projection - when one’s shortcomings are attributed to other people;
6. formation of intellectualization - when a threatening situation arises, a person wants to avoid it through abstraction;
7. replace - partially satisfy an unacceptable motive at the expense of a morally permissible method.

Personality structure: sociology

The structure of personality in sociology combines the objective and subjective properties of the subject, which arise and function during various life activities, while influencing him by the communities and associations with which a person comes into contact. Based on this, the social structure of the individual is characterized by independent activity and interaction with others like themselves, which focuses the understanding of the object of life activity. It is impossible to analyze the structure of personality without analyzing the forms of its functioning.

A person’s social attitudes are determined by his value orientations, which serve as a regulator of his behavior. Due to them, the fundamental interests of the individual are reflected and determined in their activities. Their manifestation occurs on the object’s life position, worldview and moral principles. The formation of holistic orientations occurs due to the acquisition by the object of social skills, the list of which includes social, moral, political, aesthetic ideals, as well as immutable regulatory requirements that are presented to the object as an obligatory component included in the social community.

Personality structure according to Petrovsky

The personality structure according to Petrovsky consists of three constituents and three subsystems:

1. personality's individuality;
2. representations of personality in the structure of relationships between individuals;
3. representations in the person of other people.

The character of a person must be expressed by the unity of all three components, in its existence as an interindividual subject, by the social origin of relationships.

This is what the personality structure looks like according to Petrovsky:

1. Personality is a social property that is considered individually.
2. Personality as a subject of interaction with others like themselves.
3. A person who influences other people.

Personality structure according to Leontiev

The structure of personality according to Leontiev is that its search does not need to be carried out in any collection collected by individual features of the human psyche such as genetics, acquired knowledge, abilities, skills and inclinations. As a solid foundation for a person’s personality, one can use his objective activity, or, more precisely, the system of his relations to the environment, which can be realized using a hierarchy of various types of activities. As a person develops, he has to connect to an increasing number of varieties of activities. This happens on the terms of the social relations in which a person finds himself, thanks to life circumstances. Some of them are destined for the role of leading for this person, others have to fall under his subordination. This is called the hierarchy of activities, and is the core of personality, which does not depend on the state of the human body. Behind the “back” of these activity relationships are motivating relationships, since the personality sphere has a multivertex structure.

Now let’s look at the list of basic parameters of personality structure according to A. Leontiev:

1. The individual and his various connections with the outside world, which are realized in conjunction with various activities.
2. To what extent is hierarchization related to the environment (activities), what motivational coloring they have.
3. An individual with his general structure of connections with the environment, which is formed through the internal relationships of basic motives together with activities.

Personality structure according to Adler

Adler’s personality structure consists of only four attitudes or types of behavior:

1. Control type of behavior.
2. Taking type of behavior.
3. Avoidant type of behavior.
4. Socially useful type of behavior.

The managerial type includes active, assertive and self-confident people, whose focus is on superiority over their peers.

The desire to flee to avoid solving the problems that have arisen is typical. They have low social activity, and any activity too.

The socially useful type of behavior includes people who combine high level activities and social interests, show concern for others, and always strive to cooperate with someone. This type is the most effective.

Personality structure according to Jung

Jung's personality structure corresponds to three main levels:

1. Ego, that is, I.
2. Personal unconscious.
3. Super-Ego - collective unconscious.

Ego- is our consciousness. It consists of perceptions, memories, sensations and thoughts. The ego is responsible for self-identification and is essentially the center of the personality.

Personal unconscious consists of sensations, complexes, fears, thoughts, repressed from consciousness and seemingly forgotten about them. New experiences appear all the time in the personal unconscious, which we ignore or are not aware of.

Collective unconscious- is the most controversial aspect of Jung's personality structure, which caused disagreements between Jung and Freud. This level of personality was given another name - the transpersonal unconscious. It consists of memories and images that were passed down by previous generations and applies to all people without exception. According to Jung, the collective unconscious is the legacy of our ancestors, which has been formed throughout the evolution of people.

Man is a creature with a very complex mental organization. He is born and develops according to the laws of biology and genetics, and in parallel with this, the formation of his personality and self-awareness occurs under the influence of society. In addition, a person is a subject of activity in almost all spheres of life - social, spiritual, economic and political.

It is impossible within the framework of one science to embrace all the diversity of facets of human essence, which is why there are many theories about what constitutes a personality. This term is used in modern psychology along with such terms as “individual” and “individuality”; the difference between them is that the latter two definitions are more specific and cover only one or another side of the personality. In a broad sense, personality is a set of qualities of an individual acquired in the process of development and manifested in relationships with other individuals or in various areas conscious activity. As can be seen from the definition, the concept of personality characterizes a person mainly in social terms. The structure of personality in psychology is represented by many various classifications, the most common of them will be presented below.

Personality theory in psychology according to Freud

In the 20s of the twentieth century, the great German psychologist developed his concept

anatomy of the human soul. The personality structure in Freudian psychology consists of three components: “Id” - It (unconscious), “Ego” - I (conscious) and “Super-Ego” - Super-I (conscience, ideal attitudes). The id occupies a central place in the personality structure throughout an individual’s life; its main principle is receiving pleasure from the immediate satisfaction of one’s irrational desires. The ego is a kind of regulator, trying to satisfy the needs of the id, while at the same time not violating the laws and traditions of society. The super-ego plays the role of a promoter of high moral ideals and is formed in the process of education.

Personality structure in psychology according to Rubinstein

Soviet psychologist and philosopher S.L. Rubinstein proposed his concept of the history of human personality. He also identified three components:

2. Knowledge, abilities and skills (KUN) acquired as a result of cognitive

activities.

3. Individual characteristics expressed in character traits, temperament, abilities.

Personality structure in psychology according to Platonov

K.K. Platonov considered personality as a set of biosocial properties, among which he identified four substructures:

1. Socially oriented qualities (moral qualities, social connections).

2. Experience (habits and knowledge).

3. Individual biologically determined traits (character, temperament, inclinations, needs).

4. Forms of reflection of mental processes (thinking, will, feelings, sensations, memory).

As you can see, Platonov’s classification largely coincides with Rubinstein’s classification, but it is more detailed. This model significantly influenced the development of Soviet psychology.

To the question "Who am I?" each of us will most likely answer: “a person, a full member of society, a personality,” so it is not surprising that many people are interested in learning more about what elements are components of personality, without what traits and properties an individual will not exist as a full-fledged person in the sociocultural society, how the process of personality formation itself occurs. Personality is a basic concept in psychology; Without a detailed study of its structure and mechanisms of formation, further psychological and sociological research is impossible.

Psychologists define personality as a stable structure of socially significant traits that characterize a person as a member of a particular society. Based on the definition, we can conclude that the process of an individual’s formation as a personality is impossible in isolation from society, and all personality traits and substructures are formed and developed under the influence of society. The structure of personality in psychology has been carefully studied and described by world-famous specialists, and despite the fact that some famous sociologists, psychologists and psychiatrists disagreed about the basic properties and characteristics of personality, there are several generally accepted divisions and classifications of structure elements.

Psychological structure of personality

All personality substructures are inherent in every person living in a sociocultural society, but in different individuals they are at different levels of development. One of the main tasks that psychologists set for themselves when studying the constituent structures is to determine the mechanisms of development and correction of one or another substructure. One of the most complete and detailed descriptions of personality structure in psychology includes 10 substructures, the main of which are worldview, experience, orientation, and character. Let's look at all the substructures in more detail.

Worldview

Worldview is an individual’s subjective perception of the world around him, all current events, and the designation of his place in the world. As a rule, worldview is the result of passing the information received through the prism of one’s own experience and evaluating the external world according to internal criteria. Psychologists consider the most important component of this element of the structure to be the formation of the “I-concept” - the definition of oneself in outside world and in its individual manifestations. The worldview can be pessimistic, optimistic, realistic, mystical, atheistic, idealistic, male, female, childish, but it is impossible to unambiguously classify people’s worldview according to any criteria - each person sees and perceives the reality around him in his own way.

Experience

Experience is the most important component of the personality structure in psychology, which is the totality of habits, skills, knowledge and abilities accumulated in the process of life and development, as well as acquired during one’s stay in society. In the process of accumulating experience, a certain lifestyle is formed. As a rule, the worldview, horizons, breadth of a person’s thinking and the certainty of a person’s orientation depend on the amount of accumulated experience.

Focus

The orientation of a person is the values, aspirations, and guidelines of a person. Realization of oneself in professional activity, finding a place in life, realizing dreams and desires, observing certain moral and ethical rules and norms - all these are the orientations of the individual. Based on such criteria as a person’s ability to set goals for himself independently and without outside assistance, the breadth, stability, and effectiveness of the individual’s orientation and the degree of influence of society on the formation of his aspirations, it is determined general level personality development.

Character

Psychologists also call character a psychotype - a set of stable characteristics of a person’s behavior under certain circumstances and his reactions to any situations. As a rule, by the concept of “character,” psychologists mean the most typical personality traits, manifested in the form of a subjective response to objective circumstances; very often character is described by one keyword- explosive or calm, decisive or suspicious, impulsive or reasonable, etc.

Temperament

Temperament is a combination of stable personality traits associated with dynamic aspects of activity and determining the type of higher nervous activity person. Psychologists distinguish four main types of temperament, which are based on the strength and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition of the nervous system. The most common classification of temperament types is the identification of four types: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic.

Capabilities

The main abilities of every person are volitional, mental, spiritual and physical; also, all people, to one degree or another, have a number of other abilities - musical, mathematical, artistic, etc. Abilities as a component of the structure are one of the most important tools of the individual, because the more developed the abilities, the more integrated the person is into society and the more he can do something useful for society and yourself.

Cognitive sphere

The cognitive sphere includes all components of the psyche and mind aimed at rational cognition and perception of the world - logical thinking, memory, attention, critical and analytical perception, decision making, etc.

Affective sphere

This area, as opposed to the cognitive one, consists of processes related to emotions, feelings, needs and motivation. This area includes psychological processes that cannot be explained from a rational point of view - impulsive reactions, emotions, feelings, desires, predispositions, experiences, worries, intuition, ulterior motives, subjective impressions, etc.

Consciousness and subconsciousness

The structure of personality in psychology also includes all manifestations of consciousness, subconscious and unconscious psychological processes. Consciousness includes all conscious and mind-controlled processes and mental activity, and the unconscious includes those mental phenomena and processes that occur without conscious control. Psychological processes take place in the subconscious, which have a certain logic, but are not amenable to conscious control.

Body drawing

Body image is a substructure of personality, which includes the structure of the body, facial expressions characteristic of a person, habitual gestures, manner of speaking, gait, etc. Body image is defined as a substructure of personality for the reason that many psychologists are of the opinion that there is a connection between the structure body and character of a person. (You can read more about the connection between gestures and facial expressions and psychological processes in the article)

Personality structure in psychology is a holistic system personal qualities and properties, which fully and comprehensively characterizes everything psychological characteristics individual. In addition to the elements described above, the personality structure includes many other components - self-esteem, values, willpower, etc. The strength of influence of the physiological, emotional and cognitive components is determined by the level of development the personality is at. In highly developed individuals with a broad worldview, strong will and personality orientation, as well as developed abilities As a rule, conscious and cognitive components based on one’s own experience take precedence over unconscious manifestations, instincts, emotions and temperament.

The term “personality” has several different meanings. The word personality (“personality”) in English language comes from the Latin “persona”. Initially, this word meant ritual masks among the Etruscans. In Rome, this word began to denote first the role depicted by the mask, then the role itself (“the person of the father”). In fact, this term originally indicated a comic or tragic figure in theatrical action. Thus, from the very beginning, the concept of “personality” included the external, superficial social image that the individual takes on when playing certain life roles. Personality was also viewed as a combination of the most striking and noticeable characteristics of individuality. In the understanding of most psychologists, the term “personality” does not imply an assessment of a person’s character or social skills. Most definitions emphasize individuality or individual differences. A personality represents those special qualities that make a given person different from all other people. Understanding what specific qualities or combinations thereof differentiate one personality from another can only be done by studying individual differences.

Human personality is extremely complex and unique. According to B.G. Ananyev, the unity of the biological and social in a person is ensured by the unity of such macrocharacteristics as individual, personality, subject and individuality.

Individual– man as a single representative of a biological species homo sapiens and a separate type distinguished within its framework. System of individual human characteristics: temperament, inclinations, constitution, sexual characteristics, biogenic needs, sensorimotor coordination, metabolism, neurodynamics.

Personality– a person as a representative of some type of social community. The system of personal characteristics of a person: orientation, inclinations, sociogenic needs, structure of communication, social status, aspirations, social roles, ethnic characteristics.

Subject– a person as a subject of a certain type of activity; characteristics of a person through the structure of various types of human activity (work, communication, cognition, play, sports). The system of human subjective characteristics: character, abilities, structure of activity, psychogenic needs, conative, creative, cognitive, emotive processes.

Individuality- a person as a single option for realizing the opportunities that were encountered in his life life path; a unique, unique combination of traits as an individual, personality and subject. The system of individual characteristics of a person: conscience, self-awareness, self-realization, self-determination, self-regulation, self-identification, well-being, self-esteem.

Man as an integrity - as an individual, personality and subject, conditioned by the unity of the biological and social in him.

There are different approaches to personality structure.

S.L. Rubinstein proposed the following personality structure:

1) direction); 2) knowledge, skills; 3) individual characteristics of a person, manifested in temperament, character, abilities.

The concept of the dynamic functional structure of personality, developed by K.K. Platonov, explains the diversity of personality traits and characteristics by six substructures, four of them are basic, two are superimposed. The fourth biologically determined substructure includes temperament, properties of higher nervous activity, age and gender characteristics, and pathologies. The third substructure is responsible for mental processes: gnostic - sensation, perception, attention, memory, ideas, imagination, thinking, speech; emotional and volitional processes. The second substructure combines knowledge, skills, abilities, behavioral habits, i.e. the social experience of the individual. The first substructure - orientation - is the most socially conditioned, it covers needs, drives, motives, desires, interests, inclinations, ideals, beliefs, worldviews that determine a person’s social behavior, his basic value orientations. The substructures “Abilities” and “Character” integrate the content of the four above-mentioned substructures, which to varying degrees characterize character traits as a set of the most stable individual personality traits, manifested in activity and communication, and determining modes of behavior. As well as abilities, as individual psychological characteristics of a person, determining the success of training or activity. The identification of substructures is relatively arbitrary, since all elements of the personality structure are interconnected and interdependent. The fourth substructure is formed by training (multiple repetition), the third by exercise (training with feedback), the second – by training, the first – by education.

In the process of personality formation, self-awareness develops; three stages are distinguished:

Stage I (from birth to three years) – awareness of the boundaries of your body. Up to a certain point, a baby can play with his leg, cause himself pain and not understand that he himself is the source of unpleasant sensations. Later the child develops the ability to independent actions with objects, and he perceives himself as an active subject. By the age of three, he uses the pronoun “I”, which finally consolidates his awareness of himself.

Stage II (up to school age) – a long period of development of self-esteem, based initially on the opinions of significant adults (parents and educators). A preschooler's ideas about himself are situational, unstable and emotionally charged.

Stage III (school age) – logical thinking develops, the role of friends and their opinions increases, and the circle of friends expands. The teenager compares different opinions about himself and develops based on them own opinion. Assessments become more generalized and stable; along with the affective components of behavior, rational ones appear; on this basis, moral self-esteem is formed.

As a result of the development of self-awareness, a person develops “ “I”-concept.

"I" concept - a system of a person’s attitudes towards himself, a generalized idea of ​​himself. The “I” concept is formed, develops, and changes in the process of socialization of the individual, in the process of self-knowledge. Methods of self-knowledge leading to the formation of the “I” concept , varied: self-perception and introspection, comparison of oneself with others (identification), perception and interpretation of reactions to oneself by others (reflection), etc. It should be noted that a person’s ideas about himself seem convincing to him, regardless of whether they are based on objective knowledge or subjective opinion, whether they are true or false. Under the influence of various external or internal factors, the “I” concept changes, i.e. The “I” concept is a dynamic entity.

Traditionally, there are three modalities of the “I” concept: “I” is real, “I” is ideal, “I” is mirror.

"I" is real – ideas related to how a person perceives himself: appearance, constitution, capabilities, social roles, status, etc.; that is, his idea of ​​what he really is.

"I" is ideal – ideas related to what a person would like to be. The ideal self reflects the goals that a person associates with his future.

"I" is mirror associated with ideas about how he is seen and what others think about him.

The “I” concept, understood as a system of attitudes (attitudes) regarding one’s personality, has a complex structure in which, as in an attitude, three components are distinguished: cognitive, emotional-evaluative and behavioral.

Cognitive component - these are the main characteristics of self-perception and self-description of a person, which make up a person’s ideas about himself. This component, the components of which are: “I” is physical, “I” is mental, “I” is social , often call The image of "I"

"I" is physical includes ideas about one’s gender, height, body structure, and one’s appearance in general (“bespectacled,” “beautiful,” “fat,” “dead,” etc.). Moreover, the most important source of the formation of the physical Image of the “I”, along with sexual identification (and this, as psychologists note, retains its significance throughout life and is the primary element of the “I” concept), are the size of the body and its shape. A positive assessment of one’s appearance can significantly affect the positivity of the “I” concept as a whole. The importance of appearance is determined by the fact that the body represents the most open, obvious part of the personality and often becomes the subject of discussion.

"I" - mental – a person’s idea of ​​the characteristics of his cognitive activity: memory, thinking, imagination, attention, etc.), about his mental properties (temperament, character, abilities, etc.); about your capabilities in general (“I can do everything”, “I can do a lot”, “I can’t do anything”).

"I" is social – idea about your social roles(daughter, sister, friend, student, athlete, etc.), social status (leader, performer, outcast, etc.), social expectations.

Emotional-evaluative component – self-esteem of the Image of “I”, which can have varying intensity, since individual traits, characteristics, and personality properties can cause different emotions associated with satisfaction or dissatisfaction with them. Even such objective characteristics as height, age, physique can have different meaning not only for different people, but also for one person in different situations. For example, a forty-year-old person may feel like he is in his prime or an old man. It is known that excessive obesity is undesirable, and overweight people often feel inferior, since a person has a tendency to extrapolate even slight external shortcomings of his self to the personality as a whole. Self-esteem reflects the degree to which a person develops a sense of self-esteem, a sense of self-worth and a person’s attitude towards everything that is included in the Image of “I”.

Level of aspiration personality – the desire to achieve goals of the degree of complexity that a person considers himself capable of. In the classical concept of W. James, self-esteem is defined as the mathematical ratio of a person’s real achievements to the level of aspirations.

Self-esteem = success/level of aspiration.

Self-esteem May be low (underestimated ) or high (overpriced) , adequate And inadequate.

Low self-esteem involves self-rejection, self-denial, a negative attitude towards oneself as an individual, blocking the realization of the need for self-esteem and respect, leading to intrapersonal conflicts and discomfort. Ways to compensate for low self-esteem and a negative attitude towards oneself can be different (lower the level of aspirations to one’s capabilities and thus increase self-esteem and change one’s attitude towards oneself, change one’s attitude towards the situation and behavior).

A high self-evaluation demonstrates a person’s confidence in himself, his capabilities, and strengths. It is important that high self-esteem corresponds to a person’s capabilities, that is, it is real.

Adequate self-esteem indicates the correspondence of self-esteem to the real capabilities of the subject and his assessment by other subjects.

Inadequate self-esteem– unrealistically high/low self-esteem leads to negative consequences, often accompanied by social maladaptation of the individual, creates the ground for both intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts.

Behavioral component of the “I” concept - actual or potential human behavior, which can be caused by the image of the Self and self-esteem of the individual. As K. Rogers notes, the “I” concept, having relative stability, determines fairly stable patterns of human behavior.

A person uses defense mechanisms to protect his “I” from shame, guilt, anger, anxiety, conflict, i.e. any danger. The purpose of defense mechanisms is to urgently relieve tension and anxiety. The theory of defense mechanisms was first developed by Z. Freud. The main protection mechanisms are identified:

Crowding out - involuntary removal of unpleasant or illicit desires, thoughts, feelings from consciousness into the unconscious sphere, forgetting them.

Denial - avoiding reality, denying an event as untrue or reducing the severity of a threat (non-acceptance, denying criticism of oneself, claiming that it does not exist, etc.).

Rationalization – a way to rationally justify any actions and actions that are contrary to norms and cause concern. This is also an excuse for one’s inability to do something due to reluctance, or justification of unwanted actions by objective circumstances. Example unconstructive behavior May be rationalization, pseudo-rethinking of the situation. If it is not possible to achieve goals, a person calms himself down by “seeing” in unattainable goals a lot of shortcomings that were previously ignored, or refuses them as unworthy of such large expenses (“green grapes”). Rationalization of the “sweet lemon” type is aimed not so much at discrediting an unattainable object, but at exaggerating the value of an existing one.

Projection – attributing to other people one’s own negative qualities, states, desires, and, as a rule, in an exaggerated form.

Substitution is expressed in partial, indirect satisfaction of an unacceptable motive in some other way, motive.

Sublimation – transformation of the energy of suppressed, forbidden desires into other types of activity, i.e. transformation of drives. Intellectual activity and artistic creativity are usually described as the main forms of sublimation.

Intellectualization – the process through which the subject seeks to express his conflicts and emotions in a discursive form in order to master them.

Formation of reaction – suppression of unwanted motives of behavior and conscious maintenance of motives of the opposite type.