Positional changes of consonant sounds. Weak positions in deafness and voicedness

§ 28. Positional changes of consonants occur in the following positions: 1) at the end of the word; 2) before voiceless/voiced noisy ones, except [в], [в’]; 3) before soft teeth; 4) in front of the soft labials; 5) before [h], [〙’]; 6) in front of the palatodental fissures.

At the end of the word, voiced noisy words are deafened and in their place are voiceless noisy ones: ra[b]y - ra[p], gra[b']it - gra[p'], kro[v]a - kro[f], kro [v']i - kro[f'], ra[d]y - ra[t], gl[d']it - gl[t'], ro[z]a - ro[s], ma[z ']i - ma[s'], but[zh]i - but[w], do[〇']i - do[〙'], ro[g]a - ro[k].

Sonorants are deafened at the end of a word after voiceless noisy ones, or before voiceless noisy ones: ost[】], cape[〬'], drah[〭], nasmo[】]k, vo[〬]k, do[〬k], four[ 】To].

§ 29. In the position in front of voiceless noisy consonants, voiced noisy consonants are deafened, and in their place are voiceless noisy consonants: sko[b]ochka - skok[p]ka, la[v]ochka - la[f]ka, rya[d] ok - rya[t]ka, bere[z]a - bere[s]ka, lo[zh]echka - lo[sh]ka.

In the position before voiced noisy consonants, except [v], [v'], voiceless noisy consonants are voiced, and in their place voiced noisy consonants appear: [z]throw, o[d]guess, [z]dat (cf. lack of voicing before voiceless consonants in cases of [p]ush, o[t]fall). In the position before the voiced noisy ones, the voiceless [ts], [ch] and [x] are voiced, and in their place are the voiced [dz], [dㆀzh’] and [γ]. Voicing of the voiceless [ts], [ch] and [x] occurs mainly at the junction of an independent and a function word or at the junction of components in complex formations: ote[dㆀzㆃb]y, (do[dㆀzh'ㆃb] y, so[γㆃb]y, tre[γg]rosh.

Note. Voiced [дㆀз], [дㆀж’] and [γ] have the same articulatory characteristics that the voiceless [ts], [h] and [х] have, respectively, with the addition of voicing.

§ 30. In the position before soft dental [t'], [d'] consonants [s], [z] soften: [s't']ep, [s't']bend, [s't']elit , [z'd']es, [z'd']do. Before soft dental [s'], [z'] consonants [s], [z], softening, merge with them into one long soft sound [〒'] or [〈']: ra[〒']relit, ra[ 〈']eat. Before soft dental [n'], [l'] consonants [s], [z] in the position inside the root are pronounced softly (which corresponds to Old Moscow pronunciation norms): [s'n']egir, [s'n']ezhok, [dream; [z'l']it, [z'l']e, however, at present, firm pronunciation [s], [z] is also acceptable here: [sn']egir, [sn']ezhok, [sn'] to be; [angry’]it, [evil’]e.

In the position before soft dental [t’], [d’] consonants [t], [d] can be pronounced in two ways: with or without softening. In the combinations [tt], [dd], a long shutter is formed (i.e., a short delay before the explosion), which, with a soft pronunciation of the preceding consonant, can be soft, and with a hard pronunciation - hard: o[d'd']delit, o [t't']esnite or o[dd']edit, o[t']esnite.

In the position before soft dental [s'], [z'] consonants [t], [d] are pronounced with a minor fricative element, bringing them closer to affricates, which can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with the Old Moscow norm) and hard: o[ts's']elite, o[ts's']go, o[dㆀz'z']im and o[ts']elite, o[ts']go, o[dㆀzz'] spend the winter.

In the position before soft dental [n’], [l’] consonants [t], [d] are pronounced differently. Before [n'] they are pronounced softly both inside the root and at the junction of the root with a prefix (with possible hard pronunciation in this position) and a suffix: [d'n']evnoy, po[d'n']yat and po[ dn']yat, o[t'n']yat and o[tn']yat, plo[t'n']ee, which corresponds to the Old Moscow pronunciation; before [l'] these consonants can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with Old Moscow norms) and firmly: pe[t'l']ya and pe[tl']ya, po[d'l']e and po[ dl']e; to [sh’]shoulder, to [should’]hustle.

In the position before soft teeth [t'], [d'], [s'], [z'], the consonant [n] is pronounced softly: vi[n't']ik, ka[n'd']idat, pe [n's']iya, war [n'z']it. Before the soft [n’], the consonant [n], softening, merges with it into one long soft sound [『’]: weighty [『’]ii.

In the position before the dental affricate [ts], the consonant [t] is pronounced together with it as one long sound [〗] or as [ts], i.e. [ts] with a long shutter: o[〗]a or o[ts] a, o[〗]eat or o[t]eat.

§ 31. In the position in front of the soft labial [v'], [f'], [b'], [n'], [m'] dental [t], [d], [s], [z] are pronounced softly inside the root, as well as at the end of prefixes ending in z, s, which corresponds to the old Moscow norms (with the firm pronunciation of dental teeth before soft labials in the indicated positions acceptable in the speech of young people): [t'v']ber (proper topon.) and [tv']believe, [d'v']vest and [dv']vest, [s'v']et and [svet]vet, [s'v']vest and [sve']vest, [z 'believe and [beast'], ra[z'v']vest and ra[z']vest, [s'f']era and [sf']era, [s'p']ely and [sp']white, [z'b']it and [zb']it, [s'm']ena and [sm']ena, [s'm']eat and [sm']eat, [z 'm']ya and [zm']ya, r[z'm']yat and r[zm']yat. At the junction of the root with the prefix, the consonants [t], [d] in the position before the soft labials are pronounced firmly: o[tv']return, o[db']it, o[tp']it, o[tm']est , to[dm']eat. However, according to the Old Moscow norm, [t], [d] in the position in front of the soft labials were pronounced softly in this position: o[d'b']it, o[t'p']it, o[t'm']est, to [d'm']eat. Currently, this pronunciation is classified as colloquial.

In the position in front of the soft labials, the labial consonants [v], [f], [b], [p], [m] can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with the Old Moscow norm) and hard: [f'p']is and [fp']write, [v'b']it and [vb']it, [v'm']men and [vm']men, [in'm']nature and [vm']nature, ri[ f'm']e and ri[fm']e, o[b'm']en and o[bm']en. In the position before [v’], the consonant [v], softening, merges with it into one long soft sound [〃’]: [〃’] to speak, [〃’] to eat.

§ 32. In the position before [h], the consonant [t] (spelling t and d), softening, merges with the sound [h], forming a long soft shutter (i.e., a delay before the explosion): pique [t'ch] ik, le[t'ch]ik, uka[t'ch]ik, mone[t'ch]ik, pass[t'ch]ik.

In the position before [h], the consonant [s] (spelling s and z), softening, merges with it into one long soft consonant sound [〙’]: re[〙’]ik, but [〙’]ik.

The combination of letters thc is pronounced in fluent speech as [chsh']: [chsh']etno, [chsh']ately, and in distinct speech - as [t〙']: [t〙']etno, [t〙']definitely .

The combination of letters сш at the junction of a prefix and a root is pronounced as [〙’]. In distinct speech, it is possible to pronounce [sh’sh’], one part of which belongs to the prefix, and the other part to the root: ra[sh’sh’]epit.

In the position before [h], [〙’], the consonant [n] softens: po [n’ch]ik, kame [n’〙’]ik.

In the position in front of the palatodental fricatives [w], [z], the dental fricatives [s], [z] are similar to them in the place of noise formation, i.e., they become palatodental fricatives, merging with them into one long sound [〙], [ 〇]: [〙]it, and [〇]it (spelling, sew, get rid of).

Positional changes, occurring with sounds in the stream of speech (within one morpheme), are associated with the impact of sounds on each other, as well as with the general conditions of pronunciation: position at the absolute beginning / end of a word, in a stressed / unstressed syllable, etc.

Positional changes of vowels are associated primarily with the position in the stressed / specific pre-stressed or post-stressed syllable, at the absolute beginning or end of the word (see reduced vowels), as well as with the influence of soft consonants: vowels adapt to the articulation of soft consonants and, during pronunciation, move forward and upward or in the initial phase of its formation (if the soft consonant precedes the vowel), either in the final stage (the soft consonant comes after the vowel), or in general (the vowel is surrounded by soft consonants).

Positional changes of consonants in the flow of speech can relate to any of the characteristics: deafness / voicedness, hardness / softness, place and method of formation.

Strong positions for voiceless/voiced(i.e. those where this feature remains independent, independent of anything and serves to distinguish words and morphemes):

1) before vowels: there – I’ll give;

2) before sonorants: layer – evil;

3) before [в], [в’]: check – beast.

Weak positions for voiceless/voiced(i.e. those where this feature is not independent, depends on the position in the word or the phonetic environment):

1) at the end of the word, voiced noisy words are deafened: snow, oak;

2) before consonants (except for sonorants and [в], [в’]):

Deafening of voiced noisy ones in front of deaf ones (boat, spoon);

Voicing of voiceless noisy ones before voiced ones (threshing, request).

Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, i.e. two vowels or two consonants is called assimilation(from Latin assimilatio - “likeness”). In some cases, assimilation may result in long consonants (behind, give). In any case, the direction of influence is the same - from the subsequent sound to the previous one. This type of assimilation is called regressive assimilation. (Progressive assimilation is extremely rare: it is observed, for example, in the dialect pronunciation of words like “Vanka” [van "k"a], but this does not correspond to modern spelling norms.)

Strong positions for hard/soft consonants:

1) before vowels, including [e]: bow - hatch, nose - carried, pastel - bed (soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, hard ones - in borrowed ones);

2) at the end of the word: kon – horse;

3) before back-lingual consonants (for front-lingual ones): bank - bathhouse, gorka - bitterly;

4) before labial consonants (in front-linguals): izba - carving;

5) for sounds [l], [l’], regardless of their position: the wave is free.

Weak positions are all the rest. Assimilation in hardness, for example, is observed in the case of the connection of a soft tooth with a hard tooth (horse - horse, ex.: June). Assimilation in terms of softness is carried out inconsistently and respectfully A not spoken by all speakers (door - [d], [d’], eat - [s], [s’]). Only the replacement of [n] with [n’] before [h”], [w’] (drummer, drummer) knows no deviations.

The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other (i.e. there are no strong positions).

Assimilation by place of education dental fricatives are exposed, which are replaced by anterior palatal ones before the anterior palatal noisy ones (sew, with championship, count);

Assimilation by mode of education plosive consonants are exposed, which alternate with affricates before fricatives and affricates of the same place of formation (spread, unhook).

In many cases, several features of consonants are subject to positional change at once.

The reverse of assimilation phenomenon, or dissimilation(from Latin dissimilatio - “dissimilarity”), consists in the loss of common phonetic characteristics by sounds. Such changes are characteristic of dialects and vernacular language; in the literary language they are associated with a limited range of examples: light, soft ([x"k’]) - dissimilation by method of formation + by deafness and softness.

In addition to the described phenomena, Russian speech can record simplification of consonant clusters(in a number of sound combinations, when three consonants are combined, one drops out): district, local, heart.

Syllable. Types of syllables.

Syllable- a sound or combination of sounds pronounced with one exhalation impulse.

In modern linguistics, it has become widespread sonorant syllable theory, developed by R.I. Avanesov. From the point of view of this theory, a syllable is considered as a set of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The most sonorous sound is considered to be the syllabic sound, which represents the core, the apex of the syllable, followed by other sounds - non-syllabic ones.

Avanesov assigned a certain type of sound to each type of sound. sonority level. Remember the chain:

Based on the relationship between noise and tone, all sounds of a language can be reflected in the form of a chain (as the noise increases):

vowels → sonorants acc. → noisy voiced acc. → noisy deaf acc. → pause

sonority level: 4 3 2 1 0

Thus, a syllable, according to Avanesov’s theory, represents waves of sonority. The number of syllables in a word is determined by the number of peaks, peaks of sonority. Usually the top of a syllable, i.e. syllabic sound turns out to be a vowel. In rare cases, a consonant can also become syllabic, most often sonorants (this is achieved by inserting a vowel overtone before such consonants): [zhyz" ьн"]

Types of syllables characterized by initial and final sounds.

By initial sound syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with a consonant sound: [ru-ka];

2) uncovered – starting with a vowel sound: [a-ist].

By final sound syllables are divided into:

1) closed – ending in a non-syllable sound (consonant): [balcon];

2) open – ending in a syllabic: [va-z].

Avanesov’s theory will help determine the boundaries of the syllable division, according to which a syllable in the Russian language is built according to law of ascending sonority– from the least sonorous to the most sonorous, i.e. syllabic. This law defines the following syllable features:

1) Non-finite syllables tend to be open: [na-u-k], [a-pa-zda-l].

2) Closed syllables can appear only in three cases:

At the end of the word: [pla-tok];

At the junction of sonorant and noisy in a non-initial syllable (sonorant goes to the previous syllable, noisy to the subsequent one): [balcony];

At the junction of any consonant (goes to the previous syllable, another consonant to the subsequent one): [ma j’-къ], [wa j’-na].

When dividing a word into syllables, it is necessary to keep in mind that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure and rules of transfer in writing.

Emphasis.

If a word consists of two or more syllables, then one of them is necessarily emphasized by the strength of the voice or the rise in tone. This emphasis on one of the syllables in a word is called word stress.

The phonetic type of stress is determined by the methods of highlighting a stressed syllable, which are not the same in different languages. The following phonetic types of stress are distinguished:

1) forceful stress (dynamic) is characterized by increased volume and increased exhalation force;

2) quantitative stress (quantitative) is associated with an increase in the length of pronunciation of the stressed syllable;

3) musical stress (tone) uses the movement of the vocal tone (ascending, descending, combined) to highlight the stressed syllable.

Stress in Russian is both forceful and quantitative.

Verbal stress performs an organizing function, combining into a single whole phonetic word - a group of syllables connected by a common verbal stress. Within the framework of a phonetic word, the stressed syllable turns out to be the reference point in relation to which the nature of the pronunciation of all other syllables is determined.

A phonetic word is not always equal to a lexical one. Some words in the text do not have their own stress, merging with adjacent stress and forming a single phonetic word with them. An unstressed word adjacent to a stressed word in front (conjunction, preposition, particle, pronoun) is called a proclitic: I won’t see, dust and mosquitoes. An unstressed word (particle, pronoun) adjacent to a stressed word at the back is called an enclitic: tell me. A situation is possible when a monosyllabic preposition or particle “pulls” the verbal stress onto itself and turns the significant word into an enclitic: led by the nose, fell to the floor.

There are words in which, in addition to the main one, there is a weaker side stress. It most often falls on initial syllables and is recorded in complex words: building materials, aerial photography.

When characterizing stress, it is important to take into account its position in the word. If the stress is assigned to a certain syllable, it is fixed (for example, in French the stress can only fall on the last syllable). Russian stress is not fixed to a specific syllable and can fall on any syllable on any morpheme in a word (vybyt, gold, forests, ordinary), i.e. is varied.

Another feature of the Russian accent is its mobility. When forming grammatical forms of a word, stress transition is possible:

1) from stem to ending and vice versa (country - countries, head - heads);

2) from one syllable to another within the same morpheme (tree - trees, lake - lakes).

So, Russian accent is characterized by the following features:

1) force and quantity according to the phonetic type;

2) different places in a word;

3) mobile according to the criterion of attachment to a specific morpheme during inflection.

The orthoepic norm does not always affirm as the only correct one of the pronunciation options, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, it allows variations in pronunciation. Literary, correct pronunciation is considered e[f"f"]at, in and[f"f"]atwith a soft long sound [zh "], ande[LJ]at, in and[LJ]at- with a hard long; correct andbefore[f"f"]And, Andbefore[railway]And, Andra[sh"sh"]istAndra[sh"h"]ist, and [d]believeand [d"]believe, AndP[O]eziaAndP[A]ezia. Thus, in contrast to spelling norms, which offer one option and prohibit others, orthoepic norms allow options that are either assessed as equal, or one option is considered desirable and the other acceptable. For example, Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian languageedited by R.I.Avanesov (M., 1997) wordpoolallows you to pronounce with both soft and hard [s], i.e. Andba[s"e]ynAndba[se]yn; in this dictionary it is suggested to pronouncemaneuvers, glider, but pronunciation is also allowedmaneuvers, plner. The appearance of many orthoepic variants is associated with the development of the literary language. The pronunciation is gradually changing. At the beginning of the 20th century. talked A[n"]gel, tse[R"]forge, ve[r"x],ne[R"]vyy. And even now in the speech of older people one can often find such pronunciation. The hard pronunciation of the consonant [s] in the particle - is quickly disappearing from the literary language. Xia(sya) (laughed[With]A, met[With]). At the beginning of the 20th century. this was the norm of the literary language, just like the hard sounds [g, k, x] in adjectives in - cue, - Guy, - heyand in verbs ending in -nod, - give up, - huff. Wordshigh, strict, dilapidated, jump, bounce, shake offpronounced as if it were writtenstrict, dilapidated, jump up, jump up. Then the norm began to allow both options - old and new: andlaughed[With]AAndlaughed[s"]i, andstrictly[G]thstrictly[G"]th. As a result of changes in literary pronunciation, variants appear, some of which characterize the speech of the older generation, others - of the younger. In the pronunciation of adjectives of the genitive case singular, neuter and masculine, according to tradition, the consonant [g] is replaced by [v]: near a black [ch"yaoґrnav] stone, without a blue [s"yn"въ] scarf. In adjectives starting with -Guy, -ky, -hiyand in verbs ending in -give up, -nod, -huff the consonants G, K, X are pronounced softly, in contrast to the Old Moscow pronunciation, which required a hard consonant in these cases: Unstressed personal endings of verbs 1 and 2 conjugations -ut, -yut, -at, -yatand suffixes of active present participles-ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -box- in the language of our days they are pronounced differently, their pronunciation is guided by writing. Old Moscow norms required the pronunciation of these endings and suffixes only according to option 1 of the conjugation. Such pronunciation options are now outdated, but they can still be heard in the speech of old intellectuals. Pronunciation of postfixes -Xia And -sya in reflexive verbs. Old Moscow pronunciation was characterized by the pronunciation of the hard [s] in these morphemes: fight[s], soap[s].The only exceptions were gerunds in which a hard consonant was pronounced:fighting[s"], knocking[s"]. In modern language, it is recommended to pronounce [s"] in all cases, except when the postfix is ​​preceded by the sound [s]: carried[s], shook[s],But:stay[s"b], washed [s"b]. 6. Difficulties may arise when choosing a vowel after hard sibilants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of the letter A. According to modern standards, a vowel of the first degree of reduction of the lower rise of the middle row, non-labialized, should be pronounced in this position, i.e. [L]. However, the norms of Old Moscow pronunciation that were in force back in the middle of our century required that the sound [ы е] be used in this position, i.e. The following pronunciation of words was considered correct: heat - [zhy e raґ], balls - [shy e ryґ], naughty - [shy e lun], blackmail - [shy e ntash]. This norm can now be considered outdated. However, not a single norm that was previously in force in speech disappears, leaving no exceptions, a kind of speech atavisms in which, according to tradition, the old pronunciation is preserved. Such an exception in the Russian language was the pronunciation of words: regret - [zhy e l"]et, jasmine - [zhy e s]min, horses - lo[shy e]dey, jacket - [zhye]ket, as well as numerals 20 and 30 in indirect cases: twenty - twenty [tsy e]ti. On the contrary, after soft sibilants, as after any soft consonants, the sound [L] should not appear in the position of the first degree of reduction, but only [and e]. Therefore, you need to pronounce the words this way:

The alternation of vowel sounds depends primarily on their position in relation to the stressed syllable. In it, vowels sound most clearly, so the position of the vowel in a stressed syllable is called strong . In the strong position, the following vowels are distinguished: [a] - [dam], [o] - [house], [e] - [em] (letter name), [s] - [smoke], [i] - [im] , [y] – [mind].

In unstressed syllables, vowels are pronounced less clearly, shorter, therefore the position of the vowel in an unstressed syllable is called weak position. Let's compare the pronunciation of root vowels in words run, run, run out. In the first case, the vowel [e] is in a strong position, in a stressed syllable, and therefore is heard clearly. It cannot be confused with any other. In words run And run out vowels in the root are in a weak position, because the stress shifted to other syllables. We can no longer say that in this case we hear the vowel [e], because its sound weakens, decreases in duration, and its pronunciation approaches [and]. And in the word run out the vowel is pronounced even shorter, losing its main features. This positional change of vowels is called reduction .

Reduction is a weakening of the pronunciation of a vowel, associated with a change in its length and sound quality in a weak position. All vowels in unstressed syllables are subject to reduction, but the degree of reduction and its nature are different for different vowels. There are reductions quantitative and qualitative .

At quantitative reduction Although the vowels are not pronounced so clearly, losing part of their length (i.e. changing quantitatively), they do not lose their basic quality and do not become completely unclear: P at t - p at type at yours; l And ́ tsa – l And tso - l And forearm; etc s ́ bend - pr s zhok – vypr s bend. High vowels [i], [ы], [у] are subject to quantitative reduction. In any position they are pronounced quite recognizable.

At quality reduction The very nature of the sound of vowels changes: they lose their basic quality, becoming practically unrecognizable. Yes, in words get sick And enemies there are no vowels [o] and [a] found in a strong position ([bol`], [vrak]). Instead, a sound similar to a weakened [a] is pronounced, and therefore, it needs its own designation - [L] (a-tent). In a word price the vowel sound in a weak position is similar to both [s] and [e]. In transcription it is designated [ы е] ([ы] with the overtone [е]). If you compare the words painful,quarrel, price, it turns out that the vowels in the roots, being quite far from the stressed syllables, become very short and indistinguishable. In transcription, such a vowel is designated [ъ] (er). (By the way, changes in weak positions depend not only on the distance from the stressed syllable, but also on the position of the vowel after a hard or soft consonant. So, in the same position as hurt, enemies, in a word watch a sound is pronounced, middle between [and] and [e] - [and e], and in the word hourly- sound denoted [ь] (er)).

Thus, depending on the position of the vowel in relation to the stressed syllable, 2 types of qualitative reduction are distinguished: they are called the 1st degree of reduction (or 1st weak position) and the 2nd degree of reduction (2nd weak position).

1st degree reduction vowels in the following positions are affected:

a) 1st pre-stressed syllable: [пLл`а́] (fields), [trLva] (grass), [p`i so] (nickel), [shy e stand] (sixth);

b) 1st uncovered syllable, regardless of distance from the stressed syllable: (one), (lonely), [y e tash] (floor), [y e tLzhy] (floors);

C) adjacent identical vowels (the so-called “gap” of vowels): [зLLл`е́т`] (become pale), [nLLgLrot] (to the garden).

2nd degree reduction vowels are exposed in other cases:

a) 2nd, 3rd, etc. pre-stressed syllable: [karLndash] (pencil), [karandLshy] (pencils), [s'd'ina] (gray hair), [t`l`i e fon] (telephone);

b) all overstressed syllables: [mа́мъ] (Mother), [lozh'k] (spoon), [sea] (sea), [fighting] (we are fighting).

The designation in phonetic transcription of vowels subject to qualitative reduction can be schematically represented as follows:

Let us recall that the vowels [i], [s], [y] are not subject to qualitative reduction, therefore in phonetic transcription they will be designated in any position as [i], [s], [y]: [l`is`itsъ] (fox), [k`irp`ich`i] (bricks), [s`in`i`] (blue), [roar] (lever arm), [growl e zhok] (lever), [bald`] (bald), [corn] (corn).

Questions and tasks

1. What determines the positional alternation of vowels?

2. What is reduction? What is it connected with?

3. Name the types of reduction. What is the difference?

4. Which vowels are subject to quantitative reduction?

5. What is the essence of qualitative reduction?

6. What is the reason for the existence of two degrees of qualitative reduction?

7. How are vowels of the 1st degree of reduction changed and indicated? vowels of the 2nd degree of reduction?

8. Change the words or select words with the same root so that the vowels in the strong position first appear in the 1st weak position, and then in the 2nd weak position: house, six, king, stretches, whole, dark.

9. Determine the positions of vowel sounds. Transcribe the words. Divide them into syllables: watery, carefree, gear, phenomenon, frozen, holiday, language, happiness, station, forget-me-not.

10. What phonetic phenomenon underlies the appearance of homophones: company - campaign, dedicate - dedicate, awl - awl, caress - rinse, purity - frequency? Transcribe the words.

11. Read the words. Write them down in letters: [l'ul'k], [y'i e ntar'], [r'i e shen'iy', [b'i e r'osk'], [y'i e sh':o], [razr`i e d`it`], [tsy e poch`k], [pаdrLzhat`]. Is only one type of letter writing possible in all cases?

12. Transcribe text1. Indicate cases of quantitative and qualitative reduction. Give a complete description of the vowel sounds in the underlined words.

One day Dunno was walking around the city and wandered into a field. There wasn't a soul around. At that time was flying Chafer. He I'll go blind ran into Dunno and hit him on the back of the head. Shorty rolled head over heels to the ground. The beetle immediately flew away and disappeared into the distance. Dunno jumped up, began to look around and see who hit him. But there was no one around.

Positional changes of sounds

The positional change of sounds is their natural change in a word depending on the difference in phonetic conditions. So, for example, the sound [o] always alternates with the sound [L] if it appears in the first pre-stressed syllable after hard consonants (cf. [cat - kLta]).

In the modern Russian literary language, there are two fundamentally different types of positional exchange of sounds.

The first type represents positional changes, in which parallel rows of sounds are formed. In words pat, sleep, sleeping, five the stressed sound [a] is in different phonetic conditions and therefore differs in quality: between hard consonants the sound [a] acts as a middle vowel [a], before a soft consonant it turns out to be more anterior at the end of its duration [a*], after a soft the consonant before the hard consonant becomes more forward at the beginning of its duration [*a], between soft consonants it moves forward and slightly upward throughout its duration [a]. Positional changes of the sound [a] in these phonetic positions are represented by a number of sounds: [a], [a*], [*a], [*a*].

In phonetic positions identical to the above positions of the sound [a], the sounds [o], [y] change in parallel in the same way: raft - flesh - whip - binding(raft - pl*t" - pl"o*tk - p"r"i e plst"b], court - judging - here - lisp[suda - su*d"b - s"*uda - s"yas"ukt"].

The second type is represented by positional changes of sounds, in which non-parallel rows of sounds are formed, intersecting with each other, having one or more common members. An example of non-parallel changes is the change of vowel sounds depending on the place in relation to stress. These are called variants of vowel phonemes.

The presence in the phonetic system of two types of positional exchange of sounds - parallel and non-parallel - is the basis for distinguishing the concepts of strong and weak phonemes, strong and weak positions.

Combinatorial changes in sounds

Combinatorial changes in sounds, the result of the influence of surrounding sounds in the speech stream.

assimilation ((from Latin assimilatio), assimilation, fusion, assimilation),

dissimilation (one of the types of combinatorial changes in sounds in the stream of speech, when one of two identical or similar speech sounds (adjacent or non-adjacent) is replaced by another sound, different or less similar to it),

accommodation (partial adaptation of the articulation of adjacent consonant and vowel, consisting in the fact that the excursion (i.e., the beginning of articulation) of the subsequent sound adapts to the recursion (i.e., the end of articulation) of the previous sound (progressive accommodation) or, conversely, the recursion of the previous sound adapts to the subsequent excursion (regressive accommodation).) - adaptation of consonants to vowels and vowels to consonants (“games - played out”), loss of sound (“sonce” instead of “sun”), haplology - loss of one of the same or similar syllables ( “standard-bearer” from “standard-bearer”), contraction of two adjacent vowels into one (Russian dialect “byvat” from “byvat”), apheresis - the loss of the initial vowel of a word after the final vowel of the preceding word, elision - the loss of the final vowel of a word before the initial vowel of the next word , epenthesis - insertion of sounds (colloquial “Larivon”, “radio”), metathesis - rearrangement (“Frol” from Latin Florus).

In the flow of speech, articulation, and, consequently, the acoustics of sound, are subject to modification, i.e. partial change. These changes are always positional, but they are divided into two types: actual positional and combinatorial-positional.

1. Self-positional modifications:

1) Stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word (in German and at the end of a syllable).

2) Reduction of vowels.

The deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word is typical for many languages; for German it is also at the end of a syllable (Absatz [´ápzats], Russian: paragraph).

The reduction of vowels is associated with the weakening of unstressed syllables, i.e. vowels in an unstressed position are pronounced less clearly. The prevalence of reduction varies in different languages. For example, in the Georgian and Italian languages ​​there is no reduction at all. In Spanish it appears weakly. A strong manifestation of reduction in Germanic languages. In them, unstressed vowels are extremely reduced.

The reduction may be quantitative, i.e. manifest itself in reducing the duration of the sound while maintaining quality. In German, in an open unstressed syllable, a long vowel becomes semi-long (mó:to˙r–mo˙tó:rən).

At quality reduction changes both the quality and quantity of sound. There are three degrees of reduction in the Russian language: mal [mal], baby [mΛly´sh], malyshki [milyshy]. In the history of the German language, reduction manifested itself in the fact that those that existed until the end of the 11th century. the final positions of the nouns o, a, i, y, due to reduction, merged into one reduced sound e [ə]. This received great resonance at the morphematic level ( law of interlevel correlation). For example, the declension of plural nouns.

Before the 11th century: berga, bergo, bergum, berga - after: Berge, Berge, Bergen, Berge.

Forms of reduction: 1) full– one sound or an entire syllable disappears (unstressed position); if at the end of a word it is apocope(Tan!), and if in the middle - syncope(Sanych)/

Reduction has manifested itself to varying degrees in the history of Germanic languages. By degree of intensification: dead Gothic (runic), Icelandic, German, English (day – dagur–day–dag–Tag;onoma–namo,Name–name.

The consequences of phonetic reduction are very great. Why? Final vowels often contain grammatical indicators. The disappearance of these indicators first leads to a decrease in word forms in the declensions/conjugations paradigm, then the function of distinguishing grammatical meanings is transferred to other levels, and this process may end with a change in the type of language. Language can change from synthetic to analytical.

2. Combinatorial-positional changes in the flow of speech.

Types: accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation and additional varieties: metathesis, epenthesis, prosthesis, diaeresis, haplology.

Accommodation(accomodatio – adaptation) is a change in the articulation of consonants under the influence of neighboring vowels and vowels under the influence of consonants. May be progressive And regressive(,®). An example of regressive accommodation in the Russian language is the labialization of consonants under the influence of labialized vowels. In English, as a result of progressive accommodation, a transition occurred: [æ]®[o] after w(cat–was–).

Assimilation- this is the influence of some vowels on other vowels and consonants on consonants. This is an influence towards rapprochement, likening one sound to another. Maybe... The Russian language is characterized by assimilation by deafening and voicing (lo[sh]ka - spoon, pro[z"]ba - to ask). In the German language there is and®, and assimilation, but only by deafening (no voicing). In English there is an example of progressive assimilation: -s:boo ks, and in other cases (after voiced and sonorant ones) – [z]. As a result of assimilation, an umlaut (revocalization) appeared in the ancient Germanic languages, for example, sandjan–sendan–senden–send; gast–gasti–gaesti–gäste– guest – guests.

Assimilation may be contact And distant. Progressive distant assimilation of vowels occurs in most Turkic languages ​​and in a number of Finno-Ugric languages. This is the most important indicator of these families, called “vowel harmony” - synharmonism. For example, in Turkish, Uzbek, Kazakh languages, the plural suffix of nouns is –lar, if the root contains –a or other non-front vowels, and if other vowels are –ler. For example, in Turkishmoda–odalar, еv– - еvleг; in Kazakh, ara-aralar-aralarga - pilam, in Kyrgyz, mota-otalar - father, ene-eneler - mother.

Dissimilation– dissimilarity of sounds. In general, this type is less common. In Russian - in common parlance, in borrowings (February februarius, plate teller).

Metathesis– rearrangement. For example, lat.silverster – rus. Seliverst; German Futteral – case; bear - witch.

Haplology– of two identical syllables, one disappears, is removed: banner (but) bearer, tragi (co) media.

Epenthesis- insertion of a sound, usually in the middle of a word. For example, cocoa - kakava, sram - stram, Larivon.

Prosthesis- insertion of a sound at the beginning of a word when borrowing or in common speech. For example, osm - eight, sharp - sharp; In Turkic languages, accumulation of consonants is not allowed, therefore, when borrowing words, “y” is added - “ystakan”.

Diaeresis– loss of sounds in the middle of a word, usually in spontaneous speech. For example, it happens - it happens, I say - grue, the area is the area.

So, two types of changes (modifications) of sounds in the flow of speech: 1) positional changes themselves: deafening of voiced sounds at the end of a word, reduction of vowels in an unstressed position and 2) positional-combinatorial: accommodation (mutual influence of vowels and consonants), assimilation (vowels influence vowels, and consonants - to consonants) and dissimilation. Special cases of combinatorial-positional changes are metathesis (rearrangement of sounds), haplology (omission of one of the same syllables), epenthesis (insertion of a sound in the middle of a word), prosthesis (insertion of a sound at the beginning of a word), diaeresis (loss of sounds in the middle of a word).

Phonetic division of speech. Syllable, beat, phrase. The concept of segmental and supersegmental phonetic units. Intonation, types of intonation, functions of intonation. Stress, types of stress, its functions in language. Reduction.

Speech phonetically represents a sound stream or a chain of sounds. This chain breaks up into subordinate links, which are special, purely phonetic units of language, following each other in time.

Phonetic units of speech as links in the speech chain are 1) phrases, 2) measures, 3) syllables and 4) sounds. Thus, speech sounds are not used in isolation, but in the context of syllables, beats and phrases.

1. A phrase is the largest phonetic unit; phrases are separated in the speech chain by pauses, i.e., a stop of sound that breaks the sound chain; During pauses, the speaker inhales the air necessary to pronounce the next phrase. In no case should one identify a grammatical unit (sentence) and a phonetic one (phrase), since one phrase can cover several sentences and a sentence can split into several phrases.

2. The phrase breaks down into bars. A beat is a part of a phrase (one or more syllables), united by one stress 1. The measures united by the strongest point - the stressed syllable - are delimited by a minimum of intensity, i.e. in those segments of the sound chain where the strength of the previous stressed syllable is already in the past, and the intensification to the subsequent stressed syllable is still in the future. In most languages, all significant words are separated into separate bars, as they have their own stress; non-significant words, without their own stress, adjoin in front and behind the word that has stress, forming one beat with it. An adjoining front is called a procli2se 2, and the unstressed word itself adjoining in front is a procli2tic (for example, at home2, without a hat, three years old, my uncle, what is he2, you went2l), where are the unstressed ones? on, without, three, you, my, what, you – proclitics. The adjoining behind is called an enkli2se 3, and the unstressed word itself adjoining behind is called an encli2tic (for example, saw, walked, someone2, who2 it is, what2 it is, on2 the house, Where whether, was, then, this, he, house – enclitics).

3. Measures are divided into syllables. A syllable is a part of a beat consisting of one or more sounds; Moreover, not all sounds can form a syllable, i.e., be syllabic (or syllabic-forming). For this purpose, instantaneous sounds, i.e. plosives and affricates 1, are not suitable as part of words. Continuous ones can be syllabic according to the degree of sonority, first of all, the most sonorant ones are vowels, secondly, sonorant consonants and, finally, fricatives, cf. Russian finger, where is the syllabic e, Serbian prst, where is the syllabic R , and French pst!, where is syllabic s 2. In languages ​​such as Serbian, syllabic consonants are special units (Serbian. prst –"finger", SRP –“Serb”, etc.).

4. Syllables are divided into sounds. Thus, from the point of view of this classification, the sound of speech is a part of a syllable pronounced in one articulation, that is, with the presence of one excursion and one recursion; if there is more than one excursion and recursion, then this is not one articulation, and therefore not one sound, but a sound combination; for example, in Russian [ts] there is one sound, where in the excursion there is a bow, and in the recursion there is an instant exit into the gap with fricative, and [ts] is a sound combination, where there are two excursions and two recursions (for [t] and for [s]); Wed two surnames pronounced differently: Kots And Coats(and cat sir).

Typically, verbal stress consists of the fact that in a word (or in a group consisting of a significant word and one or more auxiliary words), with the help of certain sound means, one well-defined syllable is emphasized, and sometimes - to a lesser extent - also other or other syllables. Thus, a stressed syllable can be pronounced with greater intensity - the so-called dynamic, or force, stress 1. It can be lengthened (usually due to its vowel) - quantitative, or quantitative, stress. It can be distinguished by raising or lowering the tone - musical, or tonic, stress. In a number of languages, qualitative stress is also observed - a special quality of the sounds that make up the stressed syllable.

In polysyllabic words, the stress function that N. S. Trubetskoy called “vertex-forming” (“culminative”) appears especially clearly. The stressed syllable, as it were, makes up the apex of the word, and the unstressed syllables are adjacent to this apex. In a segment of connected speech consisting of similar words, the number of vertices tells us how many words are contained in this segment. For example: “A storm covers the sky with darkness, spinning snow whirlwinds” - 7 stresses and 7 words. But the same picture is also given by monosyllabic words that carry stress: in the above example “Then the brother took a knife” - 4 stress and 4 words. We can say that stress in both a monosyllabic and a polysyllabic word acts as a sign of the word, an indicator of its “separateness”, its certain independence in a number of neighboring words. Thus, the “vertex-forming” function of stress is a special case of a more general function, which can be called word-forming. comfort. Stress is the same obligatory element of the sound form of a given word, as is a certain phonemic composition. It is noted that word recognition, especially in difficult communication conditions, primarily depends on the correct perception of the stressed syllable.

§ 80. Word stress can be free (various places) or bound (fixed, unary). 1. Free stress is called stress in those languages ​​in which it can appear on any (initial, middle, final) syllables of an accented word, as we see in the Russian language.

Free stress can be stationary when forming word forms and derivative words or mobile. We have a fixed stress, for example, in the word peas: cf. peas, peas, peas, etc., also peas, peas, peas, dazzle - everywhere the stress falls on the same syllable -rokh- or -rd-. Fixed stress in a certain way characterizes not only a given word form, but also a given root morpheme: in the word peas and its derivatives, it invariably falls on the second syllable of the root. In such cases, stress is as clear and characteristic a feature of a given root morpheme as the phonemic composition of its exponent. We have a mobile stress in the word beard: cf. beards, beards... beards, beards... and, finally, beards (cf. and the derivative beard). Stress mobility is observed in languages ​​with free stress, where stress in one way or another characterizes certain non-root morphemes (endings, suffixes, prefixes), certain grammatical forms and word-formation types.

Bound (fixed) is the word stress in those languages ​​in which it always (or almost always) falls on one syllable of the word defined in order, for example: only on the initial, only on the final, only on the penultimate syllable, etc. We have the initial stress in the Finno-Ugric languages, and from the Indo-European languages ​​- in Latvian, Czech, Slovak.

It is easy to see that in languages ​​with bound stress, the place of stress does not depend on the morphemic composition of the word, but is determined in relation to the word boundary (initial or final) and, therefore, serves, if not as an indicator of the exact location of this boundary, then at least as an indicator of its proximity . In these languages, the general word-forming function of stress is additionally layered with a word-delimiting (delimiting, or “border signal” function)

The concept of “phrase intonation” (or simply “intonation”) covers all prosodic phenomena observed within the framework of syntactic units - phrases and sentences (including one-word sentences). The most important component of intonation is melody, i.e. the movement of the fundamental tone of the voice (raising and lowering), creating the tonal contour of the utterance and its parts and thus connecting and dividing our speech. Thus, a significant decrease in tone indicates the completion of the message or some relatively independent part of it. On the contrary, a rise indicates the incompleteness of the thought, that one must wait for continuation, or - with another melodic pattern - that this is a question, not a statement, etc. Melodics and especially the second important component of intonation - intensity are used to emphasize some parts of the utterance. Thus, the concept of intonation includes phrasal stress. L. V. Shcherba calls its neutral variety syntagmatic stress and considers it as a means of phonetic organization of syntagmas. Syntagma is understood as a variable, speech unit, “...the shortest segment of speech..., which in a given context and in a given situation corresponds to a single concept” 1. Syntagma is a relatively small group of words united by proximity in a speech chain and a close semantic connection. In a Russian text, syntagmatic stress consists in the fact that the last word of the syntagma (if it is not a function word incapable of having its own verbal stress) is emphasized more than the others. Thus, the sentence “What did you do last night?” will most commonly be divided into two syntagms (we will denote their boundaries with a vertical line, and the word receiving syntagmatic stress will be highlighted in italics): “What did you do | last night Wed. and in response: “I read a new book, | which they gave me | On one day". In all these cases, syntagmatic stress can be considered as establishing some gradation between word stresses. In the French text, all words of the syntagma, except the last one, generally lose their verbal stress. Logical stress is observed in cases where the content of speech requires special emphasis on certain parts of the statement. This stress is often seen as a departure from the usual norms of syntagmatic stress. So, in the sentence “I liked his new book less than the first,” although at the end of the first syntagm there is the word book, we will highlight not it, but another word - new and thereby make the opposition expressed here more prominent: new - first. In other cases, logical stress, on the contrary, further emphasizes a word that should already be emphasized by syntagmatic stress. Wed: “This is not a new book, but just a new article!” Note that logical stress can even violate the norms of verbal stress. Wed. usual verbal stress: before meals and logical: “before meals or after meals?” The third component of intonation is the rate of speech, its slowing down and speeding up. By slowing down the tempo, more important words in the statement are highlighted (a type of logical stress) or words that are most emotionally significant (the so-called emphatic, or emotional-expressive, stress). In the Russian language, in the case of positive emotions, there is a special lengthening (stretching) of the stressed vowel, and sometimes of the entire highlighted word (“He is a wonderful person!”); in the case of negative emotions (anger, threat, etc.), it is more typical to lengthen the initial consonant word (n-scoundrel!) or the initial consonant stressed syllable (scoundrel!). As the tempo increases, less important parts of the utterance are usually pronounced. Important components of intonation are also pausing, i.e. the arrangement of pauses and their gradation in duration, and, finally, timbre features that are associated with the expression of the general emotional mood of our speech ( for example, what is called “metal in the voice”)

13. Phoneme and its functions in language. History of phoneme isolation. Basic provisions of the IMF. Leningrad phonological school: features of understanding the phoneme, the function of the phoneme and the variant of the phoneme.

Basic functions of the phoneme.

Perceptual(Latin perceptio - to perceive) the function of a phoneme presupposes its ability to be perceived by hearing, i.e. identify. So, the root in the forms of the pronoun my, mine, mine is the same, because it has the same meaning and the same phonemic composition, while each phoneme is represented by different positionally alternating sounds, including the zero sound: my -<моj-ø>and [mo˙ṷ], my –<моj-а>and [мΛja], mine –<моj-ово>and [my e v˚o]).

Significative(lat. significāre – to designate) – the ability to distinguish between morphemes and words, i.e. semantic distinguishing function For example, consonant phonemes<к>, <т>, <м>, <л>, <в>, <р>distinguish the words cat - that - mot - lot - here - mouth; vowels<о>, <э>, <а>, <у>, <и>, <ы>, <а>- words say - chalk - small - mule - mil - soap - crumpled, etc.

Moscow Phonological School (MFS) - one of the directions in modern phonology that arose on the basis of the teachings of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay about the phoneme (along with the Leningrad phonological school ( LFS), founded by L. V. Shcherba).

The emergence of the school is associated with the names of such Soviet linguists as R. I. Avanesov, V. N. Sidorov, A. A. Reformatsky.

The most important position of the school is the need to apply a morphological criterion (referring to morphemic division) when determining the phonemic composition of a language. The ideas of the IFS have found application primarily in the theory of writing: in graphics, spelling, the creation of alphabets, practical transcription and transliteration, as well as in historical phonetics, dialectology, linguistic geography and teaching a non-native language.

According to the teachings of the IMF, the phoneme performs two main functions:

Perceptual - to promote the identification of significant units of language - words and morphemes;

Significative - to help distinguish significant units.