Subject, methods and tasks of educational psychology. Methodology of psychology (pedagogy): definition, tasks, levels and functions Methods of educational psychology briefly

Observation- the main, most widespread in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) empirical method of studying a person. Under observation is understood as a purposeful, organized and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study. The results of recording observation data are called a description of the object's behavior. Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio and video equipment, surveillance maps, etc.). However, with the help of observation it is possible to detect only phenomena that occur under ordinary, “normal” conditions, and to understand the essential properties of an object it is necessary to create special conditions different from “normal” ones.

The main features of the observation method are (see animation):

• direct connection between the observer and the observed object;

  bias (emotional coloring) of observation;

  difficulty (sometimes impossibility) of repeated observation.

There are several types of observations (see Fig. 6). Depending on the observer's position, open And hidden observation. The first means that the subjects know the fact of their scientific control, and the researcher’s activities are perceived visually. Covert observation presupposes the fact of covert monitoring of the actions of the subject. The difference between the first and second is the comparison of data on the course of psychological and pedagogical processes and the behavior of participants in educational interaction under conditions of a feeling of supervision and freedom from the eyes of strangers. Further highlighted are solid And selective observation. The first covers processes in their entirety: from their beginning to the end, to completion. The second is a dotted, selective recording of certain phenomena and processes being studied. For example, when studying the labor intensity of teacher and student work in a lesson, the entire learning cycle is observed from its start at the beginning of the lesson to the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in teacher-student relationships, the researcher waits, as it were, observing these events from the side, in order to then describe in detail the reasons for their occurrence, the behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. teacher and student. The result of a study that uses the observation method largely depends on the researcher himself, on his “culture of observation.” It is necessary to take into account the specific requirements for the procedure for obtaining and interpreting information in observation. Among them, the following stand out: 1. Only external facts that have speech and motor manifestations are accessible to observation. What you can observe is not intelligence, but how a person solves problems; not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc. 2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, behavior, be defined operationally, in terms of real behavior, i.e. The characteristics recorded should be as descriptive and as less explanatory as possible. 3. The most important moments of behavior (critical cases) should be highlighted for observation. 4. The observer must be able to record the behavior of the person being assessed over a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations. 5. The reliability of observation increases if the testimony of several observers coincides. 6. Role relationships between the observer and the observed must be eliminated. For example, a student's behavior will be different in the presence of parents, teachers, and peers. Therefore, external assessments given to the same person for the same set of qualities by people occupying different positions in relation to him may turn out to be different. 7. Assessments in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (likes and dislikes, transfers of attitudes from parents to the student, from the student’s performance to his behavior, etc.). Conversation- widespread in educational psychology empirical method obtaining information (information) about the student in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. This is a method specific to educational psychology for studying student behavior. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is calledconversation method . Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to name Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of “depth” psychology, etc. IN conversations, dialogues, discussions, the attitudes of students, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions are revealed. Researchers of all times in conversations received information that was impossible to obtain in any other way. Psychological and pedagogical conversation as a research method is distinguished by the researcher’s purposeful attempts to penetrate into the inner world of the subjects of the educational process, to identify the reasons for certain actions. Information about the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attitude to the problems of interest to the researcher is also obtained through conversations. But conversations are a very complex and not always reliable method. Therefore, it is most often used as an additional method - to obtain the necessary clarifications and clarifications about what was not clear enough during observation or the use of other methods.

For increase reliability results of the conversation and removing the inevitable shade of subjectivity, special measures should be used. These include:

• the presence of a clear conversation plan, thought out taking into account the characteristics of the student’s personality and steadily implemented;

  discussion of issues of interest to the researcher from various angles and connections of school life;

  varying questions, posing them in a form convenient for the interlocutor;

  ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in questions and answers.

Conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of a psychological and pedagogical experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the student, teacher, gives them instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview. Interview called targeted questioning. An interview is defined as a “pseudo-conversation”: the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, do not lose sight of the plan and conduct the conversation in the direction he needs. Questionnaire- an empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that meet the main objective of the study that make up the questionnaire. Questioning is a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires called questionnaires. Questioning is based on the assumption that the person answers the questions asked to him frankly. However, as recent research into the effectiveness of this method shows, these expectations are met by approximately half. This circumstance sharply narrows the range of application of the questionnaire and undermines confidence in the objectivity of the results obtained (Yadov V.A., 1995; abstract). Teachers and psychologists were attracted to the survey by the possibility of quick mass surveys of students, teachers, and parents, the low cost of the methodology, and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.

Nowadays, various types of questionnaires are widely used in psychological and pedagogical research:

• open, requiring independent construction of an answer;

  closed, in which students have to choose one of ready-made answers;

  personal, requiring the subject's surname to be indicated;

  anonymous, doing without it, etc.

When compiling the questionnaire, the following are taken into account:

• form of questions - open or closed;

  wording of questions (clarity, no prompted answers, etc.);

  number and order of questions. In psychological and pedagogical practice, the number of questions usually corresponds to no more than 30-40 minutes of work using the questionnaire method; The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method.

Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group, but in any case it must meet two requirements - representativeness and homogeneity of the sample. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing. Testing method. Due to the specifics of the subject of educational psychology, some of the above methods are used to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. However, the testing method is becoming increasingly widespread in educational psychology. Test (English test - sample, test, check) - in psychology - a time-fixed test designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences(Burlachuk, 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is made.

Testing differs from other examination methods:

• accuracy;

  simplicity;

  accessibility;

  possibility of automation.

(http://www.voppy.ru/journals_all/issues/1998/985/985126.htm; see the article by Borisova E.M. “Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics”).

Testing is far from a new method of research, but it is underused in educational psychology (Burlachuk, 2000, p. 325; abstract). Back in the 80-90s. XIX century researchers began to study individual differences in people. This led to the emergence of the so-called test experiment - research using tests (A. Dalton, A. Cattell, etc.). Application tests served as an impetus for the development psychometric method, the foundations of which were laid by B. Henri and A. Binet. Measuring school success, intellectual development, and the degree of formation of many other qualities with the help of tests has become an integral part of broad educational practice. Psychology, having provided pedagogy with a tool for analysis, closely connected with it (it is sometimes impossible to separate pedagogical testing from psychological testing) (http://psychology.net.ru/articles/d20020106230736.html; see psychological tests). If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we will point out, first of all, the use of achievement tests. Tests of skills such as reading, writing, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of training - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge and skills in all academic subjects are widely used. Typically, testing as a method of psychological and pedagogical research merges with practical testing of current performance, identifying the level of training, and monitoring the quality of learning material. The most complete and systematized description of the tests is presented in the work of A. Anastasi “Psychological Testing”. Analyzing testing in education, the scientist notes that all types of existing tests are used in this process, but among all types of standardized tests, achievement tests are numerically superior to all others. They were created to measure the objectivity of training programs and processes. They typically "provide a final assessment of an individual's achievements at the end of training and focus on what the individual can do to date" ( Anastasi A., 1982. P. 36-37). (http://www.psy.msu.ru/about/lab/ht.html; see Center for Psychological and Career Guidance Testing "Humanitarian Technologies" MSU).

A.K. Erofeev, analyzing the basic requirements for testing, identifies the following main groups of knowledge that a testologist must have:

• basic principles of normative testing;

  types of tests and areas of their application;

  basics of psychometrics (i.e. in what units are psychological qualities measured in the system);

  test quality criteria (methods for determining the validity and reliability of the test);

  ethical standards for psychological testing (Erofeev A.K., 1987).

All of the above means that the use of testing in educational psychology requires special training, high qualifications and responsibility. Experiment- one of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. Differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables(factors) and registration of accompanying changes in the behavior of the studied object (see Fig. 7). A properly conducted experiment allows you to check hypotheses in cause-and-effect causal relationships, not limited to stating the connection ( correlations) between variables. There are traditional and factorial experimental designs (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html; see group for the study of personality formation factors PI RAO). At traditional planning only one thing changes independent variable, at factorial - some. The advantage of the latter is the ability to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. To statistically process the experimental results in this case, we use analysis of variance(R. Fisher). If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then they talk about a pilot experiment, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis. When there are two competing hypotheses and an experiment allows us to choose one of them, we speak of a decisive experiment. A control experiment is carried out to check any dependencies. The use of experiment, however, encounters fundamental limitations associated with the impossibility in some cases of arbitrarily changing variables. Thus, in differential psychology and personality psychology, empirical dependencies mostly have the status of correlations (i.e., probabilistic and statistical dependencies) and, as a rule, do not always allow drawing conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. One of the difficulties of using an experiment in psychology is that the researcher often finds himself involved in a situation of communication with the person being examined (subject) and can unwittingly influence his behavior (Fig. 8). Formative, or educational, experiments form a special category of methods of psychological research and influence. They allow you to purposefully form the characteristics of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.

Procedure experiment consists in the targeted creation or selection of conditions that ensure reliable identification of the factor being studied, and in recording changes associated with its influence. Most often, in psychological and pedagogical experiments, they deal with 2 groups: an experimental group, in which the factor being studied is included, and a control group, in which it is absent. The experimenter, at his own discretion, can modify the conditions of the experiment and observe the consequences of such a change. This, in particular, makes it possible to find the most rational methods in educational work with students. For example, by changing the conditions for learning one or another educational material, it is possible to establish under what conditions memorization will be the fastest, most durable and accurate. By conducting research under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter can establish the age and individual characteristics of the course of mental processes in each of them.

Psychological and pedagogical experiments differ:

• according to the form of conduct;

  number of variables;

• the nature of the research organization.

According to the form of conduct, there are two main types of experiments - laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment carried out in specially organized artificial conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. To achieve this, the side effects of all simultaneously occurring processes are eliminated. A laboratory experiment allows, with the help of recording instruments, to accurately measure the time of occurrence of mental processes, for example, the speed of a person’s reaction, the speed of formation of educational and work skills. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable indicators under strictly defined conditions. Has more limited use laboratory experiment when studying manifestations of personality and character. On the one hand, the object of research here is complex and multifaceted, on the other, the well-known artificiality of the laboratory situation presents great difficulties. When examining the manifestations of a personality in artificially created special conditions, in a private, limited situation, we do not always have reason to conclude that similar manifestations will be characteristic of the same personality in natural life circumstances. The artificiality of the experimental setting is a significant drawback of this method. It may lead to disruption of the natural course of the processes under study. For example, by memorizing important and interesting educational material, in natural conditions a student achieves different results than when he is asked to memorize experimental material under unusual conditions that is not directly of interest to the child. Therefore, a laboratory experiment should be carefully organized and, if possible, combined with other, more natural methods. The data from the laboratory experiment are mainly of theoretical value; conclusions drawn on their basis can be extended to real life practice with known limitations (Milgram St., 2000; abstract). Natural experiment . The indicated disadvantages of a laboratory experiment are to some extent eliminated when organizing a natural experiment. This method was first proposed in 1910 by A.F. Lazursky at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions as part of an activity that is familiar to the subjects, such as training sessions or games. Often the situation created by the experimenter may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; in this case, a positive factor for the study is the complete naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing teaching methods, school equipment, daily routine, etc.), an experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves become participants in its creation. Such research requires particularly careful planning and preparation. It makes sense to use it when data needs to be obtained in an extremely short time and without interfering with the main activities of the subjects. Significant disadvantage natural experiment- the inevitable presence of uncontrolled interference, i.e. factors whose influence has not been established and cannot be measured quantitatively. A.F. himself Lazursky expressed the essence of a natural experiment as follows: “In the natural-experimental study of personality, we do not use artificial methods, do not conduct experiments in artificial laboratory conditions, do not isolate the child from the usual environment of his life, but experiment with natural forms of the external environment. We study the personality by life itself and therefore all the influences of both the individual on the environment and the environment on the individual become available for examination. This is where the experiment comes into life. We are not studying individual mental processes, as is usually done (for example, memory is studied by memorizing meaningless syllables, attention by crossing out icons on tables), but we study both mental functions and the personality as a whole. At the same time, we do not use artificial material, but school subjects" (Lazursky A.F., 1997; abstract). By number of variables studied There are one-dimensional and multi-dimensional experiments. One-dimensional experiment involves identifying one dependent and one independent variable in the study. It is most often implemented in laboratory experiment. Multidimensional experiment . A natural experiment affirms the idea of ​​studying phenomena not in isolation, but in their interconnection and interdependence. Therefore, a multidimensional experiment is most often implemented here. It requires the simultaneous measurement of many related characteristics, the independence of which is not known in advance. Analysis of connections between many studied characteristics, identification of the structure of these connections, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main goal of a multidimensional experiment. The results of an experimental study often do not represent an identified pattern, a stable dependence, but a series of more or less fully recorded empirical facts. These are, for example, descriptions of children's play activities obtained as a result of an experiment, experimental data on the influence of such factors as the presence of other people and the associated motive of competition on any activity. These data, which are often descriptive in nature, do not yet reveal the psychological mechanism of the phenomena and represent only more specific material that narrows the further scope of the search. Therefore, the results of experiments in pedagogy and psychology should often be considered as intermediate material and the initial basis for further research work (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html; see laboratory of theoretical and experimental experimental problems of developmental psychology PI RAO).

Basic methods of educational psychology. Formative experiment as one of the main methods of psychological and pedagogical research In educational psychology, all the methods that are available in general age and many other branches of psychology are used: observation, oral and written survey, method of analyzing the products of activity, content analysis, experiment, etc. Changes made to these methods when they are used in educational psychology, they concern the possibility of assessment with their help...

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clause 2.1. , clause 2.2. , clause 2.3. , clause 2.4.

TOPIC 2. METHODS OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

In educational psychology, all the methods that are used in general, developmental and many other branches of psychology are used: observation, oral and written questioning, the method of analyzing activity products, content analysis, experiment etc., but only here they are applied taking into account the age of the children and those psychological and pedagogical problems in the context of which there is a need to address them(see Fig. 1) . The changes made to these methods, when they are used in educational psychology, relate to the possibility of assessing with their help the current level of education and training of the child or the changes that occur in his psyche and behavior under the influence of training and upbringing. To determine the specifics of the application of general scientific research methods in educational psychology, it is necessary to consider some features of the relationship between methodology, methods and techniques of psychological and pedagogical research, as well as the levels of methodological knowledge. ( http://www.pirao.ru/ ; see the website of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education).

2.1. The relationship between methodology, methods and methods of psychological and pedagogical research. Levels of methodological knowledge

• 
  

2.1.1. The relationship between methodology, methods and methods of psychological and pedagogical research

Each science, including educational psychology, in order to develop productively, must rely on certain starting points that give correct ideas about the phenomena that it studies. The role of such provisions is methodology and theory .
Human activity in any form (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process is carried out, what methods, techniques, and means are used. These are the problems of the method.
History and the current state of knowledge and practice convincingly show that not everyone method , not any system principles and other means of activity ensure the successful solution of theoretical and practical problems. Not only the result of the research, but also the path leading to it must be true (see Fig. 2).

Methodology - a system of principles and methods of organizing, constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system.
The concept of “methodology” has two main meanings: a)a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity(in science, politics, art, etc.); b)the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action.

• Methodology:
  • teaches how a scientist or practitioner should act in order to obtain a true result;
  • explores internal mechanisms, logic of movement and organization of knowledge;
  • reveals the laws of functioning and change of knowledge;
  • studies explanatory schemes of science, etc.

In turn, the theory - this is a set of views, judgments, conclusions, which are the result of knowledge and understanding of the studied phenomena and processes of objective reality.
This or that scientific approach and methodological principles are implemented in specific research methods. In general scientific terms, method (from the Greek methodos - path of research, theory, teaching) - “a way of achieving a goal, solving a specific problem; a set of techniques or operations for the practical and theoretical development (cognition) of reality" (Big Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998. P. 724; annotation).
The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition and practical transformation of a particular object. Therefore, the method (in one form or another) comes down to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of cognition and action. It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should guide the solution of a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a particular field of activity. It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if it is correct) to save energy and time, and move towards the goal in the shortest way. The true method serves as a kind of compass along which the subject of cognition and action makes his way and allows him to avoid mistakes.
In turn, the methods of educational psychology are specified in research methods. Methodology meets specific goals and tasks psychological and pedagogical research, contains a description of the object and procedures of study, methods of recording and processing the data obtained. Based on a specific method, many techniques can be created. For example, the experimental method in educational psychology is embodied in methods for studying the intellect, will, personality of a student and other aspects of mental reality.
Example. Let us consider the “triangle” of the relationship between methodology, methods and techniques of psychological and pedagogical research using the example of domestic psychology and humanistic psychology.
During the Soviet period of developmentnational educational psychology, as well as psychology in general, was due to the prevalence of the dialectical-materialist approach to understanding the essence of the phenomena of reality.

• Its essence was expressed:
  • in the idea of ​​the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness;
  • an idea of ​​the driving forces of development of the surrounding reality and psyche;
  • understanding the unity of external, material activity and internal, mental;
  • awareness of the social conditionality of the development of the human psyche.

Consequently, one of the most important research methods in the field of psychology, in particular educational psychology, was the experimental method. Using this method, we check hypotheses causal, i.e. cause-and-effect nature. At that time, such a type of experiment as a formative experiment gained particular popularity. Therefore, various programs were actively developedformative experiment, correctional and developmental training programs, etc. ( see Chrest. 2.1).
The basis humanistic psychology(C. Rogers, A. Maslow etc.) amounts tohumanitarian paradigm. This paradigm in science presupposes knowledge of nature, society, and man himself from an anthropological, human-studies position; it brings a “human dimension” to all spheres of public life. It is characterized by the use of general principles in the interpretation of individual, social or historical events. But at the same time, an isolated case is not considered as a special case of a general pattern, but is taken in its own value and autonomy. For humanitarian knowledge, it is important to comprehend individual facts as such. Therefore, one of the main ways of knowing a person and his “second nature” is understanding. Understanding - this is not only knowledge, but also complicity, empathy, compassion for another. Therefore, among the main methods of cognition, methods of practical psychology prevail (psychological consultation, psychotherapy, psychotraining, transactional analysis, etc.). (http://www.voppy.ru/journals_all/issues/1995/952/952019.htm; see article by Vorobyova V.N. "Humanitarian psychology: subject and tasks").

2.1.2. Levels of methodological knowledge

• In modern methodology and logic of science ( Asmolov A.G., 1996, abstract) the following general scheme of methodology levels is distinguished:
  • level of philosophical methodology;
  • level of methodology of general scientific principles of research;
  • level of specific scientific methodology;
  • level of research methods and techniques(see Fig. 3) .

(http://www.voppy.ru/journals_all/issues/1999/991/991003.htm- see article by Asmolov A.G. "XXI century: psychology in the century of psychology (dedicated to the memory of my teacher A.N. Leontyev (1903-1979)).

Philosophical methodology- this is the basis on which research activities are based.Major philosophical doctrines act as the methodological basis for specific scientific directions. It does not exist as a system of rigid norms or indications of the need for vague technical techniques, but only offers basic guidelines. To the same level methodology includes consideration of general forms of scientific thinking.
Towards a general scientific methodologyinclude attempts to develop universal principles, means and forms of scientific knowledge, correlated, at least potentially, not with any specific science, but applicable to a wide range of sciences.However, this level of methodology still remains, unlike philosophical methodology, within the framework of scientific knowledge itself, without expanding to a global ideological level.
These include, for example, the concepts of systemic scientific analysis, the structural-level approach, cybernetic principles descriptions of complex systems, etc. At this level, general Problems constructing scientific research, ways of carrying out theoretical and empirical activities, in particular - general problems of constructing an experiment, observations and modeling (http://www.vygotsky.edu.ru/html/da.php; see international department of cultural-historical psychology MSUPE).
Specific scientific methodologydevelops the same problems as general scientific methodology, but within the framework of specific sciences, based on the characteristics of the object of science, in relation to how theories , and empirical activity.
This is carried out within the framework of knowledge systems created by scientific schools, which differ from each other in their explanatory principles and methods of research and practical work (http://www.voppy.ru/journals_all/issues/1999/993/993018.htm; see article by Lazarev V.S. Problems of understanding mental development in the cultural-historical theory of activity).
At the level of specific research methods and techniquesThe development of specific methods of psychological and pedagogical research is carried out in relation to solving cognitive problems of a certain type.Problems are addressed at this level validity and methodology developed diagnostic research methods (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-diag.html; see laboratory of diagnostics and correction of mental development PI RAO).

2.2. Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research

One of the most recognized and well-known classifications of methods of psychological and pedagogical research is the classification proposed B.G. Ananyev ( Ananyev B.G., 2001; annotation) (see Fig. 4) . ( http://www.yspu.yar.ru:8101/vestnik/pedagoka_i_psichologiy/4_2/; see article by Mazilov V.A. "B.G. Ananyev and modern psychology (To the 90th anniversary of the birth of B.G. Ananyev)").

• He divided all methods into four groups:
  • organizational;
  • empirical;
  • by the method of data processing;
  • interpretive.

1. To organizational methods the scientist attributed:
   • comparative method as a comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.;
   • longitudinal - as repeated examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time;
   • complex - as the study of one object by representatives of different sciences.

1. To the empirical ones:
   • observational methods (observation and self-observation);
   • experiment (laboratory, field, natural, etc.);
   • psychodiagnostic method;
   • analysis of processes and products of activity (praxiometric methods);
   • modeling;
   • biographical method.
2. By data processing method
   • methods of mathematical and statistical data analysis and
   • methods of qualitative description (Sidorenko E.V., 2000; annotation).
3. Towards interpretive
   • genetic (phylo- and ontogenetic) method;
   • structural method (classification, typology, etc.).

Ananiev described each of the methods in detail, but with all the thoroughness of his argumentation, as he notes V.N. Druzhinin in his book "Experimental Psychology" (Druzhinin V.N., 1997; annotation), many unresolved problems remain: why did modeling turn out to be an empirical method? How do practical methods differ from field experiment and instrumental observation? Why is the group of interpretative methods separated from organizational ones?

• It is advisable, by analogy with other sciences, to distinguish three classes of methods in educational psychology:
  1. Empirical , in which externally real interaction between the subject and object of research takes place.
  2. Theoretical when the subject interacts with a mental model of an object (more precisely, the subject of research).
  3. Interpretive-descriptive, in which the subject “externally” interacts with the sign-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, diagrams).

The result of applicationempirical methodsare data that record the state of an object using instrument readings; reflecting the results of activities, etc.
The result of applying theoretical methods is represented by knowledge about the subject in the form of natural language, sign-symbolic or spatial-schematic.

• Among the main theoretical methods of psychological and pedagogical research, V.V. Druzhinin highlighted:
  • deductive (axiomatic and hypothetico-deductive), otherwise - an ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete. The result is theory, law, etc.;
  • inductive - generalization of facts, ascent from the particular to the general. The result is an inductive hypothesis, pattern, classification, systematization;
  • modeling - concretization of the method of analogies, “transduction”, inference from particular to particular, when a simpler and/or accessible for research object is taken as an analogue of a more complex object. The result is a model of an object, process, state.

Finally, interpretive-descriptive methods- this is the “meeting point” of the results of the application of theoretical and experimental methods and the place of their interaction. Data from empirical research, on the one hand, are subject to primary processing and presentation in accordance with the requirements for the results from the theory, model, organizing the study, inductive hypotheses; on the other hand, the data are interpreted in terms of competing concepts to see if the hypotheses match the results.
The product of interpretation is fact, empirical dependence and ultimately justification or refutation hypotheses.

2.3. Basic methods of educational psychology

Observation - the main, most widespread in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) empirical method of studying a person. Under observation is understood as a purposeful, organized and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study. The results of recording observation data are called a description of the object's behavior.
Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio and video equipment, surveillance maps, etc.). However, with the help of observation it is possible to detect only phenomena that occur under ordinary, “normal” conditions, and to understand the essential properties of an object it is necessary to create special conditions different from “normal” ones.

• The main features of the observation method are(see animation) :
  • direct connection between the observer and the observed object;
  • bias (emotional coloring) of observation;
  • difficulty (sometimes impossibility) of repeated observation.

There are several types of observations(see Fig. 6) .
Depending on the observer's position, open and hidden observation. The first means that the subjects know the fact of their scientific control, and the researcher’s activities are perceived visually. Covert observation presupposes the fact of covert monitoring of the actions of the subject. The difference between the first and second is the comparison of data on the course of psychological and pedagogical processes and the behavior of participants in educational interaction under conditions of a feeling of supervision and freedom from the eyes of strangers.
Further highlighted are continuous and selective observation. The first covers processes in their entirety: from their beginning to the end, to completion. The second is a dotted, selective recording of certain phenomena and processes being studied. For example, when studying the labor intensity of teacher and student work in a lesson, the entire learning cycle is observed from its start at the beginning of the lesson to the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in teacher-student relationships, the researcher waits, as it were, observing these events from the side, in order to then describe in detail the reasons for their occurrence, the behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. teacher and student.
The result of a study that uses the observation method largely depends on the researcher himself, on his “culture of observation.” It is necessary to take into account the specific requirements for the procedure for obtaining and interpreting information in observation. Among them, the following stand out:
1. Only external facts that have speech and motor manifestations are accessible to observation. What you can observe is not intelligence, but how a person solves problems; not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc.
2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, behavior, be defined operationally, in terms of real behavior, i.e. The characteristics recorded should be as descriptive and as less explanatory as possible.
3. The most important moments of behavior (critical cases) should be highlighted for observation.
4. The observer must be able to record the behavior of the person being assessed over a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations.
5. The reliability of observation increases if the testimony of several observers coincides.
6. Role relationships between the observer and the observed must be eliminated. For example, a student's behavior will be different in the presence of parents, teachers, and peers. Therefore, external assessments given to the same person for the same set of qualities by people occupying different positions in relation to him may turn out to be different.
7. Assessments in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (likes and dislikes, transfers of attitudes from parents to the student, from the student’s performance to his behavior, etc.).
Conversation - widespread in educational psychologyempirical methodobtaining information (information) about the student in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. This is a method specific to educational psychology for studying student behavior.A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called conversation method . Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to name Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of “depth” psychology, etc.
IN conversations , dialogues, discussions, the attitudes of students, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions are revealed. Researchers of all times in conversations received information that was impossible to obtain in any other way.
Psychological and pedagogical conversation as a research method is distinguished by the researcher’s purposeful attempts to penetrate into the inner world of the subjects of the educational process, to identify the reasons for certain actions. Information about the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attitude to the problems of interest to the researcher is also obtained through conversations. But conversations are a very complex and not always reliable method. Therefore, it is most often used as an additional method - to obtain the necessary clarifications and clarifications about what was not clear enough during observation or the use of other methods.

• To improve reliability results of the conversation and removing the inevitable shade of subjectivity, special measures should be used. These include:
  • the presence of a clear conversation plan, thought out taking into account the characteristics of the student’s personality and steadily implemented;
  • discussion of issues of interest to the researcher from various angles and connections of school life;
  • varying questions, posing them in a form convenient for the interlocutor;
  • ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in questions and answers.

Conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of a psychological and pedagogical experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the student, teacher, gives them instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview.
Interview called targeted questioning. An interview is defined as a “pseudo-conversation”: the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, do not lose sight of the plan and conduct the conversation in the direction he needs.
Questionnaire - an empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that meet the main objective of the study that make up the questionnaire. Questioning is a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires called questionnaires. Questioning is based on the assumption that the person answers the questions asked to him frankly. However, as recent research into the effectiveness of this method shows, these expectations are met by approximately half. This circumstance sharply narrows the range of application of the survey and undermines confidence in the objectivity of the results obtained (Yadov V.A., 1995; annotation).
Teachers and psychologists were attracted to the survey by the possibility of quick mass surveys of students, teachers, and parents, the low cost of the methodology, and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.

• Nowadays, various types of questionnaires are widely used in psychological and pedagogical research:
  • open, requiring independent construction of an answer;
  • closed, in which students have to choose one of ready-made answers;
  • personal, requiring the subject's surname to be indicated;
  • anonymous, doing without it, etc.
• When compiling the questionnaire, the following are taken into account:
  • content of questions;
  • form of questions - open or closed;
  • wording of questions (clarity, no prompted answers, etc.);
  • number and order of questions. In psychological and pedagogical practice, the number of questions usually corresponds to no more than 30-40 minutes of work using the questionnaire method; The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method.

Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group, but in any case it must meet two requirements - representativeness and homogeneity of the sample. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.
Testing method.Due to the specifics of the subject of educational psychology, some of the above methods are used to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. However, the testing method is becoming increasingly widespread in educational psychology.
Test (English test - sample, test, check) - in psychology -a time-fixed test designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences(Burlachuk, 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is made.

• Testing differs from other examination methods:
  • accuracy;
  • simplicity;
  • accessibility;
  • possibility of automation.

(http://www.voppy.ru/journals_all/issues/1998/985/985126.htm; see article by Borisova E.M. "Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics").

Testing is far from a new method of research, but it is underused in educational psychology (Burlachuk, 2000, P. 325; annotation). Back in the 80-90s. XIX century researchers began to study individual differences in people. This led to the emergence of the so-called test experiment - research using tests ( A. Dalton, A. Cattell and etc.). Application tests served as an impetus for the developmentpsychometric method, the foundations of which were laid by B. Henri and A. Binet. Measuring school success, intellectual development, and the degree of formation of many other qualities with the help of tests has become an integral part of broad educational practice. Psychology, having provided pedagogy with a tool for analysis, closely connected with it (it is sometimes impossible to separate pedagogical testing from psychological testing) (http://psychology.net.ru/articles/d20020106230736.html; see psychological tests).
If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we will point out, first of all, the use of achievement tests. Tests of skills such as reading, writing, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of training - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge and skills in all academic subjects are widely used.
Typically, testing as a method of psychological and pedagogical research merges with practical testing of current performance, identifying the level of training, and monitoring the quality of learning material.
The most complete and systematized description of the tests is presented in the work A. Anastasi "Psychological testing". Analyzing testing in education, the scientist notes that all types of existing tests are used in this process, but among all types of standardized tests, achievement tests are numerically superior to all others. They were created to measure the objectivity of training programs and processes. They typically "provide a final assessment of an individual's achievements at the end of training and focus on what the individual can do to date" (Anastasi A., 1982. P. 36-37). (http://www.psy.msu.ru/about/lab/ht.html; see Center for Psychological and Career Guidance Testing "Humanitarian Technologies" MSU).

• A.K. Erofeev, analyzing the basic requirements for testing, identifies the following main groups of knowledge that a testologist must have:
  • basic principles of normative testing;
  • types of tests and areas of their application;
  • basics of psychometrics (i.e. in what units are psychological qualities measured in the system);
  • test quality criteria (methods for determining the validity and reliability of the test);
  • ethical standards for psychological testing(Erofeev A.K., 1987).

All of the above means that the use of testing in educational psychology requires special training, high qualifications and responsibility.
Experiment - one of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. Differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and registration of accompanying changes in the behavior of the studied object(see Fig. 7) .
A properly conducted experiment allows you to check hypotheses in cause-and-effect causal relationships, not limited to stating the connection ( correlations ) between variables. There are traditional and factorial experimental designs (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html; see PI RAO research group on factors of individuality formation).
At traditional planningonly one thing changesindependent variable, with factor - some. The advantage of the latter is the ability to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. To statistically process the experimental results in this case, we useanalysis of variance(R. Fisher). If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then they talk about a pilot experiment, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis. When there are two competing hypotheses and an experiment allows us to choose one of them, we speak of a decisive experiment. A control experiment is carried out to check any dependencies. The use of experiment, however, encounters fundamental limitations associated with the impossibility in some cases of arbitrarily changing variables. Thus, in differential psychology and personality psychology, empirical dependencies mostly have the status of correlations (i.e., probabilistic and statistical dependencies) and, as a rule, do not always allow drawing conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. One of the difficulties of using an experiment in psychology is that the researcher often finds himself involved in a situation of communication with the person being examined (subject) and can unwittingly influence his behavior (Fig. 8). Formative, or educational, experiments form a special category of methods of psychological research and influence. They allow you to purposefully form the characteristics of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.

Experimental procedure consists in the targeted creation or selection of conditions that ensure reliable identification of the factor being studied, and in recording changes associated with its influence.
Most often, in psychological and pedagogical experiments, they deal with 2 groups: an experimental group, in which the factor being studied is included, and a control group, in which it is absent.
The experimenter, at his own discretion, can modify the conditions of the experiment and observe the consequences of such a change. This, in particular, makes it possible to find the most rational methods in educational work with students. For example, by changing the conditions for learning one or another educational material, it is possible to establish under what conditions memorization will be the fastest, most durable and accurate. By conducting research under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter can establish the age and individual characteristics of the course of mental processes in each of them.

• Psychological and pedagogical experiments differ:
  • according to the form of conduct;
  • number of variables;
  • goals;
  • the nature of the research organization.

According to the form of conduct, there are two main types of experiments - laboratory and natural.
Laboratory experimentcarried out in specially organized artificial conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. To achieve this, the side effects of all simultaneously occurring processes are eliminated. A laboratory experiment allows, with the help of recording instruments, to accurately measure the time of occurrence of mental processes, for example, the speed of a person’s reaction, the speed of formation of educational and work skills. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable indicators under strictly defined conditions. Has more limited uselaboratory experimentwhen studying manifestations of personality and character.On the one hand, the object of research here is complex and multifaceted, on the other, the well-known artificiality of the laboratory situation presents great difficulties. When examining the manifestations of a personality in artificially created special conditions, in a private, limited situation, we do not always have reason to conclude that similar manifestations will be characteristic of the same personality in natural life circumstances. The artificiality of the experimental setting is a significant drawback of this method. It may lead to disruption of the natural course of the processes under study. For example, by memorizing important and interesting educational material, in natural conditions a student achieves different results than when he is asked to memorize experimental material under unusual conditions that is not directly of interest to the child. Therefore, a laboratory experiment should be carefully organized and, if possible, combined with other, more naturalmethods. The data from the laboratory experiment are mainly of theoretical value; conclusions drawn on their basis can be extended to real life practice with known limitations (Milgram St., 2000; annotation).
Natural experiment. The indicated disadvantages of a laboratory experiment are to some extent eliminated when organizing a natural experiment. This method was first proposed in 1910. A.F. Lazursky at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions as part of an activity that is familiar to the subjects, such as training sessions or games. Often the situation created by the experimenter may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; in this case, a positive factor for the study is the complete naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing teaching methods, school equipment, daily routine, etc.), an experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves become participants in its creation. Such research requires particularly careful planning and preparation. It makes sense to use it when data needs to be obtained in an extremely short time and without interfering with the main activities of the subjects. Significant disadvantagenatural experiment- the inevitable presence of uncontrolled interference, i.e. factors whose influence has not been established and cannot be measured quantitatively.
A.F. himself Lazursky expressed the essence of a natural experiment as follows: “In the natural experimental study of personality, we do not use artificial methods, do not conduct experiments in artificial laboratory conditions, do not isolate the child from the usual environment of his life, but experiment with natural forms of the external environment. We study the personality by life itself and therefore, all influences of both the individual on the environment and the environment on the individual become available for examination. This is where the experiment comes into life. We are not studying individual mental processes, as is usually done (for example, memory is studied by memorizing meaningless syllables, attention - by crossing out icons on tables), but we study both mental functions and the personality as a whole. At the same time, we do not use artificial material, but school subjects" (Lazursky A.F., 1997; annotation).
By number of variables studiedThere are one-dimensional and multi-dimensional experiments.
One-dimensional experimentinvolves identifying one dependent and one independent variable in the study. It is most often implemented inlaboratory experiment.
Multidimensional experiment. A natural experiment affirms the idea of ​​studying phenomena not in isolation, but in their interconnection and interdependence. Therefore, a multidimensional experiment is most often implemented here. It requires the simultaneous measurement of many related characteristics, the independence of which is not known in advance. Analysis of connections between many studied characteristics, identification of the structure of these connections, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main goal of a multidimensional experiment.
The results of an experimental study often do not represent an identified pattern, a stable dependence, but a series of more or less fully recorded empirical facts. These are, for example, descriptions of children's play activities obtained as a result of an experiment, experimental data on the influence of such factors as the presence of other people and the associated motive of competition on any activity. These data, which are often descriptive in nature, do not yet reveal the psychological mechanism of the phenomena and represent only more specific material that narrows the further scope of the search. Therefore, the results of an experiment in pedagogy and psychology should often be considered as intermediate material and the initial basis for further research work (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html; see laboratory of theoretical and experimental problems of developmental psychology PI RAO).

2.4. Formative experiment as one of the main methods of psychological and pedagogical research

• 
  

2.4.1. The essence of the formative experiment

Formative experiment- a method used in developmental and educational psychology to trace changes in the child’s psyche in the process of the researcher’s active influence on the subject.
The formative experiment is widely used in Russian psychology when studying specific ways of forming a child’s personality, ensuring the connection of psychological research with pedagogical search and design of the most effective forms of the educational process ( see Chrest. 2.2) ( http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-ps-not.html; see laboratory of psychological foundations of new educational technologies).

• Synonyms for formative experiment:
  • transformative
  • creative,
  • educating
  • educational,
  • method of active formation of the psyche.

Historical reference (http://www.vygotsky.ru/russian/vygot/vygotsky.htm; server dedicated to L.S. Vygotsky) Experimental genetic method for studying mental development developed by L.S. Vygotsky and associated with his cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions. L.S. was first used. Vygotsky and A.N. Leontyev when studying the formation of higher mediated forms of attention and memory. The essence of the method lies in the development of artificial experimental conditions that contribute to the creation of the very process of the emergence of higher forms of mental functions. This experimental study of the genesis of mental phenomena was based on two main principles: first, specifically human mental processes are mediated processes that use a variety of tools developed during the historical development of human culture - signs, symbols, language, measures, etc. ; second, every mental process arises and functions on two levels - social and psychological, or, as L.S. wrote. Vygotsky, first as an interpsychic category, and then as an intrapsychic one. After the death of L.S. Vygotsky’s experimental genetic method of studying mental development was successfully used by his colleagues and followers in numerous studies (in the formation of pitch hearing by A.N. Leontiev, in the study of voluntary movements by A.V. Zaporozhets, in the study of patterns of development of perception by L.A. Wenger and etc.). A significant contribution was made by P.Ya. Galperin, who developed the theory and methodologygradual formation of mental actions, and then the purposeful formation of mental processes with predetermined properties (attention, simultaneous perception, etc.). L.S. Vygotsky warned against a simplified understanding of the facts obtained in such artificial conditions and a direct transfer of conclusions to the real process of development. In the 60s in addition to studies conducted in laboratory conditions, numerous studies have appeared, conducted in the form of experimental organization of the learning process for entire classes to analyze the impact of learning on mental development (P.Ya. Galperin, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.) .

The goals are distinguished stating and forming experiments.
Target ascertaining experiment- measurement of the current level of development (for example, the level of development of abstract thinking, moral and volitional qualities of the individual, etc.). Thus, primary material for the organization is obtainedformative experiment.
Formative (transformative, educational) experiment sets as its goal not a simple statement of the level of formation of this or that activity, the development of certain aspects of the psyche, but their active formation or education. In this case, a special experimental situation is created, which allows not only to identify the conditions necessary for organizing the required behavior, but also to experimentally carry out the targeted development of new types of activities, complex mental functions and to reveal their structure more deeply. The basis of the formative experiment is the experimental genetic method of studying mental development(see Fig. 9) .
The theoretical basis of the formative experiment is the concept of the leading role of training and education in mental development.

2.4.2. Experimental learning as a type of formative experiment

• Experiential learning- one of the modern methods for studying psychological and didactic problems. There are two types of experiential learning:
  • individual educational experiment, already firmly established in science;
  • collective experimental learning, which became widely used in psychology and pedagogy only in the 60s. XX century

An individual experiment allows not only to establish the already established features of mental processes in a person, but also to purposefully shape them, reaching a certain level and quality. Thanks to this, it is possible to experimentally study the genesis of perception, attention, memory, thinking and other mental processes through the educational process. The theory of mental abilities as intravital developing functional systems of the brain ( A.N. Leontyev ), the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions ( P.Ya. Galperin ) and a number of other theories created in Russian psychology were based on data obtained mainly through training experiments.
Collective experimental training is carried out on the scale of entire kindergarten groups, school classes, student groups, etc. The organization of such research is primarily related to the needs of pedagogy and psychology for an in-depth study of the influence of training on human mental development, in particular in the study of age-related opportunities for mental development of a person under different conditions of his activity (research by L.V. Zankov, G.S. Kostyuk, A.A. Lyublinskaya, B.I. Khachapuridze, D.B. Elkonin, etc.). Previously, these problems were developed on mass material in relation to a system of conditions that spontaneously developed and dominated in given specific historical circumstances. The information obtained in this case about the characteristics of a person’s mental development was often absolutized, and the sources of the development of this process were sometimes seen only in the more or less constant psychological nature of the individual himself. Main task experimental learning consists of a significant change and variation in the content and forms of a person’s educational activity in order to determine the influence of these changes on the pace and characteristics of mental (in particular, mental) development, on the pace and characteristics of the formation of his perception, attention, memory, thinking, will, etc. .P. Thanks to this, it is possible to explore the internal connections that exist between learning and development, describe different types of these connections, and also find the conditions of educational activity that are most conducive to mental development at a particular age. In the process of experimental learning, it is possible to form, for example, a level of intellectual activity in a child that cannot be observed in him under the usual teaching system.
Conducting experimental training in teams (groups, classes or their complexes) ensures regularity, systematicity and continuity of the necessary educational influences, and also provides a variety of mass material for further statistical processing. Experimental learning itself must satisfy certain specific requirements arising from the need to respect the basic vital interests of the subjects. These studies should not harm the spiritual and moral health of the people participating in them. In experimental groups, classes and schools, the most favorable conditions for learning activities are created and maintained.

• The experimental teaching method has the following main features:
  • its content and methods of implementation are carefully planned in advance;
  • the features of the process and learning results are recorded in detail and in a timely manner;
  • with the help of special systems of tasks, both the level of mastery of educational material and the level of mental development of subjects at different stages of experimental training are regularly determined;
  • these data are compared with those obtained from a survey of control groups and classes (studying in conditions that are accepted as usual).

In combination with individual learning experiment, collective experimental learning is increasingly used in psychology and didactics as a special method for studying complex processes of human mental development.

• Advantages of a formative experiment:
  • focus on student development in the educational process;
  • theoretical validity of the experimental model of the organization of this process;
  • duration of the study, guaranteeing the validity and reliability of the data obtained, etc.

• Among the main results of the use of formative experiment in educational psychology are the following:

Patterns of development of cognitive abilities in preschool children were established (research by P.Ya. Galperin, L.F. Obukhova, G.I. Minskaya, N.N. Poddyakov, L.A. Wenger, A.V. Zaporozhets, etc.) (http://www.voppy.ru/journals_all/issues/1995/951/951053.htm- see article by Pavlenko V.N. "Cultural-historical development of mental processes and the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions").

The features and conditions of the transition from the preschool period to school education have been established (research by E.E. Shuleshko and others).

The possibility and expediency of forming the foundations of scientific and theoretical thinking in younger schoolchildren and the decisive importance of the content and teaching methods in this have been proven (research by V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.)(Davydov V.V., 1996; abstract) and etc. ( http://www.edu-all.ru/VC_Scripts/selInfo.asp?Ident=2176&Type=2; see the website of School No. 91 in Moscow (Experimental School-Gymnasium of the Russian Academy of Education).

Summary

• In educational psychology, all the methods that are available in general, developmental and many other branches of psychology are used: observation, oral and written questioning, the method of analyzing the products of activity, content analysis, experiment, etc., but only here they are used taking into account the age of the children and those psychological and pedagogical problems in the context of which there is a need to address them.
• Methodology is a system of principles and methods of organizing, constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system. The concept of “methodology” has two main meanings: a) a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (in science, politics, art, etc.); b) the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action.
  • In general scientific terms, a method (from the Greek methodos - path of research, theory, teaching) is “a way of achieving a goal, solving a specific problem; a set of techniques or operations for the practical and theoretical development (cognition) of reality” (Big Encyclopedic Dictionary..., 1998. P. 724).
  • The methodology meets the specific goals and objectives of psychological and pedagogical research, contains a description of the object and procedures of study, methods of recording and processing the data obtained. Based on a specific method, many techniques can be created.
  • In modern methodology and logic of science, the following general scheme of methodology levels is distinguished: the level of philosophical methodology; level of methodology of general scientific principles of research; level of specific scientific methodology; level of research methods and techniques.
• One of the most recognized and well-known classifications of methods of psychological and pedagogical research is the classification proposed by B.G. Ananyev. He divided all methods into four groups: organizational; empirical; by the method of data processing; interpretive.
  • Observation is the main, most common empirical method in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) for studying a person. Observation is understood as a purposeful, organized and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study. The results of recording observation data are called a description of the object's behavior.
  • A conversation is a widespread empirical method in educational psychology of obtaining information (information) about a student in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. This is a method specific to educational psychology for studying student behavior. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the conversation method.
  • Test (English test - sample, test, check) - in psychology - “a test fixed in time, designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences” (Burlachuk L.F., 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is made.
• Experiment is one of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, systematically manipulating one or more variables (factors) and recording accompanying changes in the behavior of the object being studied.
  • A formative experiment is a method used in developmental and educational psychology to trace changes in a child’s psyche in the process of the researcher’s active influence on the subject. Synonyms of formative experiment: transformative; creative; educating; educational; method of active formation of the psyche.
  • Experimental learning is one of the modern methods for studying psychological and didactic problems. There are two types of experimental learning: individual learning experiment, which is already firmly established in science; collective experimental learning, which became widely used in psychology and pedagogy only in the 60s. XX century

Glossary of terms

1. Questionnaire
2. Conversation
3. Validity
4. Hypothesis
5. Natural experiment
6. Task
7. Induction
8. Interview
9. Causal hypothesis
10. Correlation
11. Laboratory experiment
12. Method
13. Methodology
14. Methodology
15. Observation
16. Reliability
17. Independent variable
18. Variable
19. Principle
20. Problem
21. Test
22. Formative experiment
23. Experiment
    

Self-test questions

1. What is the essence of the methodological foundations of psychological research and their implementation in educational psychology?
2. What is the relationship between methodology, methods and research techniques in educational psychology?
3. Name the main stages of psychological and pedagogical research.
4. Give a classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research on various grounds.
5. Describe the main special methods of educational psychology.
6. What are the features of using the observation method in psychological and pedagogical research?
7. Highlight the advantages and disadvantages of using the conversation method in psychological and pedagogical research.
8. What are the specifics of using the method of studying “products of activity” in educational psychology?
9. Give a general description of the experimental method and formulate the basic requirements for its application in educational psychology.
10. Name the main types of experiments in educational psychology and give their comparative characteristics.
11. What is the essence of a formative experiment in educational psychology?
    

Bibliography

1. Ananyev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. St. Petersburg, 2001.
2. Anastasi A. Psychological testing. M., 1982. Book 1, 2.
3. Asmolov A.G. Cultural-historical psychology and the construction of worlds. M.; Voronezh, 1996.
4. Bodalev A.A., Stolin V.V. General psychodiagnostics. St. Petersburg, 2000.
5. Large encyclopedic dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 1998.
6. Burlachuk L.F., Morozov S.M. Dictionary-reference book on psychodiagnostics. St. Petersburg, 2000.
7. Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. St. Petersburg, 1997.
8. Erofeev A.K. Computers in psychodiagnostics in higher education. M., 1987.
9. Zimnyaya I.A. Educational psychology: Proc. allowance. Rostov n/d, 1997.
10. Kornilova T.V. Experimental psychology: theory and methods. M., 2002.
11. Lazursky A.F. Selected works on psychology. M., 1997.
12. Lomov B.F. Methodological and theoretical problems of psychology. M., 1999.
13. Milgram S. Experiment in social psychology. St. Petersburg, 2000.
14. Workshop on developmental and educational psychology: Proc. manual for pedagogical students. Institute / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakova. M., 1987.
15. Workshop on pedagogy and psychology of higher education / Ed. A.K. Erofeeva. M., 1991.
16. Sidorenko E.V. Methods of mathematical processing in psychology. St. Petersburg, 2000.
17. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human psychology: Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity: Textbook. manual for universities. M., 1995.
18. Solso R., Johnson H., Beal K. Experimental psychology: A practical course. St. Petersburg, 2001.
19. Shevandrin N.I. Psychodiagnostics, correction and personality development. M., 1998.
20. Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. Samara, 1995.
21. Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology. M., 1985.
    

Topics of term papers and essays

1. The relationship between methodology, methods and methods of psychological and pedagogical research.
2. Features of the application of general scientific methods in psychological and pedagogical research.
3. Comparative analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods.
4. Formative experiment as one of the main methods of educational psychology.
5. Application of the conversation method in studying the student’s personality.
6. The problem of the validity of psychological and pedagogical research.
7. Factors that violate the internal and external validity of psychological and educational research.
8. Features of the application of the method of analyzing “products of activity” in educational psychology.
9. The main stages of psychological and pedagogical research.
10. Multifactorial multilevel experimental psychological and pedagogical research.
    

Internet resources (links)

1. Website of the Center for Psychological and Career Guidance Testing "Humanitarian Technologies"

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	Specific principles of special psychology: the principle of complexity, the principle of systemic structural-dynamic study, the principle of qualitative analysis, the comparative principle, the principle of early diagnostic study, the principle of identifying and taking into account the potential capabilities of the child, the principle of the unity of diagnostic and correctional assistance for children with special needs. Thus, the development of a special child is the point of application of counteracting forces designated as negative the main violation and positive learning and correction of the determinant. In such...
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18162.		The problem of pedagogical intuition, its role in psychological and pedagogical work with schoolchildren	150.14 KB
	In the context of the general trends in the development of education in the modern world, high professional requirements for the quality of knowledge and skills have put on the agenda the need for the formation of the creative individuality of a teacher, including the development of not only the logic of thinking and cognition, but also intuition. The skills and abilities of pedagogical intuition play an important role in teaching all academic disciplines when working with schoolchildren. The problem of studying intuition in pedagogical activity is extremely relevant. Today the question is about the need to develop...
14525.		Psychology and pedagogy as branches of knowledge. Subject of study. The structure of modern psychology. Relationship between psychology and other sciences	8.63 KB
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	The subject of special psychology; its tasks are connections with other sciences. Questions: History of the formation of special psychology. Vygotsky in the formation and development of special psychology. The subject of the branch of special psychology.
15259.		Methods used in the analysis of synthetic analogs of papaverine and multicomponent dosage forms based on them 3.1. Chromatographic methods 3.2. Electrochemical methods 3.3. Photometric methods Conclusion List l	233.66 KB
	Drotaverine hydrochloride. Drotaverine hydrochloride is a synthetic analogue of papaverine hydrochloride and, from the point of view of its chemical structure, is a derivative of benzylisoquinoline. Drotaverine hydrochloride belongs to the group of drugs with antispasmodic activity, antispasmodic myotropic action and is the main active ingredient of the drug no-spa. Drotaverine hydrochloride The pharmacopoeial monograph for drotaverine hydrochloride is presented in the Pharmacopoeia edition.

The place of formative experiment in the system of research methods in educational psychology

A research method is a method of studying an object. Depending on the level of scientific knowledge - theoretical or empirical - methods are defined as theoretical or empirical. In educational psychology, empirical methods are used predominantly.

Educational psychology uses all the methods that are in the arsenal of other branches of psychology (human psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, etc.): observation, survey, experiment, etc., but their use is modified taking into account the conditions of the pedagogical process. For example, observation as a general psychological method in educational psychology, it required transformation not only in the goals and observation program, but also in the techniques for its implementation.

The specificity of the methods of educational psychology is determined by the fact that psychological research in educational psychology is aimed at:

Search for driving forces and disclosure of patterns of the dynamic process of development and formation of psychological states, processes and properties of a person,

Establishing the dependence of these phenomena on the conditions of communication, activity, training and education of a person.

In addition to general methods in educational psychology, there are also special methods. These include, for example, a psychological and pedagogical experiment and special psychological and pedagogical testing designed to determine the degree of training and education of a child.

Analyzing the research methods, B.G. Ananyev identifies four groups of them (Fig. 1):

Fig.1.

1) organizational methods (comparative, longitudinal (traces the formation and development of the phenomenon under study over several years), complex);

2) empirical, which includes: a) observational methods (observation and self-observation); b) experimental methods (laboratory, field, natural, formative or, according to B.G. Ananyev, psychological and pedagogical); c) psychodiagnostic methods (standardized and projective tests, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews and conversations); d) praximetric methods, according to B.G. Ananyev, techniques for analyzing processes and products of activity (chronometry, cyclography, professional description, work evaluation); e) modeling method (mathematical, cybernetic, etc.); f) biographical methods (analysis of facts, dates, events, evidence of a person’s life);

3) data processing, which includes methods of quantitative (mathematical and statistical) and qualitative analysis;

4) interpretive methods, including genetic and structural methods.

Pedagogical psychology has a main arsenal of such scientific methods as observation, conversation, questioning, experiment, analysis of the products of activity (creativity), testing, sociometry, etc. In the practical activities of each individual teacher, the main ones are observation and conversation with subsequent analysis of the products of the students’ educational activities.

Observation- the main, most common empirical method in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) for the purposeful systematic study of a person. The observed person does not know that he is the object of observation, which can be continuous or selective - with recording, for example, the entire course of a lesson or the behavior of only one or several students. Based on observation, an expert assessment can be given. The results of the observation are recorded in special protocols, where the name of the observed person(s), date, time and purpose are noted. Protocol data is subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing.

Observation must meet a number of requirements: a clearly defined goal and a developed observation scheme; objectivity of observation, systematic observation, observation of the child’s natural behavior (the child should not know that an adult is watching him, otherwise his behavior will change).

Conversation- a widespread empirical method in educational psychology of obtaining information (information) about a student in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. Conversation is direct communication with subjects using pre-thought-out questions. It involves the establishment of two-way contact, during which the interests of children, their ideas, attitudes, feelings, assessments and positions are identified. A conversation can be an independent method of studying a person, or it can be auxiliary, for example, preceding an experiment, therapy, etc.

Experiment- the central empirical method of scientific research, which has become widespread in educational psychology. It is one of the most reliable methods of obtaining information about the behavior and psychology of a child. The essence of the experiment is that in the process of research, processes of interest to the researcher are evoked in the child and conditions are created that are necessary and sufficient for the manifestation of these processes.

According to the form of implementation, they distinguish laboratory(in special conditions, with equipment, etc.) and natural experiment, carried out in normal conditions of learning, life, work, but with their special organization, the influence of which is being studied.

Because A natural experiment is carried out in conditions of activity familiar to the subject (in class, in a game), then the teacher can widely use this method in his work. In particular, by changing the forms and methods of teaching, it is possible to identify how they affect the assimilation of material, the features of its understanding and memorization. Such well-known teachers in our country as V.A. Sukhomlinsky, A.S. Makarenko, Sh.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalov, E.A. Yamburg and others have achieved high results in teaching and raising children thanks to experimentation and the creation of innovative platforms in education.

By purpose carrying out are allocated ascertaining and formative experiment. The purpose of the ascertaining experiment is to measure the current level of development (for example, the level of development of abstract logical thinking, the degree of formation of moral ideas). In this case, tests are a type of ascertaining experiment. The data obtained form the basis of such a form of natural experiment as formative experiment, which is aimed at active transformation and development of certain aspects of the psyche.

Its distinctive feature is a targeted formative influence on a student or teacher in accordance with the research hypothesis. During it, changes in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and in the level of mental and personal development of students are studied under targeted teaching and educational influence.

For educational psychology, this special version of a natural experiment - formative (educational) - is very important. In an experiment as a research method, the subject is not aware of its purpose. The experimenter not only determines the purpose of the study and puts forward a hypothesis, but can also change the conditions and forms of the study. The results of the experiment are strictly and accurately recorded in special protocols, where the name of the subject, the necessary information about him, date, time, and purpose are noted. The experimental data are processed quantitatively (factorial, correlation analysis, etc.) and subjected to qualitative interpretation. The experiment can be individual, group, short-term or long-term.

The pedagogical process provides great opportunities for use analysis of activity products- a method of studying a person through the analysis (interpretation) of the products of his activity (drawings, drawings, music, essays, notebooks, diaries), since in this process the materialization of mental capabilities of both the student and the teacher is carried out.

It is becoming increasingly widespread in educational psychology. testing method.

Test(English test - sample, test, check) - a standardized, often time-limited test designed to establish quantitative or qualitative individual psychological differences.

Test classifications:

1) according to the characteristics of the test tasks used for verbal tests and practical tests;

2) according to the forms of the examination procedure - for group and individual tests;

3) in focus - on intelligence tests and personality tests;

4) depending on the presence or absence of time restrictions - for speed tests and performance tests;

5) tests also differ in design principles; for example, computer tests have been actively developed in recent decades.

The use of testing in educational psychology is a responsible, ethical, highly professional matter that requires special training.

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1. Object and subject of psychological science. Specifics of psychological cognition

An object is a fragment of an objective, i.e. existing independently of the consciousness of reality researchers.

A subject is a science-specific angle of view on an object, an aspect of the object itself, specific to a certain branch of science and determined by its categorical apparatus and the research methods it uses.

The subject of study of general psychology is:

Cognitive and practical activities;

General patterns of mental processes: sensations, perceptions, memory, imagination, thinking, mental self-regulation;

Differential psychological characteristics of a person’s personality;

Character, temperament, prevailing motives of behavior, etc.;

Fundamental problems: the essence and content of the psyche, the emergence and development of the psyche in phylology and ontogenesis.

At all times, humanity has been interested in questions about what a person is: what determines the reasons and patterns of his actions, the laws of behavior in society, the inner world.

The task of understanding how mental images arise, what consciousness, thinking, creativity are, and what their mechanisms are, seemed intriguing. Psychology, which since its inception has been balancing between science, art and faith, seeks to answer all these and many other questions. What are the difficulties associated with its development?

Firstly, this is the science of the most complex thing known to mankind. Even the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, beginning his treatise “On the Soul,” wrote: “Among other knowledge, research about the soul should be given one of the first places, since it is knowledge about the most sublime and amazing.” And the great physicist A. Einstein, getting acquainted with the experiments of the famous psychologist J. Piaget, summed up his impressions in the paradoxical phrase that the study of physical problems is a child's game in comparison with the mysteries of the psychology of children's play.

Secondly, in psychology, a person simultaneously acts as both an object and a subject of knowledge.

A unique phenomenon occurs: a person’s scientific consciousness becomes scientific self-consciousness.

Thirdly, in psychological research the difficult and ambiguously solved problem of the objectivity of scientific knowledge is particularly acute. Many scientists refused to recognize psychology as an objective scientific discipline, arguing that it was impossible to objectively study the subjective inner world of a person, which is directly open to knowledge only by him alone.

The difficulties of the formation and development of psychology are determined, finally, by the fact that it is a very young science. Despite the fact that questions about the essence and characteristics of the human psyche were posed in the works of ancient and medieval philosophers, scientific psychology received official formalization a little over a hundred years ago - in 1879, when the German psychologist W. Wundt opened the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig. psychology. The word “psychology” first appeared in the 16th century. in Western European texts. It is formed from the Greek words “psyche” (soul) and “logos” (knowledge, science): literally translated, psychology is the science of the soul. This definition does not correspond to modern views on psychological science. The title reflects ideas about psychology characteristic of the period of its origin and initial development within the framework of philosophy. According to the philosophical understanding of that time, the subject of psychology was precisely the soul - the main, essential principle of objects of living nature, the cause of life, breathing, cognition, etc.

The emergence of psychology as an independent, truly scientific discipline also occurred against the background of discoveries that were made within the framework of natural science research.

Psychology arose at the intersection of two large areas of knowledge - philosophy and natural sciences, and it has not yet been determined whether to consider it a natural science or a humanities one. The words “psychologist” and “psychology” went beyond scientific treatises and were developed in everyday life: psychologists are called experts on human souls, passions and characters; The word “psychology” is used in several meanings - it means both scientific and non-scientific knowledge. In everyday consciousness, these concepts are often confused.

Every person has a stock of everyday psychological knowledge, the basis of which is life experience. We can understand another, influence his behavior, predict his actions, help him. Being a good everyday psychologist is one of the important requirements for specialists in those professions that involve constant communication with people, such as a teacher, doctor, manager, salesman, etc. The brightest examples of everyday psychology are those works of literature and art that present a deep psychological analysis of life situations and the motives of the characters’ behavior. The content of everyday psychology is embodied in rituals, traditions, proverbs, sayings, parables, rituals that consolidate centuries-old folk wisdom. In this regard, the question arises: is scientific psychology necessary, or perhaps the knowledge and experience accumulated in everyday psychology is enough to help a person overcome life’s difficulties, understand other people and himself? To answer this question, it is necessary to realize the fundamental difference between everyday and scientific psychological knowledge. Three main differences emerge.

According to the degree of generalization of knowledge and forms of its presentation. Everyday psychological knowledge is specific: it is associated with certain people, certain situations and particular tasks.

The concepts of everyday psychology, as a rule, are characterized by vagueness and ambiguity.

Scientific psychology, like any science, strives for generalizations. For this purpose, scientific concepts are clearly defined and used, which reflect the most essential properties of objects and phenomena, general connections and relationships.

According to the method of obtaining knowledge and the degree of its subjectivity. Everyday knowledge about human psychology is acquired through direct observation of other people and introspection, through practical trial and error. They are intuitive, rather irrational and extremely subjective. Knowledge of everyday psychology is often contradictory, fragmented and poorly systematized. Methods of obtaining knowledge in scientific psychology are rational, conscious and purposeful. The wealth of methods used by scientific psychology provides extensive, varied material, which in a generalized and systematized form appears in logically consistent concepts and theories. To test put forward hypotheses in scientific psychology, scientists develop and organize special experiments, the essence of which is that the researcher does not expect the random manifestation of mental processes of interest to him, but creates special conditions to cause them.

By methods of knowledge transfer. The possibilities of transferring knowledge in everyday psychology from one person to another are very limited. This is due, first of all, to the fact that there are difficulties in verbalizing individual psychological experience, the entire complex range of emotional experiences, and at the same time there is a certain distrust in the reliability and truth of this kind of information. This fact is clearly illustrated by the eternal problem of “fathers” and “children”, which consists precisely in the fact that children cannot and do not want to adopt the experience of their elders. Each generation learns from its own mistakes. The accumulation and transmission of scientific knowledge occurs in concepts and laws, scientific concepts and theories. They are enshrined in specialized literature and are easily passed on from generation to generation. The listed differences show the advantages of scientific psychological knowledge. At the same time, we cannot deny the need for everyday experience, which plays an important role in the development of psychology as a science. Scientific psychology:

Firstly, it relies on everyday psychological experience;

Secondly, it extracts its tasks from it;

Thirdly, at the last stage it is checked.

The relationship between scientific and everyday psychological knowledge is not straightforward. Not all professional psychologists are good everyday psychologists. And just because you become acquainted with the basics of scientific psychology does not mean that you will immediately become experts on human souls. However, constant analysis of emerging life situations using the knowledge that you will gain by studying psychology will help you better understand other people, the world around you and, ultimately, yourself.

The concepts and concepts of scientific psychology influence people’s everyday ideas about mental life. Scientific psychological concepts are penetrating into spoken language, and people are beginning to actively use them to describe their conditions or personality traits.

The result of increased interest in scientific psychology in society has been the active development of popular psychology, which provides fundamental scientific knowledge to a wide audience, making it simpler and more understandable. The positive role of popular psychology is to form a general psychological culture of society and attract interest in psychology as a scientific discipline.

2. The connection between theory and practice in psychology. Methods and techniques of psychological research

The experimental method can be used in laboratory and natural conditions. The essence of this method is to identify the cause-and-effect relationship between certain properties of mental phenomena. The identification of this dependence is facilitated by the creation of experimental conditions under which it is possible to obtain more necessary information about the mental phenomenon being studied. When preparing an experiment, one must remember that there are three groups of variable factors: independent, dependent and controlled variables.

An independent variable is a factor that the experimenter introduces into an experiment in order to evaluate its effect on the process.

Dependent variables are factors associated with the behavior of the subjects and depending on the state of their body.

Controlled variables are factors that can be strictly controlled in an experiment.

Between independent and dependent variables lie intermediate, internal factors that cannot be strictly controlled.

Thus, notes J. Godefroy in his book “What is Psychology,” to experiment means to study the influence of an independent variable on one or more dependent ones with strict control of all other variables, called controlled ones.

Method of questioning and testing.

Questionnaires make it possible to obtain information about large groups of people by interviewing some part of these people who make up a representative sample. Questioning makes it possible to identify certain trends and understand the path of further deeper psychological research through testing or experimentation.

Tests are a standardized method used to measure various characteristics of individuals who serve as research subjects. Tests allow you to assess the level of development of intellectual or perceptual abilities, personal characteristics, character, temperament, etc.

In practice, two main types of tests are used: questionnaires and projective tests.

Questionnaires rely on a person’s ability to consciously evaluate himself and his actions.

Projective tests are designed in such a way that they are more focused on the subconscious sphere, and help to identify personality traits that a person himself is not aware of. Projective methods include the Luscher color test, the “Tree” test, “Non-existent animal”, various drawing tests, etc.

Questionnaires are processed using certain keys and then interpreted depending on the data received. Our textbook contains questionnaire tests that have been published and can be used for self-knowledge purposes. Projective tests are difficult to process and require special psychological training to interpret them, so they are not used in the textbook.

The observation method is a descriptive method with the help of which the researcher systematically observes the behavior of another person, external manifestations of the psyche, and from them draws conclusions about the mental processes, states and properties of this person. Scientific observations are organized and systematic, during which observation maps are drawn up. This method is often used in the pedagogical process.

The method of introspection (introspective) is the most ancient method used in psychology; it involves a person observing his inner, mental world. This method helps in the application of other research methods, as well as in providing self-help in difficult cases and in self-realization.

Psychology also uses the method of conversation (interview) and analysis of activity products (essays, letters, results of professional activities, etc.).

Our textbook is built in accordance with the structure of practical psychology described above.

We hope that studying practical psychology will help you in life, in study, work and communication with different people.

3. The method of psychoanalysis and its role in the development of psychology. Basic principles of Gestalt psychotherapy

Psychoanalysis is one of the first psychological trends that emerged as a result of the division of psychology into different schools. Published in 1900 and 1901. S. Freud’s books “Psychology of Dreams” and “Psychopathology of Everyday Life” are considered to be milestones in the birth of this direction, since its main postulates were formulated in them. Unlike previous directions, especially Gestalt psychology, in psychoanalysis not only the subject of psychology, but also priorities are radically revised - not intelligence, but motivation comes first. The subject of psychology in this school, as already mentioned, was the deep, unconscious structures of the psyche, and the method of studying them was psychoanalysis developed by this school.

In the formation of this school, the leading role, of course, belongs to S. Freud. Without exaggeration, we can say that the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud is one of those scientists who largely influenced the further development of modern psychology, and perhaps directed it along a certain path of development. This is due not only to the content of his concept, but also to the personal qualities of the scientist. His statements about the priority of the unconscious in the content of the psyche, about the significance of sexual desires and aggression were not fundamentally new for psychology. These ideas were in the air at that time, as evidenced by the works of Janet, Charcot, Liebeau. It was they who gave Freud the idea about the role of hypnosis and suggestion, about the possibility of its delayed impact. Brentano’s position on intentionality, the purpose of each mental act, was also important for him. Such a goal for Freud was human adaptation. This biological determination was one of the most important methodological principles of his theory, its core, explaining the importance of the forced socialization of the child, the need to give a socially acceptable form to sexual and aggressive desires. Disease in this concept is precisely the result of unsuccessful (or incomplete) adaptation.

Although these new trends existed in psychology, Freud, with his persistence and authoritarianism, with his ambitions and neurotic experiences, with his difficult memories of childhood and youth, was needed to systematize them, creating a coherent theory, so that they could establish themselves in science. Without him, perhaps the concept of the unconscious, which, of course, would have been created, would not have been able to gain such popularity and establish itself so quickly in all countries. It would be different, more conformal, traditional in content. At the same time, Freud's intolerance and jealousy of any modifications led him to break with all his students and followers. As a result, it is almost impossible to talk about Freudianism as a direction or school, since the concepts of Jung, Adler, Horney, Rank and other scientists are quite independent.

Depth psychology, unlike behaviorism or Gestalt psychology, never became a school, but is rather a set of individual theories of the unconscious. However, to some extent this also benefited psychoanalysis. Since each concept has become an original and distinctive view of the unconscious and its role in the mental life of a person, laying the foundation for its own schools and maintaining only a relative connection with the original theory.

However, despite the significant modernization of many of Freud's provisions, some methodological principles embedded in his theory remained unchanged. These include the following provisions:

1) understanding of mental development as motivational, personal;

2) consideration of development as adaptation to the environment. Although other psychoanalysts subsequently did not understand the environment as completely hostile, it always confronts a specific individual;

3) the driving forces of mental development are always innate and unconscious and represent mental energy given in the form of human drives or aspirations and tending to discharge (i.e., satisfaction);

4) the basic mechanisms of development, which are also innate, lay the foundations of personality and its motives already in early childhood. Hence the interest of psychoanalysis in memories of early childhood and trauma received at this age.

The reason for the disagreement was some of Freud's basic principles, which contradicted both the theoretical, practical, and clinical conclusions of his followers. This is, first of all, Freud's pansexualism, which explained all human aspirations and cultural achievements only by sexual desires, while the facts showed that there were other, no less important motives. Freud's overestimation of the role of biological determination to the detriment of cultural determination also caused protest. He practically did not take into account the role of social and individual differences, which also have a huge impact on individual motivation. This led to the stereotyping of man, turning him into a biological individual rather than into a social subject with his own spiritual world, different from others.

Freud considered the patterns he discovered to be universal for all people and all nations.

This applied to the stages of personality development, its structure, the content of unconscious drives, and the development of complexes. At the same time, the first studies showed that, for example, the Oedipus complex, which occupied a central place in Freud’s concept, is determined more by social than biological factors, the characteristics of upbringing accepted in a given culture, and the relationship between parents and children in the family. This was already noticed by Jung and Adler, whose results on the study of childhood memories (including their own) differed significantly from Freud’s experience. Adler, and after him other scientists, also came to the conclusion that in addition to sexual and aggressive ones, there are other, no less significant motives that can also become leading in the process of personality formation, for example, the desire to overcome one’s inferiority.

Later, other factors appeared that contradict Freud’s provisions both in the field of social psychology and in the assessment of the female psyche, the role of the Ego and in psychotherapeutic practice.

Freud's refusal to recognize possible variability during a psychoanalytic session led to his break even with such close students as W. Reich and O. Rank, who created their own psychotherapeutic concepts, although in theoretical terms they moved away to a much lesser extent than Jung and Adler from Freud.

The development of various correctional technologies in other directions (primarily in behaviorism), as well as new personality typologies built on the basis of biological and social differences, stimulated the overcoming of the average approach to a person in depth psychology. This was also facilitated by the emergence of clinical practice data indicating the inadmissibility of ignoring the client’s activity and own position.

These facts stimulated modification of the basic tenets of directive therapy, making it less rigid and more individualized.

If the clinical practice with which depth psychology began allowed for subjective and unvalidated ways of studying the unconscious, then for scientific research it was necessary to standardize the methods, making them more accurate and amenable to objective verification. This led to the development of projective techniques that have keys and approximate standards for interpreting the material. In a short time, various types of such techniques (figurative and verbal) appeared and became widespread, as well as the method of associative experiment proposed by Jung. The advantage of the new methods was not only greater objectivity, but also the ability to quickly obtain the required data.

An important point in the development of psychoanalysis was a change in approach to the problem of psychological defense. If Freud's defense performed the functions of reconciling an intrapersonal conflict (between the Id and the Super-Ego), then in the new theories of Horney, Fromm, Sullivan and other scientists it was also used in conflicts between the subject and the environment. Therefore, other manifestations are also included in the defense - such as conformism, aggression, grooming, sadism, etc.

The exteriorization of psychological defense, the idea that in the style of communication one can see the symptoms of neurotic experiences and ways to overcome them, contributed to the objectification of research and the development of new types of correction.

Significant discoveries in personality psychology made in other directions, primarily in humanistic psychology, in the theories of social learning and behaviorism, also interested psychoanalysts. Therefore, in Ego psychology A. Freud began to pay more attention to the conscious motives of a person, and in the theories of Sullivan and Berne - to contacts with significant others. Data on the development of motivation throughout a person’s life, on the role of creativity in the general hierarchy of needs, led E. Erikson to revise the seemingly unshakable postulates of depth psychology associated with the role of the first years of life. Having talked about crises in the process of human development, he introduced into psychoanalysis a new idea (excluding Adler’s theory) about the integrity of the individual, the need to realize one’s identity with oneself and society. Thus, by the second half of the 20th century. psychoanalysis gradually began to turn into a theory of personality, although initially it was more of a motivational theory of the individual.

The main provisions of Gestalt psychotherapy:

1. Man is an integral being, any division of him into component parts (for example, psyche and body) is artificial.

2. A person and his environment constitute a single gestalt, a structural whole, which is called the organism-environment field. The environment influences the organism and the organism transforms its environment, as well as in interpersonal relationships - the behavior of others affects us, if we change our behavior, then those around us are forced to change.

3. Human behavior is subject to the principle of formation and destruction of gestalts. Hunger - search for food - satisfaction of hunger - completion of the gestalt and its destruction.

4. Contact is the basic concept of Gestalt psychotherapy. A person cannot develop in an environment devoid of other people. All basic needs are satisfied only in contact with the environment.

The extent to which a person is able to satisfy his needs depends on how flexibly he can regulate the contact boundary.

5. Awareness - awareness of what is happening inside the body and its environment. This is the experience of perceiving stimuli from the external world, internal processes of the body and mental activity (ideas, images, memories, anticipation, fantasies). However, in the civilized world, people have hypertrophied thinking to the detriment of emotions and perception of the outside world. A huge number of human problems are associated with the fact that genuine awareness of reality is replaced by intellectual and often false ideas, for example, about what can be expected from people. How they treat me, etc. (in the words of F. Perzl - “Intuition is the mind of the body, and intellect is the corrupt girl of the mind,” “Throw away the mind and get to your feelings”). Gestalt psychotherapists suggest that if people achieve a clear awareness of internal and external reality, then they are able to independently resolve all their problems.

6. The principle of “here and now” - what is relevant for the body always happens in the present, even if these are thoughts, memories of the past or future - they are all in the present moment.

7. Responsibility - the ability to be responsible for what is happening and choose your reactions. The more a person is aware of reality, the more he is able to take responsibility for his life and rely on himself.

The main goal of Gestalt psychotherapy is to achieve, perhaps, a more complete awareness of oneself of the external world and, first of all, the world of interpersonal relationships.

4. Object, subject and functions of pedagogy. Object of pedagogy

A.S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting “childless” pedagogy, in 1922 formulated an idea about the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is incorrect. The object of research in scientific pedagogy is the “pedagogical fact (phenomenon).” At the same time, the child and the person are not excluded from the researcher’s attention. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.

Consequently, as its object, pedagogy does not have the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of pedagogy.

Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. For example, an economist, studying the level of real capabilities of the “labor resources” produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their training.

A sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who can adapt to the social environment and contribute to scientific and technological progress and social change. The philosopher, in turn, using a broader approach, asks the question about the goals and general purpose of education - what are they today and what should they be in the modern world? A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of state educational policy at a particular stage of social development, etc.

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not address the essential aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.

The subject of pedagogy is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.

Functions of pedagogical science.

The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. These are theoretical and technological functions that it implements in organic unity.

The theoretical function of pedagogy is implemented at three levels:

Descriptive or explanatory - the study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;

Diagnostic - identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;

Prognostic - experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for transforming this reality.

The prognostic level of the theoretical function is associated with revealing the essence of pedagogical phenomena, finding deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, and scientific substantiation of the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of educational practice are created.

The technological function of pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:

Projective, associated with the development of appropriate methodological materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and determining the “normative or regulatory” plan of pedagogical activity, its content and nature;

Transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of its improvement and reconstruction;

Reflexive and corrective, involving an assessment of the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practical activity.

5. System of methods and methodology of psychological research

a) In the system of methods of psychological research, a significant place is occupied by the study of the products of activity, or, more precisely, the study of the mental characteristics of activity on the basis of the products of this activity. This method turns from a direct study of the course of the activity itself to the study of its products, in order to indirectly judge from them the psychological characteristics of the activity and, further, the acting subject; therefore this method is sometimes called the method of indirect observation.

This method is widely used in historical psychology to study human psychology in long-past historical times, no longer available for direct observation or experimentation.

At the same time, we should not be talking about deducing - in the spirit of idealism - the laws of cultural development from psychological laws, but about understanding the laws of human psychological development, based on the laws of his socio-historical development. In this way, our understanding of this method differs fundamentally from its essentially idealistic application, which it received, for example, in Wundt’s ten-volume “Psychology of Nations,” who considered ideological formations as a projection of human psychology. Any attempt to psychologize social, ideological formations, reducing them to psychological laws, is fundamentally untenable. Psychological analysis, based on objectively materialized products of human activity, should not replace the socio-historical method of studying them, but rely on it.

In child psychology, products of children's creativity are widely and very fruitfully used for the psychological study of the child. For example, the study of children's drawings has shed significant light on the characteristics of children's perception.

b) An essential link in the methodology of psychological research is a conversation, plannedly organized by the researcher in accordance with the objectives of the study. Conversation is an auxiliary means for additional illumination of the internal course of those processes that other objective methods, based on external activity, study in their objective external detection. The conversation should not turn into an attempt to shift the solution to research problems from the researcher to the subject. In no case can it be reduced to a simple recording of direct self-observation data. The statements of the person being studied must be correlated with objective data, with the entire situation in which the conversation takes place, and be subject to indirect interpretation.

Questions asked in a conversation can (when studying thinking, for example) be like tasks aimed at identifying the qualitative uniqueness of the processes being studied. But at the same time, these tasks should be as natural and non-standard as possible. In a conversation, each subsequent question of the experimenter should be a new means that serves to indirectly determine those features of the internal operation that turned out to be not clearly defined by the answers to the previous ones. Because of this, they need to vary from case to case. Each subsequent question should be posed taking into account the changed situation that was created as a result of the subject’s answer to the previous question. Being planned, the conversation should not be of a template-standard nature; it should always be as individualized as possible. Compliance with these conditions presents, of course, certain difficulties; it requires great skill on the part of the researcher, but only under these conditions will the conversation be fruitful.

Such a conversation must either precede or follow objective study (through objective observation, experiment). She can, finally, both precede and follow him. But in any case it should be combined with other objective methods, and not turn into a self-sufficient method.

Conversation receives different methodological design in psychology depending on the differences in the initial attitudes of different researchers. Freud introduced a unique type of psychoanalytic conversation for the purposes of psychoanalysis. Its task is to lead the interlocutor to awareness and overcoming of drives repressed from consciousness.

Another version of the conversation, which has become quite widespread in child psychology, is Piaget’s “clinical conversation”. Piaget's clinical conversation was structured in such a way as to reveal exclusively the child's spontaneous ideas.

Our conversation includes a conscious and purposeful moment of experimental influence and, when studying the psychology of children, pedagogical influence.

Along with the positive private methods of psychological research listed above, in a review of the methods that were actually used in psychology, one cannot fail to mention the questionnaire and test method in order to subject them to a special critical analysis. The question of questionnaires and tests has become more pressing in our country due to the role that these methods played in the vicious and harmful “theory” and practice of pedologists.

c) The questionnaire method aims to collect material to resolve a certain psychological problem by interviewing a certain circle of people according to a certain scheme. This scheme is recorded in a questionnaire or questionnaire. The data obtained through the questionnaire is mostly not based on systematic observation of the person filling it out and does not allow for any verification or differentiated analysis. Therefore, the conclusions that can be drawn from each questionnaire regarding an individual do not have the slightest scientific value.

The scope of application of the questionnaire method is primarily mass phenomena of a more or less external order. Thus, using the questionnaire method, the reading or professional interests of a certain group of people can be examined.

If the coverage of subjects in a questionnaire survey is wide, then its depth is insignificant.

It is absolutely impossible to use the questionnaire method to solve any deep psychological problems.

Questionnaires as a research tool are usually subjected to statistical processing and are used to obtain statistical averages. But statistical averages, as is known, have minimal value for research if they are obtained as a result of overlapping values ​​that deviate significantly from this average in both one and the other direction. Such statistical averages do not express patterns. But in psychology, when studying the highest, most complex mental processes, this is for the most part the case. Therefore, questionnaires that serve to obtain such statistical averages do not represent any significant value for in-depth psychological research aimed at revealing psychological patterns.

Originating in England (Galton's questionnaire in 1880), the questionnaire method in psychology became especially widespread in America. He initially met with a negative attitude from European psychologists. Ribot wrote: "The questionnaire method relies on numbers. It is the application of popular vote to problems of psychology, and too often it is little different from those questions on all sorts of topics with which journalists address the general public." This was basically the same attitude towards this method of a number of other prominent psychologists. All pointed out that the questionnaire method is more suitable for establishing simple external facts than for posing complex psychological problems; it does not provide any reliable data to resolve them.

But the questionnaire method later became somewhat widespread in the study of mass phenomena (shifts of interests, etc.).

The questionnaire method has been unacceptably abused in pedological practice. They did not take into account the superficiality and often dubious nature of the data provided by the questionnaires, the illegality of transferring the conclusions obtained as a result of statistical processing to a specific individual, and the grossly anti-pedagogical impact that the often completely unacceptable, meaningless questions of “pedological” questionnaires had on children .

d) The question of tests is even more pressing. The term “test” (test means “sample” or “test” in English) was introduced at the end of the last century by the American psychologist Quettel.

Tests have become widespread and have practical significance since Binet, together with Simon, developed his own system of tests to determine the mental development or giftedness of children, and Münsterberg somewhat later (in 1910) began developing tests for the purpose of professional selection.

The Binet-Simon tests were then subjected to numerous revisions by Theremin (in America), Burt (in England), and others.

Tests in the proper sense of the word are tests that have as their goal grading, determining the ranking place of an individual in a group or team, and establishing his level. The test is aimed at personality; it should serve as a diagnostic tool for prognostic purposes.

The term “test” has recently received a more expansive use, extending to any task given to the subject during experimentation.

The test method in the original specific meaning of the word raises a number of serious objections. The most important of them are the following.

When two individuals solve or fail to solve the same test, the psychological meaning of this fact can be very different: the same achievement can be due to different mental processes. Therefore, the external fact of solving or not solving a test does not yet determine the internal nature of the corresponding mental acts.

The basis of the test method, which makes a diagnosis about a person based on statistical processing of external data - the results of an individual solving certain problems, is a mechanistic behavioral approach to personality. The test method attempts to make a diagnosis about a developing personality on the basis of a test divorced from observation of the process of its development and the organization of this development through training and education.

This error is further aggravated when, on the basis of the same test examination, a prediction is made, assuming that the level established through a test test at one stage of development will continue to characterize the given subject in the future. Thus, they accept the fatal predetermination of the entire further path of human development by the existing conditions and, consciously or unconsciously, deny the possibility of remaking a person: an adult - in the process of social practice, a child - in the process of training and upbringing.

When different individuals who have gone through different paths of development and were formed in different conditions are presented with the same standard tests and, on the basis of their decisions, they directly conclude about the giftedness of the persons subjected to this test, they make a clear mistake, namely, they do not take into account the dependence of the results on the conditions of development . Two students or workers could perform differently on tests because one of the students had less training and one of the workers had less training. But in the learning process, the former can get ahead of the latter.

The fact that certain tests are passed by 75 percent of children of a given age in a certain class environment does not provide grounds for recognizing them as an automatic criterion for determining the “giftedness” or mental development of children being formed in completely different conditions.

To make such a conclusion, which lies at the basis of the test methodology, means not to take into account the conditionality of the test results by the developmental conditions of those specific living people who were subjected to these tests.

It is this anti-scientific approach to research methodology, expressed in the fact that the results of development are taken without regard to the conditions of development, that forms the theoretical basis for the politically reactionary conclusions of testology.

On the basis that representatives of enslaved nationalities or exploited classes of capitalist society perform worse on tests adapted to verbal education, available in capitalist states only to representatives of the ruling class of the dominant nationality, bourgeois testologists have repeatedly concluded that representatives of these classes and nationalities are inferior. But to draw such conclusions means not only to reveal one’s political reactionism, but also to reveal a misunderstanding of one of the basic and elementary requirements of scientific thinking.

The unsatisfactory nature of this method is further aggravated by the fact that standard systems or test scales are used as a diagnostic tool and an attempt is made to stamp personality through tests, the very formulation of which is based not on taking into account individual differences, but on neglecting them. Finally, one cannot fail to note the casuistic, sometimes provocative, content of the test tests, which usually does not take into account the specific training of the given subject. By giving tasks not related to learning, they, however, pretend - completely wrongfully - to draw conclusions from them specifically regarding the learning ability of the subjects.

Criticism of test methods and questionnaires ultimately rests on a fundamental question, the correct solution of which should give a new direction to the entire methodology of our psychological research. We are essentially talking about understanding the personality and a specific approach to it in the research process.

One of the main features of the methodology of modern foreign psychological science is its impersonal nature. In the process of research, a person becomes only a test subject for the experimenter, ceasing to be a person who has gone through a certain specific path of development, relates in a certain way to what is happening in the experimental situation, and acts depending on this relationship. This direction of research turns out to be fundamentally untenable, especially where more complex mental manifestations of personality are subject to study.

e) The basis of the genetic method is the idea that every phenomenon is known in its development.

This idea can receive two sharply different implementations: in the spirit of an evolutionist and in the spirit of a dialectical understanding of development.

If evolution is conceived as only a quantitative increase and complication, and not a qualitative restructuring, the higher, later forms in the evolutionary series differ from the previous ones only in complexity. In this case, the laws of the higher ones, i.e. more complex forms can be studied at lower levels, where they appear in a less complicated, and therefore more accessible, form for study. That is why researchers who take this point of view shift the focus of their research to the infant years.

Therefore, in terms of comparative psychology, research is carried out primarily on the lower, elementary forms of reflex behavior of animals, so that the patterns obtained there are mechanically transferred to the higher forms of human behavior. Firstly, the highest laws are directly given in the least complicated and most accessible form for research. This is the main point of this technique. The central idea that underlies the evolutionary interpretation of the genetic method is the following: the laws of behavior at all stages of development are the same; psychological laws are unchanging, “eternal” laws.

The main idea of ​​the dialectical understanding of the genetic method, on the contrary, says: the laws of psychology are not “eternal”, they are historical laws; at each stage of development they are different. This is the great idea that Marx first formulated. Marx applied it to the study of social formations. It should also be implemented in psychology. The main position - phenomena are known in their development - receives a new in-depth meaning: the laws themselves do not represent something fixed, unchangeable; Each stage of development has its own laws. It is equally unlawful to mechanically transfer the laws of lower levels to higher ones, and of higher ones to lower ones. With the transition to a new stage of development, not only phenomena change, but along with them the laws that determine them. The same phenomenon can be subject to different laws at different stages of development (Marx showed this using the example of the law of population increase in various social formations). The task of the genetic method is to reveal changes in the laws themselves that occur in the process of development.

An explanation of these changes, which are changes in the psyche as a whole, requires the identification of objective conditions of development that go beyond the psyche. The genetic study of the development of not only phenomena, but also the laws that determine them, reveals the driving forces of development and determines its conditions.

The genesis and development of the psyche can also be studied in the process of biological development of a given genus or species. The genetic method in this case is carried out in the form of a phylogenetic method.

The study of the psyche at the previous stages of phylogenetic development serves as a means of understanding the human psyche. Animal psychology - zoopsychology - is usually studied in this way of comparative psychology.

In relation to human psychology, the genetic method faces another task - to reveal the paths of development of the human psyche throughout the socio-historical development of mankind: the genetic method is carried out in the form of a historical method. Exploring the mental development of mankind, tracing the paths of formation of complex processes (for example, speech, thinking) from their primitive to their modern, developed forms, he discovers the driving forces of mental development in changing social relations.

The genesis and development of the psyche can be studied in the process of development of an individual from birth to adulthood: the genetic method in this case is carried out in the form of the ontogenetic method. Thus, the development of the child’s psyche serves as a means of understanding the psyche of an adult, and at the same time the child’s psyche and the paths of its development are illuminated through the laws of more developed forms of the mature psyche.

Each of the stages of mental development, both in phylo- and ontogenesis, must be a real, dated formation, unambiguously related to objectively defined conditions, and not an abstract construction, passing through abstract dialectics into another such abstract construction: Marx’s method must not be replaced Hegel's method.

f) The use of pathology, disorders of mental life to understand the laws of the normal psyche has provided great services to psychology over the past decades. Some of the authoritative modern psychologists even argued that “psychopathology over the past 50 years has been the main factor in progress in psychology.”

Each function and process can be studied in its pathological form: perception - on hallucinations and “spiritual blindness”, memory - on “amnesia”, speech - on aphasia, will - on abulia, etc.

Moreover, any pathological disorder is, as it were, a natural experiment organized by nature itself. By turning off or changing one function within an integrally functioning psyche, it thereby makes it possible, as it were, to experimentally establish the role of this function within the whole, its connection with other functions and their interdependence. Thus, psychopathological studies of recent years (G. Head, A. Gelb, K. Goldstein, etc.), having revealed the exceptional depth of the connection between disorders of speech (aphasia), cognition (agnosia) and action (apraxia), shed bright light on the relationship between speech, cognition and action in their normal manifestations.

However, no matter how great the importance of psychopathology for psychology, one should not exaggerate it and mechanically transfer the results obtained on pathological material to the normal psyche. When one function is disrupted, the entire psyche of the patient is modified. This means that the relationships between the functions in the psyche of a sick person are different than those of a healthy person. It is therefore completely inappropriate to identify earlier forms of the psyche that took place in the process of historical or individual development with the disintegration of higher forms resulting from pathological disorders. The similarities that can be established in this way between a sick and a healthy psyche are often superficial and always partial. In particular, attempts to define or characterize the psychological characteristics of the ages preceding maturity through parallels with some pathological forms are fundamentally flawed (as was done especially in relation to adolescence, for example, by Kretschmer).

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Definition of psychology as the scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes and the practical application of the acquired knowledge. Psychology as a science. Subject of psychology. The connection between psychology and other sciences. Research methods in psychology.

In psychology, including pedagogical psychology, two methodological approaches to the study of man have now developed: natural science and humanitarian (psychotechnical).

The natural science approach is aimed at constructing a true picture of what is happening, knowledge of the objective, general laws of nature. The psychologist takes the position of a detached researcher who does not influence what is happening with the object being studied. The influence of one’s own attitude to what is happening, the values ​​that the researcher recognizes, is excluded. Various typologies and classifications are the result of the use of mathematical methods for processing the results.

The humanitarian approach concentrates on the most essential manifestations of human nature: values, meaning, freedom, responsibility. For this approach, the most important thing is not so much an understanding of psychological patterns and facts, but rather a person’s attitude to these facts, the meanings that he gives to them. In humanitarian knowledge, the emphasis shifts from identifying general patterns to searching for the individual, the special. In addition, the humanitarian approach recognizes the complexity, inconsistency and variability of human existence.

Educational psychology as a science needs the accumulation of empirical data, their systematization and explanation. For this purpose, two research strategies have been formed within the framework of the natural science paradigm:

surveillance strategy, ensuring the collection of data in the context of the task set by the researcher, the accumulation of empirical material in order to further describe the patterns of the observed process or phenomenon;

strategy of natural science ascertaining experiment, which allows you to detect a phenomenon or process under controlled conditions, measure its quantitative characteristics and give a qualitative description. The child, teacher or parent acts here for the psychologist as an object of research, a subject. The research program is formed in advance; the psychologist’s influence on the process being studied should be minimized;

third formation strategy of a particular process with given properties presupposes the active interaction of a psychologist with another person. The emergence of this strategy is due to the fact that modern educational psychology is becoming science is not about the established personal consciousness of a person, but about the consciousness that is becoming, developing, the consciousness of a spiritually growing person making effort and work towards his development. The procedures used to implement this strategy are flexible, depending on the characteristics of the interaction. The psychologist shows interest in what is happening. To implement the third strategy, the skills of a psychologist are especially important interpret, understand, reflect, problematize and enter into dialogue with another person.

Interpretation. Each language is based on certain conceptual configurators, which we conventionally called “interpretive schemes.” Facts placed in personal interpretive schemes take on different meanings. The ability to enter into the semantic field of another leads to people understanding each other.

Understanding is interpreted as the art of “grasping” the meanings of communication, people’s actions, facts and events that arise in the context of a certain situation.

According to the ideas of A.A. Verbitsky, a person exists in various contexts (objective and subjective). The integration of many meaning-forming contexts forms a subjective picture of a person’s interaction with the world. The latter mediates a person’s perception of the world and himself in it, influences the choice of actions, acting as a more “objective” factor than the objective characteristics of the situation.

Understanding is active-dialogical in nature, and meaning is generated in the joint activity and communication of the psychologist with another person.

Techniques that can be used to organize understanding include:

Reducing the complex to the simple, isolating the basic idea and feelings;

Establishing relations of assistance, cooperation, empathy of a psychologist between two subjects;

Working according to the rules of maieutics to expand the field of possible meanings, i.e. raising questions of such a level of uncertainty that would stimulate the “natural” processes of expanding the semantic field;

Techniques of “cultivating meanings” such as repeating the main idea, interpreting what was said, using questions to clarify, deepening the meaning, putting forward hypotheses about the meaning of what was said.

The most important condition for understanding is to consider the presented meaning as the author’s, i.e. as proposed by the speaker, and not introduced on his own by the listener.

Understanding is related to reflection , which is one of the mechanisms for understanding oneself and one’s being. The task of a psychologist is to help others enter a reflexive position, that is, to “pause,” as it were, the continuous process of life and take them beyond its limits. A reflexive exit is caused by misunderstanding in communication and the inability to deeply and fully characterize one’s situation.

Dialogue is understood as familiarization with a different space of meaning and life, which is not exhausted by linguistic interaction and does not lead to the search for truth, but clarifies the spiritual dimensions of existence.

Problematization is understood as a mental technique consisting in the requirement to explain, justify what, why and in connection with what another is asserting. Due to problematization, the productivity and quality of judgments sharply increase, the skills of searching, elaborating and constructing the bases of their statements and actions are formed.

Some authors call methods that implement the third strategy methods of practical psychology. These include:

psychological consultation, psychological correction, psychotherapy, psychotraining, method of gradual formation of mental actions, method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. By studying the peculiarities of the formation of cognitive processes, scientists were able to develop approaches to their formation. Thus, two tasks were simultaneously solved - research and formation. Methods that have traditionally been used in educational psychology for diagnostic purposes have a high correction potential. Thus, a child’s drawing, on the one hand, can only be used as a diagnostic tool. On the other hand, this is a well-developed method of psychological correction.

In the work of a school psychologist, the developmental potential of the method is important, that is, the possibility of obtaining a developmental effect in the process of the examination itself and building developmental programs on its basis. A practicing psychologist is not interested in conducting only an examination. It is more important for him to use the method with maximum benefit for correctional and developmental work.

The principles of construction and organization of psychodiagnostic activities of a psychologist in school include:

compliance of the chosen approach and specific methodology with the goals and objectives of effective psychological support for the child;

the survey results must be formulated in a language that others can understand or be easily translated into a language that others can understand;

predictiveness of the methods used, i.e. the ability to predict on their basis the characteristics of the child’s development at further stages of education and upbringing;

high developmental potential of the method;

cost-effectiveness of the procedure. A good technique should be a short, multifunctional procedure, available in both individual and group versions, easy to process and, as far as possible, unambiguous in assessing the data obtained.

The actions of the psychologist when organizing any impact on the child must be coordinated with the parents. The issue of parents' presence at a psychological examination should be decided individually. During a diagnostic examination of preschoolers and primary schoolchildren, the presence of parents is desirable. This will help parents see the child’s characteristics, and it will be easier for the psychologist to work on discussing the diagnostic results. In addition, the parents’ reactions to what is happening provide the psychologist with additional material about the characteristics of relationships in the family.

At an older age, if the child does not object, the examination can be carried out without parents. But in any case, you must obtain written permission from the parents to conduct the examination.

Characteristics of methods

The main methods of educational psychology are the following.

Observation - purposeful, specially organized and recorded perception of the object under study. Observation allows us to identify the psychological characteristics of a child, teacher or parent in their natural conditions. A child can be observed during a lesson or a game with peers, a parent can be observed during a party organized in the classroom, and the observer must rely on objectively observed parameters of behavior, and not interpret them.

Observation errors associated with the personality of the observer:

The "halo effect" is associated with the observer's tendency to generalize the behavior of the observed. Thus, observation of a child during lessons is transferred to his behavior in general;

the error of “false agreement” is that the observer, in assessing behavior, follows the opinion of others about him (“everyone says so”);

the “average tendency” error is associated with the tendency to focus on typical, “average” behavioral manifestations for each person, rather than forms that differ from the usual ones (the idea that boys are on average more active and energetic than girls can influence the course of observation peculiarities of relationships between children of different sexes);

the “first impression” error is the result of the transfer of existing stereotypes of perception to the observed person.

To avoid these mistakes, it is advisable to observe the behavior of a particular person for a long time and compare your data with the results of observations of other people.

The observer must have a good idea of ​​what, why and how he is going to observe: a program must be created, the parameters of the observed behavior, and methods of recording must be determined. Otherwise, he will record random facts.

A type of observation are diaries that parents and teachers can keep, describing the features of children’s development and their relationships with others. A psychologist can obtain valuable material from diary entries and self-reports kept by participants in trainings and personal growth groups.

Introspection is a type of observation and involves the study of the psyche based on observation of one’s own mental phenomena. To carry it out, the subject must have a high level of abstract logical thinking and the ability to reflect. Preschool children can more easily draw their condition than talk about it.

Experiment - a method of collecting facts in controlled and controlled conditions that ensure the active manifestation of the studied mental phenomena.

By form of conducting allocate natural and laboratory experiment. A natural experiment was proposed by A.F. Lazursky in 1910 at the First All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out under conditions of activity familiar to the subject (in classes, in games). A teacher can widely use this method in his work. In particular, by changing the forms and methods of teaching, it is possible to identify how they affect the assimilation of material, the features of its understanding and memorization. Such well-known teachers in our country as V.A. Sukhomlinsky, A.S. Makarenko, Sh.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalov, E.A. Yamburg and others have achieved high results in teaching and raising children thanks to experimentation and the creation of innovative platforms in education.

A laboratory experiment is carried out in specially created conditions. In particular, the features of cognitive processes (memory, thinking, perception, etc.) can be studied using specially created equipment. In educational psychology, this type of experiment is practically not used, since the problem arises of transferring data obtained in laboratory conditions to real teaching practice.

By purpose carrying out are allocated ascertaining and formative experiment. The purpose of the ascertaining experiment is to measure the current level of development (for example, the level of development of abstract logical thinking, the degree of formation of moral ideas). In this case, tests are a type of ascertaining experiment. The data obtained form the basis of the formative experiment.

A formative experiment is aimed at active transformation and development of certain aspects of the psyche. Thanks to the experimental genetic method created by L.S. Vygotsky, it became possible not only to identify qualitative features of the development of higher mental functions, but also to purposefully influence their formation. As part of the formative experiment, the possibility of forming scientific and theoretical thinking in junior schoolchildren was proven, conditions were created for intensive study of a foreign language, and the convergence of educational and professional activities was ensured.

A special form of experiment is research using tests. Tests are standardized tasks designed to measure individual psychological properties of a person, as well as knowledge, skills and abilities in comparable quantities. In pedagogical practice, tests were first used in 1864 in Great Britain to test students' knowledge. At the end of the 19th century. F. Galton, the founder of testology, developed a number of tasks to assess the individual characteristics of a person. The term "test" was coined by the American psychologist J. M. Cattell (1890). He created a series of tests aimed at determining the level of intellectual development. There are known scales created by A. Binet in 1905 for examining children aged 3-11 years. The scale included 30 tasks of varying difficulty and was intended for diagnosing mental retardation. In 1911, V. Stern introduced the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ), the measurement of which remains one of the purposes of testing.

In Russia, tests began to be used at the beginning of the 20th century. A.P. In 1928, Boltunov created a “measuring scale of the mind” based on A. Binet’s scale.

Currently, tests are used in the system of professional selection, in pathopsychological diagnostics, to determine the level of readiness of a child to enter school, to identify the characteristics of the formation of cognitive processes and personal properties (at the stage of adaptation to school education, during the transition to secondary education, when examining high school students ). Testing can be used to identify the psychological characteristics of a child experiencing difficulties in communication, learning, etc. A psychologist may suggest that a teacher undergo psychological testing to identify his psychological characteristics. This data will help the psychologist when conducting consulting work.

The quality of a test is determined by its reliability (consistency of test results), validity (compliance of the test with diagnostic purposes), and the differentiating power of the task (the ability of the test to subdivide subjects according to the degree of expression of the characteristic being studied).

Types of tests are projective tests, the peculiarity of which is the study of personal characteristics based on involuntary reactions (generating free associations, interpreting random configurations, describing pictures with an indefinite plot, drawing on a topic).

The free association test can be conducted under the guise of a think-aloud game. The experimenter gives a specific word, and the child names ten associations that come to his mind in connection with this word. First, several camouflage stimulus words are presented, and then significant words are called, such as “your father,” “your mother,” etc.

Using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) can help gather information about the child's relationships with others. A set of plot and non-plot pictures in black and white allows subjects, depending on the level of development of thinking, speech, feelings and on the basis of previous life experience (apperception), to interpret the depicted situation differently. The experimenter, using such a test, can solve diagnostic and correction problems by discussing with the subject the questions: “Who is shown in the picture? What's happening in the picture? What do the characters in the picture think and feel? What led to what happened? What will happen?".

The most common method used by an educational psychologist is drawing techniques. More V 1914 prof. A. Lazursky tried to use drawing lessons to study the child’s personality. These techniques became most popular in the 1950s. Currently, the drawing tests “House - tree - person”, “Self-portrait”, “Constructive drawing of a person from geometric shapes”, “Picture of the world”, “Free drawing”, “Drawing of a family” are used.

Some psychologists use drawing in psychological diagnostics, based on the following principles:

Creating a pattern, the emergence of which could be observed;

Classification of drawings in terms of level of development and in terms of unusual features;

Consideration of drawing as a result of multifunctional activity. This activity may be a field for the projection of intense experiences;

According to the principle, more errors in psychological diagnosis were caused by exaggerated projective interpretation than by omission of projective interpretation.

The drawing should not be used as the sole starting point for projective interpretation.

Projective tendencies should be checked through research, comparison with the results of further tests, in conversation with parents, etc.

A drawing can be an indicator not only of creative abilities, but also of pathological processes (functional and organic).

The main aspects of interpreting a family drawing include: a) the structure of the family drawing; b) features of the drawn family members; c) the process of drawing.

Method of studying the products of activity allows you to collect facts based on the analysis of materialized products of mental activity. The researcher, using this method, deals not with the person himself, but with the material products of his activity: educational (essay, solved problem), gaming (the plot of a game invented by a child, a house built from cubes), creative (poems, stories, fairy tales). When implementing this method, it is important to try to reproduce the manufacturing process of the product and thereby discover personality characteristics.

Requirements for the method: 1) by analyzing the products of activity, it is necessary to establish whether they are the result of a typical activity characteristic of a given person or created by chance; 2) it is necessary to know the conditions under which the activity took place; 3) analyze not single, but many products of activity.

Survey method provides information through direct (conversation, interview) or indirect (questionnaire, survey) communication. For competent conduct of questionnaires and interviews, it is important to clearly formulate the questions so that they are clearly understood by the subjects. Psychology has developed rules for composing questions (open and closed), arranging them in the required order, and grouping them into separate blocks. The most common errors encountered when compiling questionnaires and surveys are: words that are scientific terms or that are incomprehensible to the respondent are used; non-specific and general concepts are used as characteristic values ​​(“often - rarely”, “many - few”), they should be specified (regularly - “once a week”, “once a month”, “once a year”, etc. .); the psychologist tries to captivate the interviewee by offering unequal answers or using slang.

To conduct a conversation, an atmosphere of trust between the psychologist and the person he is interviewing is important. You need to know the rules for establishing contact, master effective communication techniques, and ways to win over your interlocutor.

Sociometry- a method for studying the characteristics of interpersonal relationships in small groups. It consists in the fact that the main measuring technique is a question, answering which each member of the group shows his attitude towards others. The results are recorded on a sociogram - a graph on which arrows indicate the elections (rejections) of group members, or in a table in which the number of elections received by each group member is calculated. Positive status characterizes the leadership position of a group member. Negative - disorganizing tendencies in the behavior of the individual. Group and individual forms of sociometry are used, as well as modifications in the form of games, drawing tests, etc.

Biographical method- collection and analysis of data about the life path of an individual. The study of a person’s life style and scenario (genogram method, analysis of early childhood memories) can be used to identify the features of the formation of a child’s life style. This method carries a large therapeutic and correctional load both in individual and group counseling.

A genogram is a form of family pedigree that records information about family members for at least three generations. A genogram shows family information graphically, allowing complex family patterns to be quickly visualized. The genogram also serves as a source of hypotheses about how current issues relate to family context and development over time.

Analysis of early childhood memories is aimed at identifying the current life style of the individual. The psychologist suggests describing in as much detail as possible several of the earliest childhood memories and trying to give them a name, starting with phrases like “My life is...”, “To live means...”. When carrying out the technique, it is important to pay attention to the details of memories, to the emotional attitude to what happened in childhood, to the characteristics of the people represented in the memory.

Within the framework of transactional analysis, procedures for studying life scenarios are proposed. During a conversation with the subject, the psychologist stimulates a discussion of questions such as: “Who were you named after? What kind of child were you in the family (first, second...) and how did the appearance of a second child affect you? What proverbs or sayings might reflect the values ​​your family stands for? How did your parents plan your future?” etc.

Mathematical methods in psychological and pedagogical research are used as auxiliary in planning and processing the results of experiments, test surveys, questionnaires and surveys.

Methods of providing psychological assistance and support subjects of the educational process are aimed at creating conditions for the holistic psychological development of schoolchildren and solving specific problems that arise in the development process. These include: active social learning (training), individual and group counseling, psychological correction.

Active social learning (training) - This is a set of methods aimed at developing knowledge, social attitudes, skills and abilities of self-knowledge and self-regulation, communication and interpersonal interaction. Techniques that the psychologist uses when conducting the training: role-playing game, group discussion, psycho-gymnastics, behavioral skills training, situation analysis, elements of psychodiagnostics, etc. Audio and video equipment can be used for training participants to receive feedback. To date, the arsenal of educational psychology has accumulated a large number of active social learning programs that ensure the psychologist’s work with children, teachers and parents.

Purpose psychological counseling is a culturally productive person who has a sense of perspective, acts consciously, is able to develop various behavioral strategies and analyze the situation from different points of view. When consulting a school as an organization, the psychologist is focused on optimizing organizational and management structures. A psychologist can act as an organizational development consultant, directing his actions to change social relationships, people's views and the structure of the organization in order to improve its functioning and ensure development. Counseling can be carried out in individual and group forms. The methodological and theoretical preparedness of the psychologist, orientation in the main approaches to understanding the goals and means of counseling, and the specifics of the stated problem determine the basis for his work with an individual or group. In the practice of work of a school psychologist, behavioral, transactional, humanistic and cognitive-oriented approaches, elements of Gestalt therapy, psychosynthesis, and body-oriented therapy are most successfully used.

Psychological correction - directed psychological impact on certain psychological structures in order to ensure the full development and functioning of the individual. School psychologists have many programs in their arsenal aimed at developing and correcting students’ cognitive, emotional and personal spheres.

Questions and tasks

1. What general psychological methods are used in educational psychology?

2. What strategies for psychological and pedagogical research do you know?

3. Name the methods of psychological support and support that a school psychologist can use.

4. Conduct a psychodiagnostic examination of the child and his relationship to the family, using the “Family Drawing” method. Think over the instructions, the procedure for conducting the study, and methods of interpretation.

5. Parents are present during the interview upon admission of the child to first grade. Whenever the child hesitates to answer or makes a mistake, the mother behaves very unrestrainedly: she prompts the child, pushes him, and is loudly indignant at the difficulty of the tasks. How should a psychologist behave in this case?

Seminar plan

“Principles and methods of educational psychology”

1. Humanitarian ideals of scientific character and principles of educational psychology.

2. Research strategy and formation strategy.

3. Principles for constructing the psychodiagnostic work of a school psychologist.

4. Methods of psychological assistance and support.

Main literature

1. Bityanova M.R. Organization of psychological services at school. M., 1998.

2. Gilbukh Yu.Z. Psychodiagnostics at school. M., 1989.

3. Loseva V.K. Drawing a family: diagnostics of family relationships. M., 1995.

4. Orlov A.B. Methods of modern developmental and educational psychology. M., 1982.

5. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Human psychology. Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity. M., 1995.

6. Shvantsara I. Diagnostics of mental development. Prague, 1998.

additional literature

7. Vasilyuk F.E. From psychological practice to psychotechnical theory // Moscow Psychotherapeutic Journal. 1992. M 1.

8. James M., Jongward D. Born to win. M., 1993.

9. Klyueva N.V., Kasatkina Yu.V. We teach children to communicate. Yaroslavl, 1996.

10. Practical psychology of education / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1997.

11. Rogov E.I. Handbook for a practical psychologist in education. M., 1995.

12. Subbotina L.Yu. Development of imagination in children. Yaroslavl, 1996.

13. Tikhomirova L.F., Basov A.V. Development of logical thinking in children. Yaroslavl, 1995.

14. Romanova E.S., Potemkina O.F. Projective methods in psychological diagnostics. M., 1991.

15. Stepanov S.S. Diagnosis of intelligence using the drawing test method. M., 1997.

16. Cheremoshkina L.V. Development of children's memory. Yaroslavl, 1997.

17. Chernikov A. Genogram and categories of analysis of family life. // Psychological consultation. 1997. Vol. 1.

Related information.