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Psychology as a science

• Psychology (from the Greek Psyche - soul + logos - teaching, science) is the science of the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life.
• Psyche (from the Greek Psychikos - spiritual) is a form of active reflection by the subject of objective reality, arising in the process of interaction of highly organized living beings with the outside world and carrying out a regulatory function in their behavior (activity).

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• The object of psychology is highly organized living beings, carriers of the psyche
• The subject of psychology is psyche

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Historical perspective on the subject of psychology

• 6th century BC – V century AD: the subject of psychology is the soul.
• Plato: The idea (eidos) of any thing or being is the deepest, most intimate and essential thing in it. In man, the role of idea is performed by his immortal soul.

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• Aristotle: the soul is not an independent entity, but a form, a way of organizing a living body.
• The soul has various abilities as stages of its development: vegetative, sensory and mental (inherent only to humans).
• The mind in its highest, essential expression is something different from the body. The hierarchy of levels of cognitive activity culminated in the “supreme mind,” which was not mixed with anything corporeal or external.
• “If the eye were a living thing, its soul would be sight” (Aristotle)

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Middle Ages:

• Scholasticism (Greek σχολαστικός - school scientist) is a systematic medieval philosophy, which is a synthesis of Christian (Catholic) theology and Aristotelian logic.

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Renaissance:

• The German scholastics R. Gocklenius and O. Kassmann first introduced the term “psychology” (1590).

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Age of Enlightenment. René Descartes (1596-1650):

• developed the doctrine of consciousness in the context of a psychophysical problem,
• introduced a criterion for distinguishing the psyche,
• introduced the concept of reflex, thereby laying the foundation for the natural scientific study of animal and human behavior.

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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679):

• There is nothing in the world except material bodies;
• Associations are related traces of sensations;
• Associations are a universal law of psychology.

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John Locke (1632 - 1704):

• “There is nothing in the mind that is not in the feeling”;
• Formation of simple ideas from complex ones through various operations (connection, comparison, etc.);
• Association is “an incorrect, i.e., not corresponding to a natural correlation, connection of ideas, when ideas that are not related in themselves are connected in the minds of some people in such a way that it is very difficult to separate them.”

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Definition of consciousness

• Consciousness is a form of reflection of objective reality in the human psyche.
• Consciousness is the ability to reproduce reality, as well as specific mechanisms and forms of such reproduction at its different levels.

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Classical psychology of consciousness

• Structural psychology of consciousness (W. Wundt, E. Titchener)
• Functional psychology of consciousness (W. James)

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Structural psychology of consciousness

W. Wundt defined the main tasks of psychology:

1. analysis of the process of consciousness by the method of introspection;
2. identification of elements of consciousness;
3. establishing patterns of their connection.

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• Structure and properties of consciousness according to W. Wundt:
• Structure: Field of consciousness and focus of consciousness (field of attention)

Properties:

• rhythmicity (connectedness, grouping of impressions) – consciousness is a structure
• heterogeneity – center and periphery
• has a volume - the number of simple impressions that the subject at a given time perceives as a single whole (7+\-2)

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• How does consciousness work?
• The mechanism of interaction of elements of consciousness (simple sensations) - association
• The process of a new image entering the focus of consciousness is called apperception.

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• E. Titchener - founder of structuralism
• Studied the elements of consciousness
• He proposed the metaphor of “Waves of Consciousness”, the conscious thing that lies on the crest of the wave (in the field of attention).

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• E. Titchener introduced the wave metaphor to explain the phenomenon of attention. Thus, he emphasized the intermittent nature of attention, i.e. argued that at any given time only one content reaches the “crest of the wave of attention” (apperception).
• He described the phenomenon of “accommodation” of attention - the preferential apperception of that content that is better consistent with the previous one.

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Functional psychology of consciousness

• W. James - founder of the functional approach
• Consciousness is a stream, a river in which thoughts, sensations, memories, sudden associations constantly interrupt each other and intertwine in a bizarre, “illogical” way

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4 properties of consciousness:

1. every "state of consciousness" strives to be part of a personal consciousness;
2. within the boundaries of personal consciousness, his states are changeable;
3. every personal consciousness represents a continuous sequence of sensations;
4. It accepts some objects willingly, rejects others, and generally makes a choice between them all the time.

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• The unconscious or unconscious is a set of mental processes over which there is no subjective control.

There are:

• unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions;
• unconscious motivators of conscious actions;
• "supraconscious" processes.

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Modern ideas about consciousness. Laws of consciousness

• Hume's Law: Random events must always be justified in the human mind by non-random reasons.
• Freud-Festinger Law: the mechanism of consciousness, faced with contradictory information, begins its work by trying to distort this information or even remove it from the surface of consciousness.
• The law of pattern breaking: an unexpected change in context causes emotional shock and disruption in behavior until, as a result of the work of the protective belt of consciousness, a reinterpretation of the situation occurs and a new context is found, from the point of view of which this situation will be further considered.

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Laws of consciousness

• Uznadze’s Law: a violation of a situational pattern leads to the destruction of habitual behavior patterns, to difficulties in making the simplest decisions, and causes a disruption in behavior.
• James's Law: everything that is unchangeable disappears from consciousness, that is, it ceases to be realized, or a change occurs in the idea of ​​this unchangeable given to consciousness. In other words, only information that changes either objectively or subjectively can be realized.
• Law of classification: any specific stimulus (object) always appears in the surface content of consciousness only as a member of a certain class of stimuli (objects), while the class cannot consist of only one member.

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Functions of consciousness

• reflective,
• generative (creative-creative),
• regulatory-evaluative,
• reflexive function is the main function that characterizes the essence of consciousness. The objects of reflection can be:
• reflection of the world,
• thinking about it
• ways a person regulates his behavior,
• the processes of reflection themselves,
• your personal consciousness.

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Properties of consciousness

• reactivity;
• sensitivity;
• dialogism;
• polyphony;
• spontaneity of development;
• reflectivity.

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Gestalt psychology 114. Possibilities and limitations of the introspection method. If we study something scientifically, we have a conscious idea, a model. Which means Wundt there must be a model of consciousness, hardly accurate, it is more of a metaphor. Wundt says that consciousness can be thought of as a visual field. When we look at something, we always focus on a certain point, then there is a center in consciousness. And there is the periphery. Another research question. This is the second third of the 19th century. Wundt builds psychology on the model of the natural sciences, which distinguish parts in their subject. And consciousness has objective and subjective elements. How many elements does this structure include? Or what is the volume of consciousness?

Volume of consciousness- this is the number of interconnected elements (simple impressions according to Wundt), which the subject currently perceives as a single whole.

Consciousness is rhythmic and therefore structural. The simplest experience, using the identification or identification technique 115 . The subject is presented with a certain set of metronome beats. Starting from par 8 – 16 strokes. The subject does not count them. He listened to them. After a short time, approximately the same equal set is presented, maybe a little more and a little less, or exactly the same. And please tell me, has it become more, less or the same? And then let's assume that he answers correctly. This means that he can contain this entire set as a whole in the structure of consciousness. Wundt conducts experiments on different people and comes to the conclusion that the volume of consciousness in terms of quantity has a fairly wide spread, from 16 to 40 elements, simple impressions. Apparently, because the elements are connected to each other in their own way. For one it is just a pair of blows, for another it is four, and for the third it is its own groups of sensations, acting as units. Then Wundt asks the subject to clarify the elements, to try to identify the element itself. If the subject concentrated his internal effort in the center, the focus of consciousness, then Wundt believes that around the center there is a special area where elements acquire special properties. This central part is called the field of attention.

A what are the properties of the elements in the attention field? Clarity and distinctness of consciousness. Clarity will require a small, simple effort of introspection. First of all, it is sensory clarity. When something has become clear, understandable, this is cognitive clarity. But here there is another clarity – of sensations. And then, to explain, we will resort to another model. This model of consciousness resembles a top hat. And if you look at it from the side, it’s like a step with a base. And this model was proposed by Wundt’s student - Edward Titchener. This model is called the wave of attention. And then what is clarity? The outer boundary in the first model is the base in the model Titchener. And the inner one is a vertical line. Attention is the main property of consciousness. Sensory clarity. If the elements are clear in the field of attention, then on the periphery they are vague. And it must be said that clarity can be replaced, for example, by intensity 116 or the degree of attention.

What is it clarity? This is what happens to elements in the field of attention itself, this is the separation of elements from similar neighboring ones. Distinctiveness, ability to distinguish, distinguishability of elements. Highlighting individual metronome beats, individual letters in a word or phrase. This repeats the identification technique.

Attention span – from 3-4 to maximum 6 Wundtu.

Attention span- this is the number of elements that the subject at a given moment (at a given time) perceives clearly and distinctly.

Is it possible to expand your attention span? Wundt would say in language Jorja Miller, whose number was different (7 +/- 2). The number of seats, say 6, cannot be increased. But in each place, in principle, you can form another unit. And then it must be said that to form other units of consciousness in classical psychology means to somehow connect the elements with each other. And connections are associations. For example, you can associate objects that are observed simultaneously in space with each other - this is a spatial association. Elements that follow each other sequentially in time are a temporary association. Elements are connected by meaning, like letters in a word - a semantic association. There are associations based on the similarity of objects, or, on the contrary, on contrasting differences. There are many possibilities to connect elements with each other.

It is sometimes said that teaching Wundt And Titchener- This associationism. And we can say it differently. Associationism arose long before Wundt. There were many associates. And if we're talking about Wundte, then we want to name the concept that he considered basic. Wundt will say that consciousness is of course a structure, but it is not static, forces act, the structure can change. Let's say, according to the model, there are forces that pull outward or toward the center. If there is a focus of consciousness, then we are interested in the central forces and they have two names, as the model suggests.

The outer limit of the volume of consciousness. And then something is beyond this border. But we are inside the volume and do not perceive what is there. On the periphery they operate according to Wundtu perceptual powers. If something attracts attention, it crosses the border. But what happens at the internal border? There are forces at work here too. This is the basic concept Wundt – apperception 117, apperceptive powers. They seem to control our attention; it is they who allow us to expand, or rather change the amount of attention. Apperception has several definitions.

Apperception is the process by which the elements of consciousness become clear and distinct. That is, this attention is not as a state of clear and distinct consciousness, but attention as a process.

Second. Apperception is a process of transformation (for example, enlargement) of units of consciousness. And then a small simple example just to understand what apperception is.

The essence of experience. In the German language there are words consisting of a large number of letters, more than 6 or even 10-12. Such a word is taken and the subject is asked to isolate individual elements, that is, to achieve clarity and distinctness of each letter. Thus, each letter is presented in turn. And someday the attention span becomes full and the last letter pushes out the first, etc. And, as a rule, at this moment the subject suddenly realizes that this is not a set of letters, but a word, the letters are interconnected in meaning and, as soon as he understands this, all the elements (both those that have almost fallen and those that have not yet were presented) get to the top of the model Titchener(or to the center, in the model Wundt). The power of attention has enlarged the element of consciousness.

And then the concept of apperception can be supplemented. Apperception according to the result, according to what the subject in this case can observe in himself - this is clarity and distinctness (in the center, from the objective side). But from the subjective side (feelings, but not in the sense of sensory, but in the sense of emotionality) this was expressed in different ways, some displeasure at first, but if this continues, then a feeling of activity arises, a feeling of effort, internal introspective work.

Development of ideas about consciousness.

Let's consider two directions. The first will belong to the classical psychology of consciousness. The second is the modern direction. But the subject of research is one – consciousness. Both directions appeared in benevolent criticism of everything said above. After all, consciousness was ultimately understood as a structure. And then, without changing the subject and without canceling anything that was said, addition and development arises - there is something else.

W. James, who visited Wundt in Leipzig he came to his homeland and in 1889 also opened a laboratory, luring some people from Germany. Psychology in the USA has become a kind of noticeable social movement. James says consciousness is not only a structure, it is also a process. He introduces the concept - mindflow 118 . Comment. Model Titchener not two-dimensional. It changes over time. The wave continues in time. The wave can roll over us or continue beyond the plane. Attention changes its degree, its intensity. But James changes the model because he has a different reality in mind. The main concept is stream of consciousness.

One can say about classical models that this is the consciousness that requires effort. And about such states I would like to say: “I am aware,” “I feel,” “I sense,” etc. But what if a person (at least outwardly) makes no effort? Something is still recognized, something is thought about, something is sensed, remembered, felt, experienced, etc. Consciousness is never empty; something always happens involuntarily. Each person can observe the flow in altered states of consciousness, as if in transition from one state to another. For example, when we fall asleep and when we wake up. When we fall asleep, various impressions flow through, remnants of the day, memories of the past, glimpses into the future, etc.

Properties of the stream of consciousness. 1) Individuality. James says that every impression (not element) in the stream of consciousness strives to become personal, part of personal consciousness, to pass through the subject. 2) Continuity. It would seem that this is the process. With clarification. This process is indivisible. Continuity means that each impression is not separated from another. One impression rushes over what has just passed. They are always given in context next to their neighbors. Groups of impressions cannot be divided. It is convenient to divide the associative flow by topic. But even when the person was walking and thinking about something, he got distracted, then walked again and the topic was restored. 3) Uniqueness of impressions. Suppose a person remembers something important, the impression is repeated many times. Each time this impression is placed in a new context, perceived differently, which means that, as the ancients said, you cannot enter the same river twice. Each time the subject discovers something new in a given impression. 4) Selectivity or directionality of the stream of consciousness. Impressions in the stream of consciousness are not equal in importance. They are of different intensity. This means that those that are stronger will set the direction of the flow as a whole, and selectivity of impressions will occur. Model James- This is a model of a stream that flows across a plain and makes its own channel. And then selectivity is the same thing as what we call selection today? Yes, selectivity is the same as selection or selection, and then this is one of the important properties of attention.

Now we can say that James Joyce is the author "Ulysses" I tried to describe the stream of consciousness of several people at some time, for the main character - during the day. And in order to describe the stream of consciousness, he created 18 new literary forms. It's interesting what happens in an altered state of consciousness, which is at the end. The last episode of the novel is the inner speech of a sleeping woman, a stream of consciousness. The main thing is to understand what continuity of the stream of consciousness is. To do this, you need to provide text that does not contain punctuation marks. In later experiments, the distances between words also disappeared. This is how you can convey the stream of consciousness. So we looked at the first direction of criticism of the classical psychology of consciousness.

Classical ideas about consciousness are called the word associationism 120. Because the elements in the structure are connected. After Wundtom, rather, his students believed that consciousness is the sum of elements. Let's say there is some kind of associative process going on and then it, as a whole, is the sum of its parts. And a direction emerges that goes beyond the classics, but the study of consciousness continues. This gestalt. Literally it is a complete form, a structure, a complete organization. Gestalt even on the material Plato- there is a whole that is irreducible to the sum of its parts. This is far from a psychological or basic definition of Gestalt.

The first representative of Gestalt - Max Werdheimer. For a business card when talking about Plato, the word self-actualization was used, which was proposed by A. Maslow, who applied it to a refugee from Europe, so unusual compared to average Americans - to M. Werdheimer. A special psychology was built to explain such unusual people. He smiled more often, liked to be calm, etc. IN 1912 G. Werdheimer published the work that laid the foundation for Gestalt psychology. For the people of the twentieth century, a new science and a new art arose. In science it is psychology, and in art it is cinema. M. Werdheimer I began by psychologically exploring film techniques. He bought a toy in a children's store (today they would call it a strobe light) and conducted the following experiment. His main experience.

The subject is presented in complete darkness (but not necessarily) with two luminous dots, presented alternately. First one came on, then went out, then the second, etc. And there is a time interval between the lighting of the points. The subject sees what is in the stimulus - two luminous dots. But it is not always the case. This is true if the interval between the lighting of the points is large, 200 ms. And if the interval is very small, say 30 ms, then just as in fluorescent lamps a continuous light is visible, although there are blinking lights, then the subject sees two continuously burning dots. Two points are two elements. But there is an intermediate situation - 50 or 100 ms. And then the subject stops seeing the elements. A point is visible that moves alternately from one position to another, the point moves quite quickly. And it is not visible, only pure movement is visible.

This phenomenon Werdheimer named with a Greek letter "Phi" phenomenon apparent motion 121. Did the sum of these two points contain a new quality of movement? Hardly. Werdheimer said that this is a vivid example of the Gestalt phenomenon.

Gestalt is a phenomenon that has a special quality compared to the sum of its parts. Probably, an associationist, trying to polemicize, will say that the points have added up to the sum of the movement. But this is a new quality. Obviously, we can say that we actually see only gestalts. In everyday life, we do not distinguish individual elements. We see only complete images of 122 objects. It would not occur to anyone that the unit of perception is a holistic objective image. Figure and background. Werdheimer discovered the main thing, and the word Gestalt went into other areas of psychology. First of all, Gestalt psychologists were interested in thinking, and then practical psychologists were interested in how personality can be studied using Gestalt psychology. A short introduction to Gestalt psychology. The creator was M. Werdheimer(suggested the term). Following him, the term Gestalt became common to psychology as something holistic and irreducible to the sum of its parts.

The main theorist of the Gestalt direction was Wolfgang Köhler. He started as an experimenter and he proposed another term untranslatable into Russian - insight 123 . Köhler was interned on a distant island during the First World War and had no choice but to study anthropoid apes. The word insight is usually translated as insight, creative impulse, discovery. But we must not forget that this term was first proposed to explain the behavior of animals. There is a word in Russian " see" And " understand" It happens that I looked at a heterogeneous accumulation of objects (points, other elements of consciousness) and observed them. And then, as if unexpectedly, something new caught my eye. Literally insight - this means that you noticed something new, it caught your eye, the parts acquired a whole, a new integral structure.

Core Experience Köhler. Experiments with chimpanzees. The subject is in an enclosure and outside the enclosure there is a bait, say a banana. It is attractive to the animal, but it cannot be reached with a paw, the paw is short. And in the enclosure itself there is a stick of a length suitable for getting bait. Initially, the situation is such that the parts (paw, bait, long stick) are separated from each other, they do not form a single whole. In the behavior of the subject, three stages are conventionally distinguished. The first is erratic behavioral activity. The chimpanzee is eager for the bait, but it is so inaccessible, it is furious. The second is inaction, the subject is tired, sits in the corner of the enclosure and examines the situation. Moreover, everything necessary for the solution (paw, stick and bait) should be in a single visual field. And then the third stage can begin, which is insight. The chimpanzee suddenly jumps up quickly, grabs a stick and takes out the bait. Insight there is a qualitative change in behavior.

Although they are humanoid, they are also animals. Obviously, we are not talking about any introspection here. Here is a new method. It is no coincidence that the word phenomenon, phenomenal movement is used. In modern philosophy of the 20th century, a philosophical direction arose - phenomenology 124 . Gestalt psychologists became interested in how the research method was described in phenomenology, which came to be called phenomenological. First, the phenomenon is described, and then explained. And Gestalt psychologists study what can be seen or imagined. Description and explanation in this method are simultaneous and presuppose each other. For example, in the phi phenomenon it is enough to describe the conditions of occurrence, which means that they have explained it. Then, in relation to the behavior of an animal, one more definition should be given, where the description and explanation are one and the same.

Insight is an understanding of the situation. This is not about what happens in the mind, but about how the researcher can explain it. Insight (understanding)- this is such a holistic organization of all elements of a problem situation that makes it possible to detect and eliminate the main conflict 125. The parts have come together into a whole, there is a single picture that can be seen and understood.

Two examples. That understanding - insight and decision are not the same thing. The first is understanding without solution. Köhler (and his students) called this a good mistake. If a chimpanzee has already taken the bait with a stick once, then next time he will look for the stick. And if you remove the stick, you can clearly observe understanding without a solution. The chimpanzee collects all the garbage from the enclosure and pushes it one piece at a time towards the bait. And on top it’s the same thing - a paw, a non-existent stick and bait. There is understanding, but no result.

Second case. "Solution" without understanding. Köhler had the term “stupid chimpanzee.” Let the bait hang from the ceiling. And in the enclosure there are boxes. And then ordinary “smart” subjects (capable of solving such problems) place boxes under the bait, climb onto the pyramid and jump at a sufficient distance and grab a banana. This solves the problem. And the “stupid chimpanzee” seems to observe all this carefully and is able to repeat it in parts. For example, he jumps powerfully high, but not high enough. Then, to the side of the bait, he forms a pyramid of boxes. In general, it literally repeats itself in parts, but there is no genuine solution, because there is no insight, no holistic organization of the parts.

Exam. The student was reading something, but for some reason the material was not clear to him. The teacher still gives a C grade with a stretch. But if there is an understanding, then this is a guarantee of a four. And five is when understanding and knowledge of details. Under no circumstances should you answer the silent question in the student’s eyes, “Why a C?” What should have been said? Some examiners begin to explain “This and that”, the student says “I said the same thing” as in the “stupid chimpanzee” effect (a chimpanzee would say that he jumped high and built a pyramid higher). In problematic situations, the subject can only understand himself; he cannot understand for another.

Another author, not a theorist, but a practitioner. This is not a classic, but a modern psychotherapy that exists today. Founder of Gestalt Therapy 126 Fritz Perls. He tries to apply Gestalt to work with the patient, he abandons the theory of personality, in practical work he uses the terms insight, Gestalt, field, etc. And then personality (following Plato) is not reduced to the sum of its properties, they are organized into a whole. When small problems arise, the whole must be transformed.

A modern psychologist will say: “Man, if you want to understand yourself, live now.” Perls takes this literally, now means at the moment. He will offer to take a piece of paper and write on it “here and now I...” This is by no means introspection, you just need to notice, perhaps, the stream of consciousness. The patient begins to write what he feels, what impressions he has. The second line already begins with memories of yesterday or plans for the future. Perls will show that there has been a departure from the present into the past or looking ahead. Anxiety 127 (worry) is unreasonably running ahead, imagining yourself in a place where you are not yet. Anxiety is actually constrained (unreasonably delayed) breathing. The teacher's finger slowly moves across the class register and at this time there is silence in the class due to anxiety. Perls He will ask, why get ahead of yourself? You need to constantly ask yourself the question: “Where am I?” When anxiety 128 and negative reactions go away, positive ones will open, interest in the subject will open, excitement about the subject will open.

Figure and background. Usually only the figure stands out. And if a personality is a whole that cannot be reduced to parts, then when a figure stands out, it stands out as exaggerated. But they don’t pay attention to the background, they don’t notice it. Perls suggests, say, a picture hangs above the table. At first I was attracted to it, but then I got tired of it. And in order to see something new in it, you need to mentally circle the picture along the contour. The outline of the figure and the background is the same. When Gestalt, the contour always belongs to the figure. We must imagine that the figure is the background and, conversely, the background is the figure. On the banks of the Seine in Paris sit artists selling reproductions Mona Lisa Da Vinci, on which there is no Gioconda. Instead of it there is an empty space, the artist invites you to calmly look at the background. Let's say this was successful, the figure temporarily left. It won't be possible for long. At this moment, something unusual can happen - something new and interesting appears in the figure.

And, for example, waiting for transport. When, being late, you are waiting for a bus, the bus is an expected figure. But the arrival of the bus does not depend in any way on anxiety; rather, on the contrary, anxiety will lengthen the wait. It is necessary to forget about the figure and observe the background.

Possibilities and limitations of the introspection method.

This is a direct segue to question 3. This is a criticism. Usually this is understood as precisely the definition of opportunities and limitations.

Possibilities. Determination of the properties of consciousness, elements, establishment of associations and their patterns. Opportunities must be provided by the basic condition, the rule of conducting the method of introspection. It's designed Titchener after Wundtom, this is analytical introspection, this is decomposition into parts. This is called "stimulus error." “Stimulus” is a word from a different direction; the word “object” is better. The point is that you should not name the object that causes sensations. Introspective psychology disappeared at the dawn of the century, criticized and reviled. The subject is studied in other sciences. Psychology only describes.

But relatively recently, when there was a recurring interest in Eastern psychotechnics 129. For example, meditation. The point is that an object is examined for a long time so that when you pay attention to the object, new impressions begin to arise and these parts can be observed separately. We realized that Titchener need to re-read.

Limitations of the method. From obvious to debatable. The first is the limitation of the subject. You can only study and observe yourself. You cannot observe the other, the child's psyche or animals. Titchener said that the method of introspection is applicable to children and animals, but one must have sophisticated abilities. When you have studied yourself, you can put yourself in the place of a child, what I would be like in his place or in the place of an animal.

Second, introspection can distort initial mental impressions. Introspection must be taught, and if you teach something, then skills are developed 130. If someone teaches, then the skills may be different. You can study singing at the Bolshoi Theater, in Milan somewhere else, it all depends on the school, the voice you will get is different. Here too there were different schools of introspection. Wundt, Titchener, James. Introspection is not only analytical, but also systematic. After training, the subject talks about what your theory requires 131. Introspectionists teach deobjectification, how to make a report. Introspection is only a method of collecting data, and if it is distorted, it means that the subject was simply poorly trained.

Third, the method of introspection was denied objectivity. To make such an accusation, you must already have your own modern idea of ​​objectivity. Critics said that the data was unreliable, the subject could make mistakes, etc. But psychology could not have arisen if the experimenter did not trust his subject. The classics answered, yes, the source of data is, of course, subjective. But the method is objective in the sense that it fully meets the scientific requirements of its time (similar to the methods in EH, it allows initial data to be processed quantitatively, laws to be identified, etc.).

/ / 6. Classical psychology of consciousness (V. Wundt, E. Titchener, W. James)

6. Classical psychology of consciousness (V. Wundt, E. Titchener, W. James)

tags: Knowledge, Psychology, Scientific, Research, Everyday, Activity, Observation, Man

1. Definition, subject, methods of psychology Psychology (“soulology” (Greek “psyche” - soul, “logos” - knowledge, word)) is:

• science of mental life
• behavioral science
• cognitive science
• the science of the laws of generation and functioning of the psyche in life and the activities of living individuals

Psychology is a field of scientific knowledge that studies the features and patterns of the emergence, formation and development (changes) of mental processes, mental states and mental properties of a person, that is, the psyche as a special form of life activity, as well as the psyche of animals. Phenomena studied by psychology: 1. Phenomenology (direct subjective reality of experience): images of perception, ideas, memories, experiences, etc. 2. Behavior (postures, gestures, speech, etc.) 3. Physiological reactions (sweating, redness/pallor of the skin, changes in heart rate) 4. Products of activity (works of art, autobiographies, test results) Subject of psychology:

• mental processes (sensations, perceptions, ideas, imagination, thinking, emotions, desires, memory, attention - the entire psyche, human consciousness)
• psychological personality traits (personality orientation, temperament, character, interests, abilities of a given person)
• psychological characteristics of human activity (work, learning, creativity, games, sports activities).

Basic methods of psychology: Observation is a method of passive and direct exploration of reality (open, hidden, included, third-party).

Conversation is a method of verbal (speech) interaction between the subject and object of research in order to obtain information. An experiment is a specially organized controlled intervention for the purpose of testing cause-and-effect hypotheses. Questionnaire, test, questionnaire, study of products of activity, self-observation, biographical, comparative, complex methods, modeling, meta-observation... According to the criterion of immediacy-mediation: direct (introspection), indirect (used nowadays) According to the aspect of dynamics: cross-sectional, longitudinal According to the degree of generalization of the research results: methods of broad and narrow representativeness Interactive methods According to the degree of formalization of the research procedure: algorithmic formal/informal According to the method of processing the obtained data: quantitative, qualitative analysis. 2. Everyday and scientific psychology Everyday (everyday knowledge) about the psyche is acquired by an individual and society as a whole spontaneously through the accumulation of individual observations and is generalized inductively. Materializes in the form of proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, and popular ideas of “folk wisdom.” Scientific knowledge arises as a result of the application of scientific methods of cognition, covers and explains both obvious common facts and phenomena, and practical situations unobservable in everyday life, moves along the path of eliminating internal contradictions, strives to be reflected in a system of clear, unambiguously understood by the community of scientific concepts, is transmitted through socially normalized technologies.

8 pages, 3513 words

Collective creative activity of I. P. Ivanov. MODELING is a research method that involves creating... in pedagogy, foreign language, philosophy, psychology, methodology, linguistics? Closed questions... suggest to him: “Name the most authoritative people who can be contacted for... the scale. EXPERIMENT “An experiment in science is an artificial change or reproduction...

Everyday and scientific psychology (Yu.B. Gippenreiter)
Everyday
Knowledge is specific, related to specific situations, people, tasks	1.Knowledge is expressed in generalizations and scientific concepts
Knowledge is intuitive	2.Knowledge is rational and conscious
The ability to transfer knowledge is limited (the problem of “fathers and sons”)	3.Knowledge is expressed in concepts and laws, transmitted in books, articles, and through conferences
Basic methods: observation and reflection	4.Basic methods: observation, experiment, questioning
Fragmentary facts and observations	5.Extensive, varied, unique factual material

3. Areas of psychological knowledge Two areas of psychological knowledge are scientific and everyday psychology (see question No. 2).

If scientific psychology arose relatively recently (in 1879, W. Wundt opened the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig), then everyday psychological knowledge has always been included in various types of human practice (difference and consideration of the characteristics of mental makeup).

4. Development of psychological ideas within the framework of ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Democritus, Hippocrates)

Fragments of psychological knowledge began to have a scientific character. The first mention of this term in a rational-philosophical context is found in Aristotle’s treatise “On the Soul,” where he refers to Thales of Miletus (640−546 BC).

• cosmological category, one of the substances of the universe (with a dualistic approach) or a special form of existence of a single substance with a monistic approach
• a special immortal essence that “animates” the body
• designation of the inner world of a person

From the very first steps of ancient philosophical thought, the soul was interpreted as a driving force. Pythagoras (570−500 BC) - his views are based on the idea of ​​numerical harmony. The soul, according to the Pythagoreans, is immortal, indestructible, and is repeatedly embodied in living beings in accordance with certain numerical patterns. The substantial difference between soul and body is rooted in Pythagoreanism (development in Plato's dualism).

Anaxagoras adhered to a dualistic interpretation of the relationship between the mental and the physical (462−432 BC).

The concept of dualism can be contrasted with the tradition of Ionian natural philosophy, in which the soul and mental phenomena were considered on a par with natural phenomena and were genetically derived from them. Democritus (Acme - ca. 420 BC) - author of the first psychological works. He believed that everything consists of atoms, and developed the principle of determinism (“Everything arises by inevitability”).

Then Epicurus complicated the idea of ​​the mechanistic conditioning of mental phenomena by introducing the factor of chance into the mental sphere. Along with attempts to describe the origin and ontological status of the soul, interest arises in the inner life of the subject. Classifications of mental processes, descriptions of their properties and possibilities for controlling mental phenomena are being developed. An important role was played by the doctrine of temperament of Hippocrates, the psychological views of Socrates and the Sophists. Hippocrates (460−370 BC) developed Heraclitus’ ideas about the “liquid” nature of differences between people (4 mental types).

The principle of therapeutic conversation goes back to it. The sophists (Protagoras and Gorgias) studied speech behavior and forms of public communication. Socrates (470−399) proposed the pedagogical method maieutics (through skillfully posed questions to encourage the interlocutor to “generate” true knowledge).

His philosophical conversations formed the basis for the work of his student Plato (428−348).

Plato substantiated the universality of the maieutics method by putting forward the theory of recollection. Plato also proposed a structural view of the psyche. In the movement of Neoplatonism, the opposition between soul and body acquired an even more fatal character. In Platonism, the mental life of a person is initially doomed to dynamic conflict. Aristotle (384−322) is the founder of the functional approach to the psyche. According to Aristotle, the soul is the “form of the body,” that is, the function and cause of bodily organization. Book “On the Soul”: The rational and irrational soul (cannot claim immortality).

Aristotle introduced the concept of target (final) causality into scientific use. In contrast to the mechanistic causality of Democritus, the principle of goal causality implies development in the pursuit of some not yet realized goal, existing in the form of a plan or pattern. Galen (2nd century) established the role of the nervous system as a “conductor” of the influences of the soul on the body. Galen also suggested a two-way nature of the interaction between the somatic and the mental: not only the soul exercises control over bodily manifestations through neural pathways, but also bodily changes influence the course of mental processes. The idea of ​​perfecting the soul was developed by the Stoics and Epicureans. The early Stoics (Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus) developed the concept of sensory perception (“apprehensive perception”).

Stoics: logic, physics, ethics. The main significance is ethical issues. The goal of life: to achieve dispassion and mental equanimity. Epicurus (342−270).

According to Epicurus, pleasure (the purpose of life) is the absence of suffering. The greatest suffering is the fear of death. Plotinus (204−270 BC) saw the separation of the soul from its source in the other world as an insurmountable barrier to true knowledge. The problematic of reflection, highlighted the processes of turning the soul towards itself.

The contribution of ancient scientists to the knowledge of the soul
	Soul as an active principle
Heraclitus	The similarity of the individual soul and the world Logos
Democritus	Determinism: everything arises out of necessity; Monistic materialism: an explanation of the mental and physical
Anaxagoras	The role of bodily organization in the manifestation of the mental
Hippocrates	Doctrine of Temperament
Sophists (Gorpius, Protagoras)	“Man is the measure of all things”, interest in the communicative aspects of human behavior
	The dialogical nature of thinking and the method of dialogue in pedagogy; maieutics
	Problems of universal forms of thinking; dialogical nature of cognition; conflict as an integral characteristic of mental life
Aristotle	Target determination of human development; functional approach to the soul; level structure of the soul
	Ways to cope with life crises
Epicureans
	The phenomenon of self-awareness
	Discovering the role of the nervous system

5. Development of psychological ideas within the framework of modern philosophy (rationalism, empiricism, associationism).

Francis Bacon (1561−1626) stands at the origins of the Modern Age with his epistemological optimism and call for the experimental study of the psyche. Bacon proposed to consider the soul and body in unity; he adhered to the traditional division of the soul into a rational divine soul and a non-rational sentient soul. Recognized the inductive method for correct knowledge. But still Bacon was skeptical about the possibilities of human knowledge. Bacon makes the transition from the identification of the soul and the psyche to the interpretation of the psyche as consciousness. This transition was completed by Rene Descartes (1596−1650).

Descartes is a dualist; he views the material and the ideal as two dissimilar substances. The attribute of the ideal is thinking, the attribute of the material is extension. Considers consciousness as a subject of psychological reflection. The problem he declared about the relationship between the mental and the physical (“Descartes’ psychophysical problem”) is still being solved in world science today. Descartes' dualism was overcome primarily by the psychological concept of B. Spinoza (1632−1677).

He suggested that there is only one single substance, and thought and extension are its attributes. Spinoza solves the psychophysical problem in the spirit of unity, and also creates a theory of affects. A solution to the psychophysical problem in the spirit of parallelism was proposed by G. W. Leibniz (1646−1716) (the “pre-established harmony” hypothesis).

T. Hobbes (1588−1679) returned in his philosophy to a materialistic interpretation of the soul, depriving mental life of its originality and reducing mental phenomena to the manifestation of movement. For Hobbes, the psyche is an epiphenomenon (a phenomenon that accompanies other phenomena and does not have its own functions).

The rationalism-empiricism dilemma. Rationalists (Descartes, Spinoza, I. Kant, Leibniz) were confident that abstract knowledge cannot be derived from experience. It was assumed that there were some innate forms of thinking or “ideas” in the psyche. Empiricists (T. Hobbes, D. Locke) believed that all knowledge can be derived from experience. D. Locke (1632−1704) was interested in the question of the formation of human consciousness by experience. According to Locke, experience can be obtained from sensation or from reflection. Associationism (18th century) adopted the teachings of Locke and transformed it. D. Hartley (1705−1757), a representative of materialist associationism, developed the doctrine of the psyche as a product of brain activity. The mental includes: sensations, ideas of sensations, affective tones. E. Condillac, J. La Mettrie, K. Helvetsky, P. Holbach, D. Diderot - French materialist-enlightenmentists - shared the view of the psyche as a configuration of sensations that arose from external influences on the body, which gradually become more complex according to the principle of associations, then forming an internal experience. The opposite position regarding the essence of associations was taken by the idealistic associationists D. Berkeley (1685−1753) and D. Hume (1711−1776).

The source of mental life is not the brain, but consciousness.

The contribution of modern scientists to the formation of psychological knowledge
	Apology for the inductive method of cognition, classification of obstacles to the implementation of the inductive method (“idols”), consciousness as a subject of psychology
	Psychophysical problem: solution in the spirit of interaction, reflex principle of body functioning, regulatory function of the psyche, thinking is the center of mental life
	Psychophysical problem: solution in the spirit of unity, classification of cognitive processes, classification of affects based on reduction to three simplest ones - pleasure, displeasure, desire
	Psychophysical problem: solution in the spirit of unity, introduction of the problematic of unconscious cognition
	Psyche as an epiphenomenon, development of the concept of association
Rationalists/empiricists	Deductive and inductive way of knowing
	Theory of transformation of sensory experience into concepts, introspective method, development of laws of associations
	Mechanistic associationism: associationism is a substitution of neural connections in the brain.

Elements of consciousness:

• Feel
• Representation
• Feelings
• Acts of will

Processes of consciousness:

• Perception
• Apperception (will and attention).

Founder of structuralism

Edward Titchener (1867−1927)

William James (1842−1910)

Wilhelm Wundt (1832−1920)

W. James distinguishes two types of states of consciousness phenomena:

1. Sustainable
2. Changeable, quickly passing

Transitional moments from one state to another are very difficult to catch by self-observation.

Stream of consciousness - movement of consciousness, continuous change of its contents and states

Processes of consciousness are divided into two large classes:

1. Involuntary
2. free

Experiments Wundt.

With the help of a metronome, the direct purpose of which is to set the rhythm when playing musical instruments, both types of processes, as well as a number of other remarkable properties of consciousness, are well demonstrated. Experience Wundt consisted of presenting the subject with a series of sounds, then interrupting him and giving a second series of the same sounds. There was a ban on counting sounds, and the subject had to answer the question: were the sounds the same length or different?

Wundt discovered the important fact that human consciousness is capable of almost unlimited saturation with some content if it is actively united into larger and larger units. Wundt's student Titchener developed the method of analytical introspection. The main thing in his method was an attempt to avoid “stimulus error,” that is, confusion between the mental processes of perceiving an object and the influence of the object itself. The result of his atomistic approach was the book “Essays on Psychology” with a list of 44,000 elementary sensations.

The ability to enlarge units is found in the simplest perceptual processes and in thinking.

A measure of the volume of consciousness is a series of eight double beats (or 16 separate sounds).

Acts of apperception are the organization of a higher-order unit, namely the understanding of a phrase consisting of many words and an even larger number of individual sounds.

The simplest elements of consciousness W. Wundt declared individual impressions or sensations.

Each sensation has a number of properties (attributes):

• Quality (visual, auditory, olfactory, etc.)
• Intensity, extent (i.e. duration)
• Spatial extent (visual sensations have them, but auditory ones do not)

The objective elements of consciousness are sensations with their properties described.

Subjective elements of consciousness:

• Satisfaction - Displeasure
• Excitement - Calm
• Voltage - Discharge

These pairs are independent axes of three-dimensional space of the entire emotional sphere.

7. Behavior as a subject of psychology. Behaviorism (J. Watson, B. F. Skinner) and neo-behaviorism (E. Tolman).

Behavior as a subject of psychology

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the emergence and development of behaviorism as a reaction to unsuccessful experimental studies of “physiological psychology.” The subject of behaviorism, or “behavioral psychology,” is behavior. According to behaviorists, knowing the strength of the current stimuli and taking into account the past experience of the “subject”, it is possible to study the processes of learning, the formation of new forms of behavior, without delving into its physiological mechanisms.

American psychologist J. Watson, based on the research of I. P. Pavlov, concluded that consciousness does not play any role in learning. It has no place in psychology. New forms of behavior should be considered as conditioned reflexes. They are based on several innate, or unconditioned, reflexes.

Behaviorism and Neobehaviorism Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that rejected both consciousness and the unconscious as the subject of psychology. The origins of behaviorism should be sought in studies of the psyche of animals. Behaviorism as an independent scientific movement is based on the work of Edward Thorndike, who, based on the study of cat behavior, formulated two “laws of learning.” The law of exercise states that the more often actions are repeated, the more firmly they are consolidated. The Law of Effect refers to the role of “rewards” and “punishments” in building or destroying various forms of behavior. Teaching of I.P. Pavlova about the conditioned reflex and the theory of the combination reflex V.M. Bekhterev also had a significant influence on the formation of “psychology without consciousness”. The father of behaviorism is John Watson (1913, manifesto “Psychology through the Eyes of a Behaviorist”).

The task of psychology, in his opinion, is to study the behavior of living beings that adapt to the physical and social environment. The goal is to create means of controlling behavior. The main mechanism of behavior is the connection between stimulus and response (S -> R).

Watson's experimental study on the formation of a feeling of fear to neutral or even pleasant objects. Watson combined the baby's display of a fluffy white rabbit with a harsh sound. As a result, the child began to react by crying not only to the rabbit itself, but also to all similar objects (this phenomenon was called “generalization”).

Thus, Watson tried to show that irrational behavior (for example, alcoholism, etc.) is based on “wrong” circuits of stimuli and reactions that were established in childhood.

Watson's follower E. Ghazri introduced the probabilistic principle into the description of the relationship between stimulus and response. B. Skinner shared the classical (passive) reflex of I.P. Pavlova and operant conditioning, in which the subject is active in seeking reinforcement for his behavior. Reinforcement is a necessary consequence of an action performed by a living being. Skinner refers to operant learning as all forms of human mental life: perception, attention, thinking. He introduced the concept of “symbolic reinforcement” and described society as a system of symbolic reinforcements.

In the early 1930s, attempts appeared to expand the subject of behavioral psychology by taking into account phenomena that are not directly observable in the study (neobehaviorism).

Edward Tolman came to the conclusion that it was necessary to introduce the concept of “intermediate variables”. That is, behavior is a function of environmental stimuli, intermediate variables (intentions, expectations, knowledge - past experience recorded in the system of established reactions), heredity and age. Tolman introduced the concept of a “cognitive map” - holistic structures for representing the world. The presence is proven by experiment: the rat, having studied the structure of the maze, runs to the place where the food is located, regardless of the point from which it begins to move. She does not focus on the sequence of movements that once led her to success, but uses a holistic view of the structure of the labyrinth.

Currently, modifications of behaviorism are widespread in American psychology and are represented, first of all, by the theory of social learning by A. Bandura and D. Rotter.

8. Basic ideas of Gestalt psychology (M. Wertheimer, V. Koehler, K. Levin)

Gestalt psychology- a direction in Western psychology that arose in Germany in the first third of the twentieth century. and put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of holistic structures (gestalts), primary in relation to their components.

Representatives of Gestalt psychology: Wolfgang Keller, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Kurt Lewin.

These scientists established the following ideas of Gestalt psychology:

1. The subject of psychology is consciousness, but its understanding should be based on the principle of integrity.

2. Consciousness is a dynamic whole, that is, a field, each point of which interacts with all the others.

3. The unit of analysis of this field (i.e. consciousness) is the gestalt - a holistic figurative structure.

4. The method of studying gestalts is objective and direct observation and description of the contents of one’s perception.

5. Perception cannot come from sensations, since the latter does not really exist.

6. Visual perception is the leading mental process that determines the level of mental development and has its own laws.

7. Thinking cannot be considered as a set of skills formed through trial and error, but is a process of solving a problem, carried out through the structuring of the field, that is, through insight in the present, in the “here and now” situation. Past experience has no bearing on the task at hand.

9. The unconscious as a subject of psychology. Psychoanalysis (S. Freud, K. G. Jung, A. Adler).

Manifestations in consciousness: psychopathology of everyday life, symbols of dreams and creativity, neurotic symptoms.

Theory of the unconscious. (S. Freud)

According to it, there are three spheres or areas in the human psyche: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious.

The first distinguishing property of unconscious ideas is their effectiveness . Their second property is that they they cross with difficulty into consciousness. This is explained by the work of two mechanisms that Freud postulates - mechanisms repression and resistance.

Psychoanalysis:

The main principles of psychoanalysis are as follows:

• human behavior, experience and cognition are largely determined by internal and irrational drives;
• these drives are predominantly unconscious;
• attempts to understand these drives lead to psychological resistance in the form of defense mechanisms;
• in addition to personality structure, individual development is determined by early childhood events;
• conflicts between the conscious perception of reality and unconscious (repressed) material can lead to mental disorders such as neurosis, neurotic character traits, fear, depression, etc.;
• liberation from the influence of unconscious material can be achieved through its awareness (for example, with appropriate professional support).

In psychoanalysis, a number of methods have been developed for identifying unconscious affective complexes. The main ones are the method free associations and method dream analysis. Both methods involve the active work of the psychoanalyst, which consists in interpreting words continuously produced by the patient (method of free associations) or dreams.

Freud proposed a three-component model of the psyche: “It” (a combination of 2 basic mental “energies”: expansive (Eros) and destructive (Thanatos); they try to realize themselves), “I” (roughly coincides with consciousness), “Super-I” ( moral prohibitions, social norms, religious institutions).

Adler accepted Freud's model of the psyche, but replaced the abstract Eros and Thanatos with more concrete ones. Human life is a struggle between two basic needs: for power and superiority and for affection and belonging to a social group. The central concept is “compensation”. The desire for overcompensation in order to overcome an inferiority complex starts the process of human development. According to A., a normal person is able to achieve balance and achieve community with people.

Jung expanded on Freud's model. Postulates the presence of a collective unconscious. The entire experience of humanity is recorded in the form of archetypes. Two types of psycho. personality orientation: intro- and extraversion. Psychological types were identified by Yu on the basis of a combination of mental. orientation of a person and his prevailing psyche. functions (int. mental, extrav. intuitive).

10. Psychology of the second half of the 20th century: cognitive psychology (U. Neisser, J. Bruner) and humanistic psychology (A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V. Frankl)

Cognitive psychology - a modern direction in the study of cognitive processes. Originated in the 1960s. as an alternative to behaviorism. Cognitive psychology rehabilitated the concept of the psyche as a subject of scientific research, considering behavior as mediated by cognitive factors.

Representatives of cognitive psychology: George Miller, Jerome Bruner, Ulrik Neisser.

The main provisions of cognitive psychology: The human psyche is like an information processing device. Thus, the psyche is fundamentally modelable, like engineering devices.

Modern cognitive psychology consists of many sections: perception, pattern recognition, attention, memory, imagination, speech, thinking and decision making, in general natural intelligence and partly artificial intelligence.

Humanistic psychology - a direction in Western psychology that recognizes as its main subject the personality as a unique integral system, which is not something given in advance, but an “open possibility” of self-actualization, inherent only to man.

Humanistic psychology as its philosophical basis it relies on existentialism (a direction of philosophy that focuses its attention on the uniqueness of human existence).

Principles of humanistic psychology:

1. Conviction in the holistic nature of human nature.

2. The role of conscious experience.

3. A priori recognition of human free will, spontaneity, responsibility and creative power.

4. Study of psychologically healthy individuals.

This area may include: A. Maslow, K. Rogers, W. Frankl

11. Evolution of the psyche of animals and humans The psyche is the product of a long and complex process of development of organic nature. The simplest microorganisms do not have a psyche. They are characterized by a more elementary form of reflection - irritability.

The appearance of the mental form of reflection as a property of special matter is associated with the emergence of the simplest nervous system. Such a nervous system first appears in coelenterate animals (hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone).

This nervous system consists of individual nerve cells with processes intertwined with each other, and is called reticular or diffuse. With such a nervous system, undifferentiated reactions of the whole organism to various stimuli are observed. There is no control center here yet.

The control center appears at the next stage of the system - the ganglion (nodal or chain) nervous system. In worms, nerve ganglia are located in every segment of the body. All nodes are interconnected, and the body acts as a single whole. At the same time, the head node is much more complex than all the others and reacts more differentiated to external stimuli.

The nervous system characteristic of insects is a further development and complication of the ganglion nervous system. Here the abdominal, thoracic and head areas are already clearly distinguished. The head unit, which regulates the movement of limbs, wings and other organs, becomes noticeably more complex. Higher insects (bees, ants) have olfactory, gustatory, tactile and visual sensations.

In vertebrates, a new type of nervous system appears - the central one, which is characterized by the separation of the spinal cord and brain. The development of the central nervous system is expressed in gradual corticalization, i.e., an increase in the volume and role of the cerebral cortex.

The development of the central nervous system in different animals occurs differently and unevenly. It is determined by the lifestyle of the species and the characteristics of its habitat.

For birds, vision is crucial, and the visual area of ​​the cortex is most developed in them. In monkeys and humans, visual sensations play a leading role. Their visual cortex is much better developed than, for example, their olfactory cortex. With the advent of the central nervous system, a new form of mental reflection appears - the perceptual stage of mental development. At this stage, animals can simultaneously reflect several stimuli and synthesize them into an image of an object. Thanks to this, an objective reflection is created.

Mental development is a natural change in mental processes over time, expressed in their quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations. The development of the psyche is characterized by the relative reversibility of changes, direction (that is, the ability to accumulate changes, “build on” new changes over previous ones) and their regular nature (for example, the reproducibility of similar changes in individuals of the same species).

The development of the psyche is realized in the form of phylogenesis and ontogenesis. A special subject of research is the formation and disintegration of the brain organization of mental structures. Theories of mental development differ depending on the interpretation of the structure of the psyche and the conditions that determine its transformation. We can point out only two general provisions that are characteristic of most concepts. Firstly, there are two groups of factors that determine the development of the psyche: natural inclinations and the external environment (most clearly in V. Stern, K. Bühler and their followers).

Sometimes personal activity, different from natural inclinations, is included in a special group of factors (G. Allport).

In the external environment, when it comes to a person, attention is usually paid to the appropriation of social norms and culture, recorded in sign-symbolic forms (D. Bruner, D. Mead, J. Piaget, C. G. Jung, L. S. Vygotsky ).

It is noted that under the influence of these forms a restructuring of the generative structures of the psyche occurs. Secondly, the existence of some universal laws of mental development is recognized, in particular, combining ontogenesis and phylogenesis of the human psyche. This idea, under the direct influence of E. Haeckel’s biogenetic law, was most clearly expressed by S. Hall in his theory of recapitulation, according to which the ontogenetic development of the child’s psyche reproduces the phylogeny of humanity. In the 20–30s in Russian psychology, the problems of mental development were developed mainly within the framework of child psychology, and later on the material of zoopsychology, pathopsychology, and historical psychology. The development of the psyche was considered as a process of sequential inclusion of a person in a number of social and objective activities. The internalization of the structures of these activities determines the formation of multi-level basic structures of the psyche. L. S. Vygotsky substantiated the position on the leading role of learning in the development of the psyche: learning should go ahead of development. He critically assessed the idea of ​​identifying development with learning and separating mental development from learning. The development of the human psyche appears in unity with the development of his personality, although these processes are not identical.

12. The concept of consciousness. Altered states of consciousness

Consciousness- a functional state in which maximum synchronization of all components of mental experience (or multiple areas of the cerebral cortex) is achieved.

Altered (trance) states of consciousness:

• Sleep (fast sleep - follows slow sleep and lasts 10-15 minutes and slow sleep - lasts 80-90 minutes, occurs immediately after falling asleep) is a special state of consciousness of humans and animals, which includes a number of stages that are regularly repeated during the night.
• Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness that simultaneously combines the symptoms of wakefulness, sleep and sleep with dreams.
• Alcohol intoxication is a special state of the nervous system due to alcohol intake, causing changes in the psychological, physiological and behavioral functions of a person.
• Drug intoxication is a special state of the nervous system due to drug use that causes changes in the psychological, physiological and behavioral functions of a person.

At the initial stage, intoxication sometimes manifests itself in an unreasonably joyful, elevated mood (euphoria).

• Delusion is a disorder of thinking, which is characterized by the emergence of a set of painful ideas, reasoning and conclusions that do not correspond to reality, in which the patient is completely, unshakably convinced and which cannot be corrected.
• Ecstasy is a special state of consciousness in which the boundaries between external and internal are lost; this state is accompanied by a feeling of delight.

13. Classification of mental processes. Regulatory: motivation, emotions, will. Cognitive: sensations, perception, thinking, imagination, memory, attention. Motivation is the psychological factors that support, motivate, direct and stop specific activities. Emotions are a mental reflection in the form of a direct biased experience of the relationship of phenomena and situations to needs (see question 22).

Will is a property of a person, which consists in his ability to consciously control his psyche and actions. It manifests itself in overcoming obstacles that arise on the way to achieving a consciously set goal. Sensation is the process of reflecting individual properties of objects in the surrounding world. Perception is a cognitive process that forms a subjective picture of the world. This is a mental process consisting of the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Thinking is the process of modeling systematic relations of the surrounding world on the basis of unconditional provisions. Imagination is the ability of consciousness to create images, ideas, ideas and manipulate them; plays a key role in the following mental processes: modeling, planning, creativity, play, human memory. In a broad sense, any process occurring “in images” is imagination. Memory is one of the mental functions and types of mental activity designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. Attention is the selective focus of perception on a particular object.

14. Personality, its definition and structure (individual and personal properties).

Personality is a unique dynamic system of psychological and physical properties of a person, which embodies the universal essence of the individual as a representative of the human race, realizing his individual life path in a certain sociocultural space. What makes a person unique is:

• The makings.
• Stable forms of behavior (character, temperament).
• Social roles.
• Motives and values.
• All past life and experience.

Individual properties:

• Age and gender characteristics.
• Constitutional features.
• Features of interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain.
• Features of neurodynamics (temperament).
• Psychophysiological characteristics (inclinations).

Personal properties:

• Communication skills
• Leadership
• Conflict
• Conformity
• Compromise

15. Individual prerequisites for personality development. Models of temperament (I.P.Palov, Eysenck)

Personality development according to A.G. Asmolov.

Individual (biological species) Personality (culture and society) Individuality

Theories of personality development.

Two-factor theories:

• Theories of confrontation between two factors (biological and cultural).

Sigmund Freud (1856−1939); Erik Erikson (1902−1994)

Stages of psychosexual personality development according to S. Freud:

• Oral stage (0−1.5 years).
• Anal stage (1.5−3 years).
• Phallic stage (3−6 years).
• Latent period (6−12 years).
• Genital stage.

Stages of psychosocial development of personality according to E. Erikson:

Stage	Age	Psychosocial crisis
1. Oral stage	Birth -1 year	Basic trust - basic distrust
2. Anal stage		Autonomy - Shame and Doubt
3. Phallic stage		Initiative is guilt
4. Latent period		Hard work is inferiority
		Ego identity - role confusion
6. Early maturity		Intimacy - isolation
7. Medium maturity	26−64 years	Productivity is stagnant
8. Old age	65 years old - death	Ego integration - despair

• Theories of the convergence of two factors (biological and cultural).

Humanistic concept (Carl Rogers (1902−1987)); Social learning theory (Albert Bandura (b. 1925))

Interhemispheric asymmetry of mental processes is the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres. When performing some mental functions, the leading hemisphere is the left hemisphere, while others - the right hemisphere.

Temperament - (from the Latin temperamentum - proper ratio of parts) - a stable combination of individual personality characteristics associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity.

Temperament theories:

• Humoral theory of temperament(Hippocrates, Galen).
• Constitutional theories of temperament(E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon).
• Theories of temperament that explain it in terms of features of the functioning of the nervous system(I.P. Pavlov, V.M. Rusalov, V.D. Nebylitsyn, B.M. Teplov, G. Eysenck).

Theory of temperament by I.P. Pavlov

Temperament is determined by the type of higher nervous activity (HNA).

Depends on strength, poise And mobility nervous processes.

Types of VND:

1. Weak (melancholic)
2. Strong:

• Unbalanced (choleric)
• Balanced:

• Inert (phlegmatic)
• Mobile (sanguine)

Sanguine:

• a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system; has a quick reaction;
• his actions are deliberate;
• cheerful, therefore high resistance to the difficulties of life;
• feelings arise easily and quickly change;
• he is a sociable person who easily gets along with new people;
• a very productive worker, but only if he has a lot of interesting things to do, that is, constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring and lethargic.

Activities that require quick reactions, significant effort, and distributed attention are most suitable.

Phlegmatic person:

• a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system, as a result of which he reacts slowly;
• taciturn, emotions appear slowly (difficult to make angry or cheer up);
• has high performance;
• strategist, goes to the goal, calculating forces;
• firmly remembers everything learned
• resists strong and prolonged stimuli and difficulties well, but is not able to react quickly in new unexpected situations;
• does not like to change habits, work, friends
• the mood is stable, even;
• the most reliable

Achieves the greatest success in those activities that require uniform effort, perseverance, sustained attention and great patience.

• fighting type, perky, easily and quickly irritated;
• reacts quickly, often thoughtlessly;
• shows impatience, impetuosity, abruptness of movements, short temper, lack of restraint; increased excitability under unfavorable conditions can become the basis of hot temper, even aggressiveness;
• characterized by sudden changes in mood;
• He is characterized by cyclical changes in his activity and vigor: having become carried away by some task, he works passionately, with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are depleted, he works himself to the point that everything becomes unbearable for him.

Achieves the greatest effectiveness in activities that require increased reactivity and significant simultaneous effort.

Melancholic:

• a person with a weak nervous system, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown,” a “stopper,” and confusion, therefore, in stressful situations (competitions, exams, danger), performance results may worsen compared to the usual situation;
• increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and decreased performance (longer rest is required);
• a minor reason can cause resentment and tears;
• the mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic person tries to hide, not show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences;
• often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious;
• feelings arise easily, are poorly contained, outwardly clearly expressed
• strong external influences make activities difficult
• Under certain living conditions, shyness and indecisiveness are easily formed.

G. Eysenck's theory of temperament

16. Inclinations and abilities. Types of abilities. Intelligence An important prerequisite for the development of personality is abilities. Capabilities- these are the psychological characteristics of an individual that contain the potential for successful performance of certain types of activities. Abilities are divided into two types: general abilities (intelligence, creativity) and special abilities (musical, artistic, mathematical).

The formation of abilities occurs on the basis of inclinations. Z adaptki- these are innate psychophysiological prerequisites for the development of abilities. The same inclination can, depending on the social and individual conditions of the child’s development, be realized in completely different abilities, and under unfavorable conditions, the existing inclinations may not be translated into developed abilities at all.

According to A. Adler, a high level of innate abilities inhibits the development of personality in the corresponding direction. Conversely, a traumatic experience of inferiority in any area can become an incentive to achieve success in that particular area. He called the process of overcoming the “inferiority complex” overcompensation. A look at human life leads to the conclusion that people can achieve great success almost regardless of what individual characteristics they possess. This paradox helps to explain the concept of “individual style of activity”"According to E.A. Klimov. He identifies the following characteristics of an individual style of activity:

1. A sustainable system of techniques and methods of activity.
2. The dependence of these techniques on individual properties.
3. The effectiveness of the developed system of techniques for adapting to the objective requirements of reality.

The individual style of activity is designed to compensate for the limitations on the effectiveness of activity imposed by individual properties.

Intelligence- this is the general ability to cognition and problem solving, which determines the success of any activity.

Three forms of intellectual behavior(R. Sternberg):

1. Verbal intelligence (vocabulary, erudition, ability to understand what is read).
2. Ability to solve problems.
3. Practical intelligence (the ability to achieve goals).

Types of intelligence

Social intelligence is the ability to correctly understand and interpret the behavior of other people.

Emotional intellect is a group of mental abilities that are involved in awareness and understanding of one’s own emotions and the emotions of others. 17 Character. Accentuation of character.

Character- an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person, embodied in his typical modes of behavior.

Degree of character expression:

norm | accentuation | psychopathy

Accentuation of character- 1) this is an extreme variant of the norm, in which certain character traits are excessively strengthened, as a result of which selective vulnerability is revealed in relation to a certain kind of psychogenic influences with good resistance to others.

2) this is a character trait that is within the critical norm, in which its individual traits are excessively strengthened.

Character accentuations are considered as extreme variants of the norm. They, in turn, are divided into obvious and hidden accentuations.

3 Criteria for difference according to paragraph B. Gannushkin:

1. Totality of character manifestations
2. Stability of character over time
3. Social disadaptation

(if a person has 1 or 2 points the same, then we are talking about accentuation, and if 3, then about psychopathy)

K. Jung identified 2 main types of character: 1) extroverted, 2) introverted

E. Kretschmer described 2 types: 1) cycloid, 2) schizoid

Classification of [constitutional] psychopathy- classification of personality disorders was developed in 1933 by P. B. Gannushkin.

1 Asthenic psychopathy

2 Psychasthenic psychopathy

3 Schizoid psychopathy

4 Paranoid psychopathy

5 Excitable psychopathy

6 Hysterical psychopathy

7 Affective psychopathy

8 Unstable psychopathy

According to the classification of A.E. Lichko, the following types of character accentuations can be distinguished:

1. Labile type
2. Hyperthymic type
3. Cycloid type
4. Astheno-neurotic type
5. Sensitive type
6. Psychasthenic type
7. Schizoid type
8. Epileptoid type
9. Hysterical type
10. Unstable type
11. Conformal type
12. The Stuck Type is often added to this list.

Brief description of the psychotype

1. Main feature labile type- extreme mood variability, rapid and hardly predictable switching of emotional state. Rich sensory sphere, high sensitivity to signs of attention. They are interested in communication, are drawn to their peers, and are content with the role of a ward.
2. A constant sign is a good mood. Energetic, hyperactive. Friendship is superficial, the soul of the company. Unforgettable. Conformist. Romantic. Straightforward. Fair. Get along easily with others.
3. A person with cycloid accentuation experiences cyclical mood changes, when depression is replaced by elevated mood. When their mood declines, such people show increased sensitivity to reproaches and do not tolerate public humiliation well. However, they are proactive, cheerful and sociable.
4. Astheno-neurotic type (irritability, training is tiring, does not interfere with the team, fear)
5. Excessive sensitivity, impressionability, high moral demands primarily on oneself, low self-esteem, timidity and shyness. Under the blows of fate, they easily become extremely cautious, suspicious and withdrawn.
6. Psychasthenic type determines the tendency to introspection and reflection. Psychasthenics often hesitate when making decisions and cannot bear high demands and the burden of responsibility for themselves and others.
7. Not plastic. This is a formula man. Original thinking, but inconsistent. In creativity, the process is important, not the result. In science, it is a generator of ideas. Schizoids- the mind of the earth. Intellectual aggression. Doesn't feel good about the other person.
8. The speech is intelligible. Standard thinking. Restrained, but explosive. Loves order. Ultimate. Lawyer. Moralizer.
9. The desire to stand out, to attract the attention of others, to be the center of attention.

Artistry, imagination, ease of getting used to any role and any invented truth.

Lack of objectivity, but in relation to others and to oneself. Characterized by ease of self-justification and natural self-deception.

1. Unstable type Accentuation of character determines laziness, reluctance to carry out work or educational activities in a person. These people have a pronounced craving for entertainment, idle pastime, and idleness. Their ideal is to remain without outside control and be left to their own devices. They are sociable, open, helpful. They talk a lot
2. Conformal type characterized by conformity to the environment, such people strive to “think like everyone else.” They cannot tolerate drastic changes, breaking a life pattern, or being deprived of their usual environment.
3. The basis of the stuck, paranoid type of personality accentuation is the pathological persistence of affect. Feelings that can cause strong reactions usually subside once the reactions are given free rein. For a stuck person, the picture is different: the effect of affect ceases much more slowly, and as soon as you return your thoughts to what happened, the emotions that accompanied the stress immediately come to life.

A. E. Lichko highlights two degrees of severity of accentuations:

Explicit accentuation is an extreme variant of the norm. Accented character traits are quite pronounced throughout life. Compensation does not occur even in the absence of mental injuries.

Hidden accentuation is a common variant of the norm. Accentuated character traits appear mainly during mental trauma, but do not lead to chronic maladaptation

Leonard classification

Leonhard classified temperament as a natural formation into the following types:

hyperthymic - desire for activity, pursuit of experiences, optimism, focus on success

dysthymic - lethargy, emphasizing ethical aspects, worries and fears, focus on failure

affective-labile - mutual compensation of traits, focus on different standards

affectively exalted - inspiration, sublime feelings, elevating emotions to a cult

anxious - timidity, timidity, submissiveness

emotive - kindness, timidity, compassion

To character, as a socially conditioned formation, he classified the following types:

demonstrative - self-confidence, vanity, boasting, lies, flattery, focus on one’s own self as a standard

pedantic - indecision, conscientiousness, hypochondria, fear of inconsistency with ideals

stuck - suspicion, resentment, vanity, transition from elation to despair

excitable - hot temper, ponderousness, pedantry, focus on instincts

The following types were classified at the personal level:

extroverted

introverted

18. Methods for studying personality. Main theses Personal characteristics (generally): status, position, roles, functions, goals, values, motivational sphere, character, abilities. Personality diagnostic methods: straight(test questionnaires (MMPI, 16PF)), projective(G. Rorschach inkblot test, TAT, M. Luscher color test).

Direct Methods: Conversation method - the specific role of conversation as a method of personality research arises from the fact that in it the subject gives a verbal report about the properties and manifestations of his personality. Therefore, in a conversation, the subjective side of the personality is revealed most fully - self-awareness and self-assessment of personality traits, experiences and emotional attitude expressed in them, etc. The correct formulation of questions is of great importance. A necessary condition for this method is the presence of confidential contact between the subject and the experimenter. The method of characterological conversation is a special form of natural experiment. A special place in the system of research methods, intermediate between the observation method and the artificial experiment, is occupied by the “natural experiment” of A.F. Lazursky. A characteristic feature of a natural experiment is that it brings the study closer to natural conditions; carried out in the normal environment for the subject. Using the method of natural experiment, it is possible to observe a subject under certain conditions in purposefully created situations, organizing the observation according to a pre-planned plan. Observing the behavior and reactions of the subject allows us to get an idea of ​​the characteristics of the personality as a whole and its individual properties. Biographical method - allows you to study the stages of life, features of personality formation, and can be an addition to the interpretation of data obtained by experimental methods. Questionnaires, as one of the methods for studying personality, are used to diagnose the degree of expression of certain personal characterological or other traits in an individual. There are 2 types of questionnaires: one-dimensional- one characteristic is diagnosed and multidimensional- provide information about a number of different personality traits. Only closed questions. The disadvantage of using questionnaires is that personality characteristics are based on self-assessment data. Projective methods A group of methods intended for personality diagnosis, in which subjects are asked to respond to an uncertain (ambiguous) situation; for example, to interpret the content of the plot of a picture (Thematic Apperceptive Test), to order colors according to subjective pleasantness (M. Luscher color test), to interpret vague outlines (Rorschach blots) ... Answers to tasks of projective methods cannot be regarded as correct or incorrect, a wide range is possible range of solutions, while it is assumed that the nature of the subject’s answers is determined by personality traits that are projected onto the answers. For the subject, the goal of projective methods is relatively disguised, which reduces his ability to make the desired impression on the experimenter.

19. Need-motivational sphere. Classification of needs

Concept of motivation. Classification of needs

Motivation (from French "motif" - "reason") is a set of psychological factors that induce, direct, support and stop specific activities and behaviors.

Need- this is a state of objective need of the human body for something that lies outside of it and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning

1. According to the criterion, whether it is attractive or repulsive, they talk about positive And negative motives.

An example of a positive type of motive: the achievement motive.

An example of a negative motive: the motive of avoiding failure.

1. According to the criterion of time of actualization, needs are distinguished permanent, stable, cyclical and situational.
2. According to the intensity of experiencing the need state: strong and weak
3. According to the predominance of orientation towards the result or the process of performing the activity: procedural and effective

G. Murray divides needs into viscerogenic (the need for oxygen, water) and psychogenic (the need for understanding, respect).

• Correlation of needs and motives

• Objectification is the process of finding a specific object that can satisfy a need.

In the act of objectifying a need, a motive is born

• Motive is an item of need.

Biological basis of motivation. Instinct

• Instinct is a ready-made species program of behavior aimed at satisfying biological needs.

When instinctively objectified, needs often have the character of imprinting

Imprinting (D. Spaulding)

• Imprinting- this is an instantaneous and irreversible finding by a need of its object.

Organic needs

• in nutrition;
• on vacation;
• at optimal temperature conditions;
• in reproduction

Superorganic needs

• in status and achievements;
• in communication and belonging (affiliation);
• in caring for offspring;
• in knowledge.

20. Basic and highest human needs. Pyramid of needs according to A. Maslow. Shift of motive to goal as a mechanism for the formation of human motivation (A.N. Leontyev).

Field theories (K. Lewin) and cognitive dissonance (L. Festinger).

A. Maslow’s model suggests that the path of development of a person’s motivational sphere lies in the consistent awakening and satisfaction of increasingly higher needs up to the highest - the need for self-actualization.

The needs at the base of the pyramid are more fully satisfied than those at the top.

The motives that result from the objectification of needs become increasingly diverse as one moves to the top.

Shifting a motive to a goal is a mechanism for the formation of new motives, author A.N. Leontyev. Those actions that previously served to achieve goals subordinated to a specific motive acquire independent meaning and are split off from the original motivation. At the same time, the auxiliary goals towards which these actions were aimed acquire the status of an independent, full-fledged motive.

K. Levin proceeded from the fact that the basis of human activity is needs (quasi-needs), they direct human activity. The need creates a system of tension in the individual, striving for release, which, according to Lewin, is the satisfaction of the need. The discharge of the need is carried out in a certain situation, which Levin calls the psychological field. According to Lewin, some things have a positive valence, while others, not having such a driving force, have a negative valence. Thus, field items represent positively and negatively charged valences in relation to the need. An excess of positive valences in the “field of attributes” can lead to the “satiety phenomenon” described by Lewin. In a situation where it is impossible to stop the action that caused satiety, negative emotions and aggression easily arise.

L. Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance states that a positive emotional experience occurs in a person when his expectations are confirmed and cognitive ideas come true, that is, when the real results of activity correspond to those intended. Negative emotions arise and intensify in cases where there is a discrepancy, inconsistency or dissonance between the expected and actual results of activity. Subjectively, a person usually experiences a state of cognitive dissonance as discomfort, and he strives to get rid of it as soon as possible.

Getting out of a state of cognitive dissonance:

• change cognitive expectations and plans
• try to get a new result

21. Law of optimum motivation p. Yerkes-J.Dodson

For any activity, there is an optimal (usually average) level of motivation at which the effectiveness of this activity is maximum. The more complex the activity, the lower the level of motivation is optimal. R. Yerkes and J. Dodson conducted a series of experiments that yielded comparable results when the subjects were rats, chickens, cats, and humans. The subjects performed a task to distinguish between two brightnesses. The level of difficulty of the task and the degree of motivation varied. The degree of motivation was determined through the strength of punishment with an electric shock for an incorrect answer. Based on the data obtained, the law of “optimum motivation” was formulated, which connects the strength of the motive to achieve a result, the complexity of the task and the effectiveness of the activity. The law of optimality is formulated as follows: to achieve the maximum learning rate, the intensity of reward or punishment must decrease as the difficulty of the task increases. In other words, if an activity is relatively simple, it will be best performed with a high level of motivation, and if it is complex, it will be performed best with a moderate level of motivation.

Similar data were obtained in more recent studies conducted exclusively on humans. For example, in J. Patrick's experiment, the subject was placed in a cabin with four doors, of which only one was the exit. There was no logical solution to the problem, since the location of the desired door was constantly changing, but the subject could develop a more or less rational strategy for finding it. Patrick found that when the subject’s motivation to immediately leave the cabin increased (nails began to fall on his head from above or a weak but unpleasant electric current was passed through the floor), decisions became less rational, stereotypical and ineffective.

Obviously, in the type of experimental research described, the mountains manipulated the extrinsic motivation of the subjects (electric shocks were not relevant to the essence of the matter, for example, determining the brightness of spots or finding the right door).

Taking into account the internal motivation of the subject will, of course, lead to a significant complication of the picture. 22. Emotions, their types and functions.

Emotions are a mental reflection in the form of a direct biased experience of the relationship of phenomena and situations to needs. Emotions are very closely related to motives and needs.

Main types of emotional states

1. Feelings, Emotions Actually, Affects, Passions, Moods

Affect is a very short in duration, but incredibly intense in nature emotional state.

Passion is an emotional state that has an underlying object of passion, but

not always realized.

Functions of emotions

1. - Mobilizing function (motivation to action) (for example, the release of adrenaline into the blood during fear; the phenomenon of “narrowing of consciousness” forces the body to concentrate all efforts on overcoming a negative situation).
2. — Evaluative function (makes it possible to instantly assess the meaning of an isolated stimulus or situation for a person).
3. — The function of compensating for information deficit (“spare resource” for solving problems when there is not enough information for rational decision-making).
4. -The function of motivating and supporting activity (emotions reveal the true motives of activity; during activity, the dynamics of emotions signal its success or obstacles).
5. -Regulatory function of emotions (Reflecting and evaluating reality, emotions and feelings direct the subject’s behavior in a certain direction and contribute to the manifestation of certain reactions).
6. -Trace formation function (anticipation of events that will occur in the future (heuristic/anticipatory function).
7. -Communication function (The expressive component of emotions makes them “transparent” to the social environment. For example, the expression bolt causes the awakening of altruistic motivation in other people).
8. -Disorganization function (intense emotions can disrupt the effective flow of activities).
9. -Function of autonomous value of emotions. 23. Behavioral and physiological manifestations of emotions. Recognition of emotions.

Behavioral manifestations of emotions(Paul Ekman)

1. Adaptive Gestures- these are actions that allow you to reduce the intensity of tension (bouncing in place when you are happy).
2. Regulators- movements that set the rhythm of the emotional process (tapping with fingers in a state of uncertainty).
3. Illustrators- bodily expressions of the intensity of emotions (amplitude and sharpness of gestures).
4. Demonstrators- these are expressors of specific emotional states, usually facial expressions (furrowing of the eyebrows with anger).
5. Emblems are movements that are commonly used to express emotions in a given culture. To these expressive means you can add intonation characteristics of the voice (sad voice, angry exclamation)

Physiological manifestations of emotions(W. James, G. Lange)

A complex of involuntary adaptive reactions of the body, controlled by the autonomic nervous system, designed to urgently respond to the stimulus that caused the emotion (for example, sweating, rapid pulse, pressure, blushing, crying).

The theory of facial feedback by P. Ekman, R. Levinson and W. Friesen.

Based on changes in the facial muscles. According to this view, the automatic change in the configuration of the facial muscles, which develops as a reaction to the influence of a stimulus, leads to awareness of the emotional state corresponding to this configuration and, as a consequence, to the emergence of emotion.

Recognition of emotions.

Any sincere emotion lasts a split second!

• Surprise - eyebrows raised, eyes wide open, mouth slightly open.
• Happiness is small wrinkles in the corners of the eyes, raised cheeks, and the muscles around the eyes are activated.
• Anger - eyebrows lowered. and brought together, sparkle in the eyes, mouth closed, lips narrowed.
• Fear - eyebrows are raised and elongated, the upper eyelids are raised and the lower ones are tense, the lips are slightly elongated.
• Disgust - nose wrinkled, upper lip raised.
• Contempt is a raised corner of the mouth only on one side.

Lie detector (polygraph)

Background (registration of physical indicators in a calm state)

Reaction (indicators when giving answers)

Types of stress

25. Definition of perception. Basic characteristics of perception. Illusions of perception.

Perception - these are reflections of integral objects and events of external physical energies on the senses. A mental process consisting of the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.

The types of perception are as follows:

1. Perception of surrounding objects (carried out due to eye activity).

2. Perception of space (gives us a picture of three-dimensional space, shows distance and relationship).

3. Perception of time (reflects the passage of time, the duration of an event, its speed and sequence. A person’s perception of time is a kind of mental clock with the help of which he evaluates the passage of time. The leading role here is played by both the content of the activity and the presence of interest in it.

4. Perception of motion (gives us data about the movement of objects relative to us and in relation to each other).

5. Perception of a person by a person (a special type of perception that is based on previous experience).

Main characteristics of perception:

1. Objectivity is an act of objectification, that is, the correlation of information from the external world to this world. Touch and movement play a decisive role. An object is perceived by us as a separate physical body isolated in space and time. This property is most clearly manifested in the mutual isolation of figure and background.
2. Integrity - sensations reflect individual properties of objects, perception is only a holistic image, formed on the basis of a generalization of knowledge about individual properties, qualities, obtained in the form of individual sensations. Internal organic relationship between parts and the whole in the image. There are two aspects to consider about this property:

• combining different elements into a whole;
• independence of the formed whole from the quality of its constituent elements.

• Structurality (generalization) is not the sum of sensations. We actually perceive a generalized structure abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over some time (when listening to music, we hear notes one after another).

• Constancy - relative to the perceiving subject, objects continuously change. Thanks to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system to compensate for these changes, we perceive surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, and color. Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions gives rise to the constancy of this image. Provides relative stability of the surrounding world, reflecting the unity of the objects of its existence.

• Meaningfulness - although perception arises as a result of the direct impact of the stimulus on the receptors, perceptual images have a certain semantic meaning. Perception is closely connected with thinking, we understand the essence of an object, which allows us to mentally name it, that is, attribute it to a certain group of objects, class, and generalize it. Based on the connection between perception and thinking, with an understanding of the essence of the subject. Associated with the work of secondary cortical fields of analyzers.

• Selectivity is the preferential selection of some objects over others.

Illusions of perception:

Illusions - this is a false or distorted perception of the surrounding reality, which forces the perceiver to experience sensory impressions that do not correspond to reality, and inclines him to erroneous judgments about the object of perception. The term " distorted" means that visible (or audible, tangible) does not correspond to the objective situation; the distortion can be eliminated, for example, by measurement.

Illusions are divided into types:

Physical, physiological, affective, optical illusions, sound illusions, verbal, organic, illusions of awareness, pareilolic.

26. Perception of space and time

1) Perception of space - a person’s ability to perceive spatial characteristics of the surrounding world: the size and shape of objects, as well as their relative position.

IN perception of space is distinguished:

1) perception of extended properties of objects - their shape, size, volume

2) perception of the distance between objects - their position or place among other objects and their distance from the observer (deep vision).

Depth perception.

Depth perception is associated with assessing the proximity or distance of objects. It is carried out using both binocular and monocular vision.

Signs of depth:

1. Overlap.

2. Elevation (lifting).

3. Relative displacement of objects in the movement of the observer (motor parallax).

4. Simultaneous difference in images for the right and left eyes (disparity).

2) Perception of time - a figurative reflection of such characteristics of the phenomena of surrounding reality as duration, speed and sequence.

Temporal relationships are expressed through:

- Chronometry - counting time, measured using the uniform movement of an object, for example the hand of a clock;

- Chronologies - reflections of time in accordance with phenomena common to all people: seasons, number of years lived, etc.;

§ 9. Reasons for the disappearance of classical empirical psychology of consciousness. On the problem of the psychological crisis Summing up the analysis of the development of scientific psychology within the framework of classical psychology of consciousness, it should be said that already by the second half of the 19th century. Criticism of its basic postulates and principles is growing. This is due primarily to practical requests for psychological science from educators, doctors, industrialists, teachers, etc., whose activities were closely connected with psychological reality and who began to demand clear practical recommendations from psychology. However, the introspective psychology of consciousness was very far from life. At the same time, the development of other sciences (primarily non-classical physics, biology and other disciplines) led to the need to revise the methodological postulates of classical science, which were shared to one degree or another by the empirical psychology of consciousness. Reflection by psychologists of the basic postulates of their science led many of them already at the beginning of the 20th century. to a complete rejection of the positions of introspective psychology of consciousness and the creation of new concepts in which the subject and methods, as well as the tasks of psychological science, were defined completely differently. In psychology, a situation of a kind of “explosion” arises, the result of which was the emergence of a variety of directions in psychology, each of which in its own way solved the fundamental problems of psychological science and practical work. At the same time, not only psychologists “by training” took an active part in the emergence of new psychological directions - for example, one of the most influential directions in modern psychology - psychoanalytic - was created by the doctor Z. Freud. At the beginning of the 20th century. the very pluralism that still defines the face of modern psychology arose. Many scientists regarded this state of psychology as a crisis. The phrase of the Russian psychologist N. N. Lange that the psychologist resembles Priam sitting on the ruins of Troy has become common. Moreover, in his works N. N. Lange touches only on the early period of the crisis of psychology and analyzes the concepts that arose in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, discovering that contemporary psychology is characterized by “extreme diversity of currents, the absence of a generally recognized system of science, enormous psychological differences between individual psychological 119 schools." He discovered such differences, for example, between structuralism and functionalism. But the points of view on psychology of representatives of psychoanalysis, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and other directions in foreign psychology have not yet appeared (or have not been clearly stated), each of which openly opposed any provisions of the “classical empirical psychology of consciousness.” So, at the beginning of the 20th century. Behaviorists put forward a new subject of psychology - behavior - as a reality, which - in contrast to subjective reality - can, in their opinion, be studied objectively. Psychoanalysis begins to develop empirical approaches to the unconscious, which was ignored in the psychology of consciousness. Gestalt psychology protests against the elementarism of old psychology. The French sociological school proves the concrete social conditioning of consciousness, which was also denied by introspective psychology. Domestic psychological schools created by L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein and others approached the denial of old psychology even more deeply. In his work “The Historical Meaning of the Psychological Crisis,” written in the mid-20s. XX century, L.S. Vygotsky, having analyzed the essence, causes and meaning of this crisis, came to the following conclusions. Firstly, he saw the causes of the crisis (or, what is the same, its driving forces) in the development of applied (practical) psychology, which requires from academic science fundamentally new solutions to the problem of the nature of mental reality and a fundamentally new methodology for its study. Therefore, L.S. Vygotsky saw the meaning of the crisis not in the struggle of new directions against the old, classical psychology, but in the struggle of “two psychologies” hidden behind all the particular clashes, i.e. materialistic and idealistic tendencies in this science. Moreover, materialism and idealism were understood here not quite in the traditional philosophical sense of the word. According to L.S. Vygotsky, the materialist line in psychology is the desire for real knowledge of all components of the human psyche, without exception, from a strictly scientific position, the main principles of which were the principles of determinism and objectivity. Idealism, according to L.S. Vygotsky, on the contrary, leads to the rejection of such an explanation, indeterminism, references to the divine nature of higher mental processes, etc. Secondly, L.S. Vygotsky analyzed the essence of the understanding of consciousness in classical introspective psychology more deeply than all his contemporary authors and rejected the idea of ​​consciousness that existed in it, proposing his own understanding of it. 120 Some provisions of this criticism can only be understood if you know the concept of L.S. Vygotsky (we will talk about it later), but individual points of this criticism (with our comments) can still be cited now. 1. The main fundamental drawback of introspective psychology of consciousness is its identification of scientific knowledge and experience. If phenomenon and essence coincided in psychology (L. S. Vygotsky extends the famous position of K. Marx to psychology), no science would be needed. Consciousness is not reduced to the totality (or integrity) of phenomena of the inner world, open to knowledge only by the subject of consciousness; it is an objective reality, subject to the same scientific study as any other reality. 2. The method of introspection is not a method of scientific research of consciousness, since it does not have the status of an objective scientific method. This does not mean that we cannot use the method of introspection in psychology, since the concepts of “introspection” and “introspection” are not identical. Firstly, we can obtain more objective information about ourselves, not by “getting used to” our inner experiences, as introspectionist psychologists recommended, but by observing our behavior in objective life situations. No amount of introspection will give the subject information about whether he is “brave” - only actual participation in relevant events (for example, in battle) will show a person whether he can consider himself brave. Secondly, we can use data from the subject’s self-report about his experiences (what he felt, for example, when this or that picture was presented to him), but as raw material that requires interpretation and evaluation. Thirdly, it can be used for scientific purposes and for the writer (and other everyday psychologists) to describe the dialectics of his soul, but again as raw material that requires processing. 3. In any case, when engaged in self-observation, we should not assume that we can directly know consciousness in its essence. All scientific knowledge is, according to L. S. Vygotsky, mediated knowledge. Mental activity is not given to us directly as an object of scientific study - it must be reconstructed by studying its individual manifestations (phenomena) in speech and behavioral reactions. In introspective psychology, where consciousness was considered open to direct cognition only by its subject, in principle, some methods were used to indirectly study the psyche of those subjects who were obviously incapable of introspection (animals, children, the mentally ill, representatives of primitive cultures, etc. ). These methods were, for example, external observation, analysis of the products of individuals' activities, etc. However, the data obtained in this way were still interpreted in the context of an introspective approach. Thus, E. B. Titchener wrote: “The psychologist concludes by analogy that everything that applies to him is applicable, in principle, to the animal, to society and to the mentally ill. He concludes that the movements of animals, in the vast majority, are expressive movements, that they express the mental processes of the animal or make one know about them. Therefore, he tries, as far as possible, to put himself in the place of an animal, to find conditions under which his own expressive movements would be generally of the same kind; and then he tries to recreate the consciousness of the animal according to the properties of his human consciousness... He observes the expressive movements and registers the mental processes of the animal in the light of his own introspection.” Research by zoopsychologists, psychiatrists and sociologists at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. showed that the procedure proposed by E. Titchener (and, more broadly, by all introspective psychology) is simply impossible due to the qualitative differences between the consciousness of a European educated person and the psyche of an animal, a mentally ill person and representatives of other cultures. L. S. Vygotsky also took this position. However, we can better understand his criticism of introspective psychology when we get acquainted in detail with the provisions of his “cultural-historical” concept in Chapter 5. The next chapter of this section will provide an overview of the main psychological trends that arose almost simultaneously at the beginning (first third) of the 20th century ., the ideas of which still exist and continue to develop in modern psychological science and practice. Test questions and assignments 1. How does the concept of “soul” in ancient philosophy differ from the mythological generalization under the same name? 2. What are the differences between the positions of Democritus and Plato in understanding the essence of the soul and the laws of mental life? Give some reasons for their possible comparison. 3. Reveal in detail the essence of Aristotle’s definition of the soul as the entelechy of the body. 4. What was the historical need for introducing the concept of “consciousness” into psychology? 5. Name and characterize the basic principles of the Descarto-Lockean approach to the study of consciousness. 6. Present and compare the main provisions of two programs for building psychology as an independent science (W. Wundt and F. Brentano). What is common and what is different in the understanding of consciousness and the ways of studying it in these programs? 122 7. What is the method of introspection? What are his options? What are the limitations of this method? 8. Briefly outline the history of the emergence and development of associative teaching in psychology. 9. What are the reasons for the disappearance of classical empirical psychology of consciousness? 10. Why is the situation in psychology at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries? began to be called a psychological crisis? Give it a brief description according to L. S. Vygotsky. Recommended reading Wundt V. Consciousness and attention // Reader on the course “Introduction to Psychology” / Ed.-comp. E.E. Sokolova. - M., 1999. - P. 95-105; or according to the publication: General psychology: Texts: In 3 volumes - Vol. 1. Introduction / Rep. ed. B. V. Petukhov. - M., 2001. - P. 52-67. Vygotsky L. S. Causes of the crisis in psychological science // Reader on the course “Introduction to Psychology” / Ed.-comp. E. E. Sokolova. - M., 1999.-S. 148-150. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology: A course of lectures. - M., 1988. -Lecture 3. James W. Stream of consciousness // Reader on the course “Introduction to Psychology” / Ed.-comp. E.E. Sokolova. - M., 1999; or according to the publication: General Psychology: Texts: In 3 volumes - Vol. 1. Introduction / Rep. ed. V. V. Petukhov. - M., 2001.-S. 83-101. Sokolova E. E. Thirteen dialogues about psychology. - M., 2003. - P. 46 - 239. Warm B.M. On introspection and introspection // Reader on the course “Introduction to Psychology” / Ed.-comp. E.E. Sokolova, t-M., 1999. - P. 126-132; or by edition: Warm B.M. On the objective method in psychology // B. M. Teplov Izbr. tr.: In 2 vols. - M., 1985. - T. 2. - P. 291 - 302. Titchener E. B. Two levels of consciousness // General psychology: Texts: In 3 volumes - Vol. 1. Introduction/Ans. ed. V. V. Petukhov. - M., 2001. -S. 102-104. Chelpanov G. I. Subject, methods and tasks of psychology // Reader on the course “Introduction to Psychology” / Ed.-comp. E. E. Sokolova. - M., 1999. - P. 119-125. additional literature Lange N. N. The struggle of views in modern psychology // Reader on the course “Introduction to Psychology” / Ed.-comp. E.E. Sokolova. - M., 1999. - P. 133-147; or by edition: Lange N. N. Psychic world. - M., 1996.-S. 69-100. Rubinshtein S. L. Development of psychology in modern times // Reader on the course “Introduction to Psychology” / Ed.-comp. E.E. Sokolova. - M., 1999. - P. 87 - 94; or by edition: Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology: In 2 vols. - M., 1989.-T. 1.-S. 62-73. CHAPTER 4 PROBLEMS, CONCEPTS AND DIRECTIONS OF MODERN FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY The problem of unconscious processes in psychology The role of 3. Freud in the development of the problem of the unconscious The preconscious and the unconscious Methods for studying the unconscious in psychoanalysis Behavior as a subject of psychology in behaviorism and neobehaviorism Justification of the objective approach in J. Watson’s psychology The “stimulus-response” scheme The problem of conditioning The concept of learning Examples of empirical research in behaviorism Development of ideas of an objective approach in E. Tolman’s neo-behaviorism The need to introduce the concept of “intermediate variables” Holistic approach in psychology A brief history of posing the problem of integrity in psychology The emergence of the Berlin school of Gestalt psychology The method of phenomenological introspection Examples of experimental research in Gestalt psychology “Other schools of holistic psychology Idiographic and nomothetic approaches in modern psychology Humanistic psychology, main representatives and ideas The emergence of existential psychology Information approach in modern cognitive psychology § 1. The emergence of psychoanalysis IN In the previous chapter we talked about the fact that the requirements of practice at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. gave birth to new directions in psychological science, which still determine the face of modern psychology. One of them was psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is perhaps one of the most famous areas outside of psychology. The credit for its creation goes to the Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud (Freud, 1856-1939), who, solving practical problems of treating neurotic patients, came not only to the creation of new methods of treating them, but also to an original psychoanalytic theory. Communication with patients suffering from hysteria revealed to S. Freud a deep connection between psychosomatic symptoms (for example, hysterical attacks, paralysis, deafness, etc.) and hidden from the patient’s consciousness and affectively rich experiences, which are the true causes of hysterical disorder. One of the most famous “Freud cases” is the so-called case of Anna O. (in fact, the patient’s name was Bertha Pappenheim), which is always mentioned when talking about S. Freud’s path to his own psychoanalytic concept. At that time 124 S. Freud (early 80s of the 19th century), he assisted his senior colleague Dr. Joseph (Josef) Breuer, who, in fact, treated this girl. Let us give a brief analysis of the case of Anna O. This twenty-something year old girl was found to have a “bouquet” of various disorders, the origin of which was not very clear at first. She had spastic paralysis of both right limbs with lack of sensitivity, and for some time the same paralysis afflicted the girl’s left limbs; She also had certain visual disturbances, an aversion to taking liquid food and water, a strange ability to speak in a foreign language, using English to communicate with others, and, finally, periodic states of confusion and delirium. Usually, when a doctor of the second half of the 19th century. faced with such a “bouquet” of symptoms, he assumed some kind of extremely severe organic disorder. True, a number of French psychiatrists (among them was the famous Jean Martin Charcot) believed that these kinds of symptoms could be manifestations of hysterical neurosis, which often appears “under the guise” of various organic disorders. It is interesting that J. M. Charcot could cause these kinds of symptoms himself, using hypnosis and suggesting to the patient that after leaving the hypnotic state his arm or leg would be paralyzed. The patient woke up - and his corresponding limbs really did not function. The patient himself could not understand where this symptom came from. Then, with the help of the same hypnosis, J. M. Charcot removed these artificially induced paralysis. I. Breuer established that the symptoms of the disease in his patient appeared as a result of mental trauma and represent “remnants of memories” of this trauma, peculiar “monuments” of what happened. For the girl, such a mental trauma was the suffering of her beloved terminally ill father, at whose bedside she spent days and nights and to whom she tried not to show her experiences. I. Breuer was able to establish a connection between each of the symptoms and one or another specific scene in the patient’s recent past. It happened as follows. When the patient was in a more or less contact state, he put her into a state of hypnotic sleep and demanded to say what was connected with the words that the patient often uttered in a state of confusion and delirium (dog, glass, snake, etc.). ). In response to this, the patient began to describe emotionally and very poetically this or that situation in her recent past, which was always associated with her father’s illness. Here, for example, is one of the central episodes of that time. One day the girl fell asleep sitting on a chair by her father's bed. Suddenly she woke up in great fear and tension (the family was waiting for a doctor) and saw a large black snake crawling along the wall of the room towards the head of her father’s bed, clearly with the intention of biting the patient. Most likely, it was a hallucination and not a real snake (although similar snakes were indeed found in that area). Be that as it may, the girl, in a state of very strong passion, tried to drive away the snake, but her right hand became numb from sitting on a chair for a long time and lost sensitivity. In horror, the girl saw that the fingers of this hand seemed to have turned into small snakes with death heads (these were nails). When the snake suddenly disappeared, the girl wanted to praise the Lord and tried to remember some suitable prayer, but nothing came to her mind. Suddenly she remembered a nursery rhyme in English and was able to pray and think in this language. From then on, as “remnants” of memories of her experience, she developed paralysis and the ability to speak only in English - the language of her then conversation with God. But the most interesting thing was this: when the patient, under hypnosis, recalled with clearly expressed affective experiences the connection in which these symptoms first appeared (paralysis, thinking and speaking in English), then these symptoms disappeared. True, after some time they could appear again and to get rid of them a new hypnosis session was needed. This method of treatment is called cathartic (from the Greek. «/ catharsis» - cleansing; the patient jokingly called her treatment “cleaning the pipes”). Even then, S. Freud thought about the question: is it possible to make the cathartic method independent of hypnosis? The fact was that, firstly, he was not always able to put his patient into a hypnotic state, and secondly, he considered hypnosis to be a rather “mystical means”, the mechanism of which was unclear to him. Returning from France, where he visited J.M. Charcot at the Paris clinic (including with the aim of improving the technique of hypnosis), Z. Freud abandoned this technique altogether. He soon formulated the main reason for abandoning hypnosis as a method of penetrating into a strange area of ​​mental processes for many psychologists, which remained unknown to the patient’s consciousness, but actually acted and determined the patient’s behavior. For 3. Freud, it becomes increasingly clear that in order to understand the unconscious (and ultimately to master it) it is necessary to use all the conscious powers of the patient, prompting him to become aware of his unconscious. And this is impossible when the subject is in a hypnotic state. He is not the subject of his activity, but the object of the influence of hypnosis - 126 pa - and therefore cannot actively work with his unconscious, resist it consciously and actively. And 3. Freud develops his own methods of penetrating the client’s unconscious, which he begins to use in the practice of treating patients. In fact, these are actually psychoanalytic methods that are used when communicating between a doctor and a patient who is in a normal (and not altered, as in hypnosis) state of consciousness.

“Attention, memory, speech, thinking” - Static-kinetic. Another popular theory of language acquisition is called cognitive theory. Irritants. Sensation and perception Attention Memory Thinking and speech Imagination. Emotions. 1. Problem. Muscular-articular. Structure of information reception. Remembers better. By type of consciousness. Further development and improvement of voluntary attention, including volitional attention.

“Processes in psychology” - A person also has voluntary, logical and indirect memory. Stimuli are objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses. This memory is accumulated, but not stored. INTERORECEPTIVE - sensations of pain, - sensations of balance; - sensations of acceleration.

“Psychology” - There is a tendency towards obesity. Short, round or medium length and thick legs and arms. Personality is the result of the process of education and self-education. “One is not born a person, but one becomes one” A. N. Leontyev. Quite a tedious, complex and incomprehensible definition, right? The muscles are massive, strong, strong.

“Subject of psychology” - Development of sensations in the process of human activity: adaptation, sensitization, synesthesia. Classification of mental phenomena. Types of attention. V.S. Tripolsky. Visual illusions of perception. Hence the continuity of mental activity in a person’s waking state. Perception (perception) is the reconstruction of holistic images of objects (objects, situations, etc.).

“History of Psychology” - 5. The principle of constructive-positive analysis. The development of psychological knowledge occurs in the form of various interrelated forms (levels): History of psychology. 3. Systematic principle. 4. The principle of objectivity of historical and psychological research. There is not a single fact in the history of psychology that is not preceded by certain reasons.

“Memory in Psychology” - Forgotten?. Semantic. Lecture 3. In relation to means: INTERMEDIATE – DIRECT. Types of memory: In relation to conscious control: ARBITRARY – INVOLUTIONARY. Unconscious. Memory. Universal mental processes: Basic phenomena (contents) of memory: Psychology of cognitive processes.

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