Russian education of the 19th century. Development of the school education system in Russia in the 19th century. Main trends in the development of education and

SCIENCE IN THE 19TH CENTURY

The development of science in the period under review was characterized by the following features: there was an intensive development of European experience, new scientific centers in the country, specialization has increased scientific knowledge, applied research received priority development.

The creation of new universities in the country significantly changed the form of organization of science. Until the beginning of the 19th century, the center of the scientific life of the empire was the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. After at the end of the 18th century. The academic university closed, and after it the academic gymnasium; the academy specialized exclusively in the field of science and its popularization.
However, Russian universities very soon began to announce their scientific research. Moreover, in the first half of the 19th century. designated
trend towards the creation of university scientific schools. Academicians did not recognize non-academic science. The antagonism between the academic and university corporations tragically affected the fate of the discovery of mathematician N.I. Lobachevsky.
Mathematics. N.I. Lobachevsky, a graduate of Kazan University, began his teaching career in 1811 by lecturing on celestial mechanics and number theory. The Kazan professor entered the history of world science as the creator of a new system, the so-called “non-Euclidean geometry,” which revolutionized views on modern mathematics. However, members of the academy V.C. Bunyakovsky and M.V. Ostrogradsky gave unfairly harsh reviews about it. Academic mathematicians and prominent scientists (V.Ya. Bunyakovsky was known as the author of the theory of inequalities, and M.V. Ostrogradsky was considered a recognized authority in mathematical physics) were unable to step over corporate interests for the sake of high science.
During Lobachevsky's lifetime, his discovery was never recognized. For almost 19 years, the scientist headed Kazan University and paid a lot of attention to the formation of the university library.
Astronomy. Historians of Russian astronomical science divide it into two periods: before and after the establishment of the Pulkovo Observatory (1839). At the beginning of the first period, astronomical work was carried out mainly by academic astronomers. But the obsolete observatory of the Academy of Sciences no longer met the requirements for measurement accuracy.
Soon the observatory of the University of Dorpat took the leading position. It was there that academician V.Ya. Struve and his students founded a new direction in astronomy. Using the latest mathematical and physical methods, they achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances. Struve's works on astrometry and study double stars gained worldwide fame.
The Nikolaev Pulkovo Observatory, built according to Struve's plans and equipped with the latest instruments, became the main center for astronomical research. It was intended to carry out constant observations and, in addition, was obliged to promote practical astronomy.
The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was Litgrov, who built a small observatory. More famous in astronomy is his student I.M. Simonov, a participant in the trip to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study of terrestrial magnetism. For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.
Physics. The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and physical phenomena of nature.
At the beginning of the century, the best physics office in Russia was the laboratory at the Medical-Surgical Academy. Equipment for it was purchased by the government from recognized European centers. Carrying out numerous experiments in it, V.V. Petrov discovered the electric arc, which began to be used in metallurgy and in lighting. Subsequently, the scientist studied the chemical effect of current, electrical conductivity, luminescence, and electrical phenomena in gases.
After the opening of the University of Dorpat, one of the oldest Russian physics schools was formed there. The rector of the university, professor of physics G.F. Parrot, contributed a lot to TBM. One of his i.^o-famous students was E.H. Lenz, the creator of the laws “Lenz Rule”, “Joule-Lenz Law”.
At the University of Dorpat, Academician B. Syakobi carried out his first experiments on electromagnetism. In 1834, he first tried it to drive a ship. Jacobi founded a new direction in physics - electroplating. In the 1840-1850s. The scientist was developing a telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications.
Chemistry. In the first half of the century, a strong chemistry school began to emerge at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. According to the university reform of 1835, special subsidies were prescribed for the establishment of chemical laboratories at universities. At the end of the 1830s. Professors of Kazan University P.P. Zinin and K.K. Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories.
In them, already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for the artificial production of aniline and some other aromatic bases. These discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes, aromatic substances and medicines in the country. And in 1844, Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium.
A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center chemical science - at St. Petersburg University. He produced such famous chemists as Professor N.N. Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production.
The formation of medical science is associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy (1799) and medical faculties at universities. The professor at the academy was a famous Russian; Rurg N.I.Pirogov, founder military field surgery and anatomical expert direction in science. He performed the first operation under anesthesia on the battlefield (1847), introduced a fixed plaster cast, and proposed a number of new surgical operations. Pirogov’s atlas “Topographic Anatomy” (Vol. 1-4, 1851-1854) became world famous.
Medicine. Inclusion in the composition Russian Empire new territories contributed to interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the 19th century. lay in the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, the Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travel was the southern steppes and Central Asian countries. Simultaneously with the study of the internal parts of the empire and the lands bordering it, work was carried out on an inventory of the seas and inland water basins. As a result, maps and a description of the territory were drawn up, ethnographic and statistical materials were collected.
Geography. During the reign of Alexander 1, Russian geographical science powerfully declared itself in the world with a number of round the world expeditions and work in the Arctic Ocean. In 1803-1806. The first such expedition took place on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky. After that, about 40 more trips around the world were made.
Undertaken in the 1820-30s. Polar expeditions proved the existence of the Northern Sea Route between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. This refuted the hypothesis of the existence of an isthmus between Asia and America.
Russian navigators F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev on the military ships “Vostok” and “Mirny” undertook an expedition, the purpose of which was to continue research “to the most distant latitude that can be reached.” In January 1821 it ended with the event of the century: the discovery of the sixth part of the world, Antarctica.
Thus, the first half of the 19th century. became the time of organizational development of Russian science, the formation of scientific schools in it. Russian scientists made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed largely in isolation from social needs, as if operas, that them. Scientific research were rarely subsidized by Russian traders, as in Europe
Science in Russia was a child of the government and therefore was very dependent on the authorities, on the government’s attitude towards it.
By the middle of the 19th century. one of the major stages in the history of Russian culture ended. The main content of the cultural process of the time under review was the development of national culture.
First half of the 19th century - the formation and development of Russian literature, and with it the theater. During the period under review, the formation of the Russian language took place, and the close connection of Russian literature with the development of social thought was determined. There is further development of genres of domestic professional music, the emergence of new techniques and means of musical expression, and the development of the musical heritage of the people. During this period, musical classics emerged and a national school of Russian music was created.
For the artistic culture of the first half of the 19th century. There were rapid changes in artistic directions and the simultaneous coexistence of different artistic styles. IN fine arts Great strides have been made in mastering new genres, new means of expression, and in the search for new themes.
Continuity in development (the basis for the formation of the cultural heritage of society) is one of the characteristic features of the cultural process in Russia.
Russian culture was characterized by the ability to perceive and accumulate everything that was best in European culture, while preserving its national identity.

Education system in the 19th century

The very beginning of the 19th century was characterized by liberal initiatives in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created - a special state body, which became not so much a body promoting the development of public education, “as a supervisory body.” The Main Directorate of Schools was created under the ministry, which included F.I. Yankovic.

In 1804, the “Charter of Universities of the Russian Empire” and the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” were published. In accordance with them, a new system of public education and management of educational institutions was introduced.

The system was based on three principles:

Free,

Lack of class (except for serfs),

Continuity of educational institutions.

The public education system, subordinate to the ministry, included:

1) Parish schools - 1 year of study;

2) District schools - 2 years:

3) Gymnasiums in the provinces - 4 years;

4) Universities – 5-7 years.

At the same time, children of serfs and girls were not allowed into the gymnasium and universities.

Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were headed by school district trustees.

The responsibilities of the trustee are the opening of the university or the transformation on a new basis of the existing management of the educational institutions of the district through the rector of the university.

The rector of the university was elected by the professors at a general meeting and reported to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.

The directors of the gymnasiums (in each provincial city), in addition to their direct management, managed all the schools in the given province. Subordinate to them were the superintendents of the district schools, who supervised all the parish schools.

Thus, the head of the higher level school was the administrator of the lower level schools. As a result, an education administration was created from specialists who knew the business.

The following universities were opened in Russia: Moscow, Vilna (Vilnius), Dorpat (Tartu), Kharkov and Kazan were opened in 1804, in 1816 - the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg (in 1819 transformed into St. Petersburg University), in 1834 - Kiev University. All universities in Russia existed primarily as secular educational institutions. Orthodox Church had its own theological academies: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Kazan.

The gymnasium provided a completed secondary education and prepared for entering the university. The content of the training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign modern and Latin languages, mathematics, geography and general and Russian history, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. At the same time, the native language, Russian literature and the Law of God were not taught in the gymnasium.

District schools prepared students to continue their education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. The curriculum included many subjects - from the Law of God to drawing (Sacred history, reading a book about the positions of a person and a citizen, geography, history, etc.). The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy workload for teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. Teachers were required to use only textbooks recommended by the ministry.

Parochial schools could be opened in provincial, district cities and in the village of each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for studying at a district school and to give children general education knowledge (boys and girls could study together). Subjects of study: God's Law and moral teaching, reading, writing, first operations of arithmetic.

Boarding houses were opened at the gymnasiums; their students, in addition to the gymnasium course, studied French, dance, music, fencing, and horse riding. By 1850 there were 47 such boarding houses in Russia.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. In the “classical” classes they prepared for admission to universities and other educational institutions; most of the time was devoted to the study of ancient languages, Russian literature, new foreign languages ​​and history. In the “real” ones they were trained for military and civilian service; instead of ancient languages, the teaching of practical mathematics was strengthened, and law was introduced.

The network of private educational institutions also expanded, but the government deliberately restrained their growth. In 1883 it was forbidden to open them in Moscow and St. Petersburg, although they were later allowed again. Private schools were also under strict government control.

The beginning of the second half of the 19th century in Russia was characterized by a great reform movement that shook up society. Following the reform of 1861 on the liberation of peasants from serfdom, other reforms were outlined: judicial, zemstvo, educational, educational. By this time, issues of upbringing and education began to be understood as “the most important issues of life.”

During these years, many outstanding people turned to pedagogical theory and activity: Pirogov N.I. (famous surgeon, public figure, teacher), Ushinsky K.D., Tolstoy L.N. etc. For them it was the time of the most intensive innovative work. Many interesting figures became involved in the problems of pedagogy and pedagogical work in various provinces of Russia. With the light hand of N.I. Pirogov began a lively discussion in the press about the problem of human upbringing and other pedagogical issues: “What should a school be like? What should her program be? Class or non-class school? What to teach at school? How to train a teacher?”, and many others.

The main attention of society at this time was drawn to the public school, which, one might say, did not exist in the empire. The parochial schools were obliged to be maintained by the peasants and landowners themselves, so they developed very poorly. The villagers were still taught to read and write by sextons, pilgrims and similar people.

Public schools were subordinate to different departments:

Ministry of State Property;

Ministry of the Court;

Ministry of Internal Affairs;

Holy Synod (more than half of all schools);

Ministry of Public Education (it accounted for about 20% of schools).

The abolition of serfdom necessitated the opening of schools for all segments of the population: peasants and landowners, city residents. The injustice of class policies in the field of education and restrictions on women's education became obvious. The insufficiency of secondary education based on classicism was revealed. The need for the development of domestic pedagogical science began to be acutely realized; a need arose for pedagogical periodicals, new educational books, and the development of new teaching methods. The training of teachers for different types of schools, the creation of the schools themselves - all these were pressing problems of the mid-19th century.

In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were developed. According to it, public schools could be opened by various government departments, societies, and private individuals, who themselves decided on whether they would be paid or free of charge. The purpose of public schools is “to establish religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge.” Subjects of teaching: The Law of God, reading (civil and ecclesiastical books), writing, four operations of arithmetic, church singing. Public schools were under the jurisdiction of district and provincial school councils.

In 1864, the “Charter of Gymnasiums and Pro-Gymnasiums” was introduced. Two types of gymnasiums were established: classical and real. The purpose of “classical” is to provide the general education necessary for admission to university and other higher specialized educational institutions. “Real gymnasiums” did not give the right to enter universities. There were also “pro-gymnasiums” - the initial stage of the gymnasium. Pedagogical councils received greater rights: they could approve teaching programs and choose textbooks.

In 1860, the “Regulations on women's schools of the department of the Ministry of Public Education” were published. Two types of classless women's schools were established:

I category - 6 years of study;

II category - 3 years of study.

Their goal is “to inform students of the religious, moral and mental education that should be required from every woman, especially from the future wife and mother of the family.” They could be opened by private individuals and societies. The curriculum of first-class women's schools included: the Law of God, the Russian language, grammar and literature, arithmetic and concepts of measurements, general and Russian geography, history, principles of natural science and physics, penmanship and handicrafts.

In 1863, the “University Charter” was introduced, granting some autonomy to universities - a University Council was created, which supervised all educational work, and at which the rector was elected. Strict restrictions on the activities of universities established under Nicholas I were partially lifted, but the university remained subordinate to the trustee of the educational district and the Ministry of Public Education. Women were not allowed into the university. The universities had 4 faculties: history and philology, physics and mathematics (with a natural sciences department), law and medicine. Many new departments have opened.

“Zemstvos” created in the 60s received the right to open educational institutions; they also had to deal with their material support. Zemstvos developed plans for universal education, opened schools, held courses and congresses for teachers, developed new programs and textbooks, and created teacher seminaries (before 1917, about 1/3 of primary rural schools were zemstvo).

Literature in the 19th century

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated with the rapid flowering of culture. Spiritual uplift and important historical processes are reflected in the immortal works of writers and poets. This article is dedicated to representatives of the Golden Age of Russian literature and the main trends of this period. Historical events Literature in the 19th century in Russia gave birth to such great names as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Fet, Yazykov, Tyutchev. And above all Pushkin. A number of historical events marked this period. The development of Russian prose and poetry was influenced by the Patriotic War of 1812, the death of the great Napoleon, and the passing of Byron. The English poet, like the French commander, for a long time dominated the minds of revolutionary-minded people in Russia. The Decembrist uprising and the Russian-Turkish War, as well as the echoes of the French Revolution that were heard in all corners of Europe - all these events turned into a powerful catalyst for advanced creative thought. While in Western countries they carried out revolutionary movements and the spirit of freedom and equality began to emerge, Russia strengthened its monarchical power, executing the Decembrists and suppressing uprisings. This could not go unnoticed by artists, writers and poets. Literature of the early 19th century in Russia is a reflection of the thoughts and experiences of the advanced strata of society. Classicism This aesthetic movement is understood as an artistic style that originated in European culture in the second half of the 18th century. Its main features are rationalism and adherence to strict canons. Classicism of the 19th century in Russia was also distinguished by its appeal to ancient forms and the principle of three unities. Literature, however, in this artistic style began to lose ground already at the beginning of the century. Classicism was gradually replaced by such movements as sentimentalism and romanticism. Masters of artistic expression began to create their works in new genres. Works in the style of historical novel, romantic story, ballad, ode, poem, landscape, philosophical and love lyrics. Realism Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated primarily with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Closer to the thirties, realistic prose took a strong position in his work. It should be said that the ancestor of this literary direction in Russia it is Pushkin. Journalism and satire Some features of European culture of the 18th century were inherited by the literature of the 19th century in Russia. We can briefly outline the main features of poetry and prose of this period - satirical nature and journalisticism. The tendency to depict human vices and shortcomings of society is observed in the works of writers who created their works in the forties. In literary criticism, a literary movement was later defined that united the authors of satirical and journalistic prose. “Natural school” was the name of this artistic style, which, however, is also called “Gogol’s school.” Other representatives of this literary movement are Nekrasov, Dal, Herzen, Turgenev. Criticism The ideology of the “natural school” was substantiated by the critic Belinsky. The principles of the representatives of this literary movement became the denunciation and eradication of vices. Social issues became a characteristic feature of their work. The main genres are essay, socio-psychological novel and social story. Literature in the 19th century in Russia developed under the influence of the activities of various associations. It was in the first quarter of this century that there was a significant rise in the journalistic field. Belinsky had a huge influence on literary processes. This man had an extraordinary ability to sense the poetic gift. It was he who was the first to recognize the talent of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky. Pushkin and Gogol Literature of the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia would have been completely different and, of course, not so bright without these two authors. They had a huge influence on the development of prose. And many of the elements that they introduced into literature have become classical norms. Pushkin and Gogol not only developed such a direction as realism, but also created completely new artistic types. One of them is the image of the “little man,” which later received its development not only in the works of Russian authors, but also in foreign literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Lermontov This poet also had a significant influence on the development of Russian literature. After all, it was he who created the concept of “hero of time.” With his light hand, it entered not only literary criticism, but also public life. Lermontov also took part in the development of the psychological novel genre. The entire period of the nineteenth century is famous for the names of talented great personalities who worked in the field of literature (both prose and poetry). Russian authors at the end of the eighteenth century adopted some of the merits of their Western colleagues. But due to a sharp leap in the development of culture and art, Russian classical literature eventually became an order of magnitude higher than the Western European literature that existed at that time. The works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Gogol have become the property of world culture. The works of Russian writers became the model on which German, English and American authors later relied.

MUSIC OF THE 19TH CENTURY

Music occupied a special place in life Russian society first half of the 19th century Musical education was a necessary component of the upbringing and enlightenment of a young man. The musical life of Russia was quite rich. In 1802 the Russian Philharmonic Society was founded. Sheet music becomes available to the general public.

Interest in chamber and public concerts has increased in society. The musical evenings held by A.A. Delvig, V.F. Odoevsky, and in the literary salon of Z.A. Volkonskaya especially attracted the attention of many composers, writers, and artists. The summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk, which began to be organized in 1838, when the railway from St. Petersburg was built here, enjoyed great success among the public. The Austrian composer and conductor I. Strauss performed at these concerts several times.
In the first decades of the 19th century. Chamber vocal music became widespread. Listeners were especially fond of the romances of A.A. Alyabiev (“The Nightingale”), A.E. Varlamov (“Red Sundress”, “There is a snowstorm along the street...”, etc.), (romances, songs in folk style - “Bell”, “The blue-winged swallow flutters...” A.L. Gurilev).
The operatic repertoire of Russian theaters at the beginning of the century consisted mainly of works by French and Italian composers. Russian opera developed mainly in the epic genre. The best representative of this trend was A.N. Verstovsky, the author of the opera “Askold’s Grave” (1835), as well as several musical ballads and romances (“Black Shawl”, etc.). The operas and ballads of A.N. Verstovsky were influenced by romanticism. The opera “Askold’s Grave” reflected the appeal to historical subjects and epics, which was characteristic of romantic art, which recorded the people’s understanding of their past.
It was possible to approach the level of the great works of Western European composers - Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and others only on the basis of a deep mastery of folk-national melodicism with its simultaneous transformation in line with the main achievements of European musical culture. This work began in the 18th century. (E. Formin,
F. Dubyansky, M. Sokolovsky) and continued successfully in the first decades of the 19th century. A. Alyabyev, A. Gurilev, A. Varlamov, A. Verstovsky. However, the beginning of a new (classical) period in the development of Russian music is associated with the name of M.I. Glinka.
M.I. Glinka (1804-1857) belonged to a noble family from the Smolensk province. Glinka received his first musical impressions from his uncle's serf orchestra. Russian folk songs heard in childhood had a great influence on the character of Glinka's musical works. In the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century. Glinka created a number of outstanding vocal works, including such romances as “Night Zephyr” (poems by A.S. Pushkin, 1834), “Doubt” (1838), “I remember a wonderful moment...” (1840). An outstanding event in the musical life of Russia was the production in 1836 of the opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”). In the person of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, the composer showed the greatness of the common people, their courage and resilience. Glinka's innovation was that the representative of the Russian people, the Russian peasant, became the central figure of the musical narrative. Folk-heroic pathos was vividly embodied on the basis of virtuosic technique and a wide variety of vocal and instrumental parts. The opera “A Life for the Tsar” became the first classical Russian opera, which marked the beginning of the worldwide recognition of Russian music. High society greeted the opera rather dryly, but true connoisseurs of art enthusiastically greeted the performance. Fans of the opera were A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky, V.F. Odoevsky and others.
Following the first opera, Glinka wrote the second - “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1842) based on the fairy tale by A.S. Pushkin. Based on Pushkin's poems, Glinka wrote a number of wonderful romances, which are still widely known today. The romance “I Remember a Wonderful Moment” convinces how close Glinka’s musical style was to Pushkin’s lyrics. Glinka was the author of instrumental plays and the symphonic poem “Kamarinskaya”.
It is difficult to overestimate Glinka's contribution to the development of Russian national music. Glinka is the founder of the genres of domestic professional music. He created the national Russian opera, the Russian romance. Glinka was the first Russian musical classicist. He was the founder of the national school of music.
Another remarkable composer was A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869) - a student of M.I. Glinka. His work is characterized by great dramatic tension (opera “Rusalka”, 1856). Dargomyzhsky took stories from everyday life and chose ordinary people as his heroes. The Russian intelligentsia welcomed Dargomyzhsky's opera
“Rusalka,” which depicted the bitter fate of a peasant girl deceived by the prince. This work was in tune with the public sentiments of the pre-reform era. Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music. He introduced new techniques and means of musical expression into it. It was in Dargomyzhsky’s opera “The Stone Guest” that an impressive melodic recitative appeared. The declamatory form of singing had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian opera.
History of music of the first half of the 19th century. indicates that there is further development of genres, the emergence of new techniques and means of musical expression, and the development of the musical heritage of the people. The main result of this period is the emergence of musical classics, the creation of the Russian national school in music:

19th century architecture

The architecture of the 19th century is a rich heritage of the entire world society. What enormous significance are such buildings as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in the capital or the General Staff in St. Petersburg! Without these structures, we can no longer imagine the architectural ensemble of these cities. Russian architecture of the 19th century is characterized by such trends as classicism, empire style - the last stage in the development of classicism, as well as the Russian-Byzantine style. What belongs to each of these directions? Let's figure it out now. Classicism is an appeal to antiquity, which means majestic buildings, most often with columns. The architecture of the 19th century in this direction was represented by the following buildings. St. Petersburg: The Smolny Institute and the building of the Academy of Sciences were built by Quarenghi. Perhaps these are the only 19th century buildings in this style. Moscow: here it is impossible not to mention the Triumphal Gate, the Bolshoi Theater building, the Manezh and the Alexander Garden - these are the buildings without which our capital will not be the same. The architecture of Moscow in the 19th century in the classicist style was represented by such outstanding architects as Beauvais and Gilardi. The Bolshoi Theater is a symbol of Russian art and the cultural life of the people to this day, and the Triumphal Gate, erected in honor of the victory over Napoleon, creates an image of the greatness and power of our Motherland. The works of Gilardi include the Council of Guardians and the Kuzminki estate. Empire style is the next trend in 19th century architecture. This is the last stage in the development of classicism. The style is represented in large numbers on the streets of Russia's cultural capital: Zakharov rebuilt the Admiralty, the spire of which is one of the symbols of the city; The Kazan Voronikhin Cathedral is a symbol of Nevsky Prospect, and the Mining Institute is the pinnacle of development of this direction. K. Rossi is one of the greatest architects of Old Palmyra, his Mikhailovsky Palace became the Russian Museum - a repository of all the artistic traditions of our country. The General Staff building, the Senate and Synod buildings - all this is not just an architectural ensemble of the city, but is also an integral part of history. The great brainchild of Montferrand is St. Isaac's Cathedral. It’s simply impossible not to fall in love with this large, majestic building: all the details and decorations of the cathedral make you freeze with delight. Another work of art by this architect was the Alexander Column. The architecture of the 19th century was also represented by the Russian-Byzantine style, widespread mainly in Moscow. The most famous are the following buildings: the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the famous Armory Chamber completed the Kremlin (architect Ton). The Sherwood Historical Museum has made Red Square an even more significant place. Thus, 19th century architecture in Russia is more than buildings. These buildings left their mark on history; great deeds were accomplished in their premises and important issues were resolved. We cannot imagine our country without these architectural monuments.

In the first half of the 19th century, an education system and pedagogical thought were formed, designed to meet the new economic and spiritual needs of civil society. Thanks to university education, an intellectual elite was formed that made a significant contribution to the development of pedagogical thought in Russia.

In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was organized. Its first minister was P.V. Zavadovsky, who headed the Commission for the Establishment of Schools under Catherine II. During 1802-1804. There was a reform of public education. The reorganization of the national education system began with the adoption in 1803 of the “Preliminary Rules of Public Education” and in 1804 of the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities”. The charter provided for the transformation of main and small public schools. The new system provided for four levels of education:

· Universities (highest level)

· Gymnasiums (secondary level)

· District schools (intermediate level)

· Parochial schools (primary level).

Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were headed by school district trustees.

The responsibilities of the trustee are the opening of a university or the transformation of an existing one on a new basis, the management of educational institutions in the district through the rector of the university.

The rector of the university was elected by professors at a general meeting and reported to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.

The directors of the gymnasiums (in each provincial city), in addition to their management, managed all the schools in the given province. The superintendents of district schools were subordinate to them; the latter led all parish schools.

Thus, the head of the higher level school was the administrator of the lower level schools. As a result, an education administration was created from specialists who knew the business.

The gymnasium provided a completed secondary education and prepared for entering the university. The content of the training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign modern and Latin languages, mathematics, geography and general and Russian history, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. There was no native language and domestic literature, the Law of God.

District schools prepared students to continue their education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. The curriculum included many subjects - from the Law of God to drawing (sacred history, reading a book about the positions of man and citizen, geography, history, etc.).

The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy workload for teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. All this was unrealistic.

Teachers were required to use only recommended textbooks.

Parochial schools could be opened in provincial, district cities and in villages at each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for studying at a district school and to give children general education knowledge (both boys and girls could study). Subjects of study: God's Law and moral teaching, reading, writing, first operations of arithmetic.

There had to be continuity between the steps. Six districts were created, each of which was to have a university and adjacent secondary educational institutions. Education in parish schools lasted one year, and in district schools for two years. The program of the latter included 15 academic disciplines: Russian grammar, geography, history, arithmetic, geometry, physics, natural science, beginnings of technology, etc. The course of gymnasium education was four years. The program included Latin, geography, history, statistics, logic, poetry, Russian literature, mathematics, zoology, mineralogy, commerce, technology, etc. The theology and Russian language were not included in the program.

In 1808, the Law of God was introduced into gymnasiums. Private educational institutions emerge: Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa; Yaroslavl Lyceum; Lazarevsky Institute of Oriental Languages ​​in Moscow, etc. The first object of reform was higher school. New universities are appearing: Kharkov, Kazan, St. Petersburg.

The transformation of former gymnasiums, main public schools into gymnasiums of a new type, and small public schools into district schools lasted almost two decades. The documents confirmed the advanced direction of secular education, the continuity of the education system, and the humanistic tasks of education:

· “accustoming” students to hard work;

· inciting a desire to learn in students;

· education of honesty and good morals, correction of “bad” inclinations.

The Decembrists played a significant role in the formation of private primary educational institutions. Decembrists F.P. Glinka, F.N. Tolstoy, S.P. Trubetskoy and others united in the Free Society for the Establishment of Schools using the method of mutual teaching (developed by English teachers A. Bell and J. Lancaster). Over the course of four years (1818 - 1822), four such schools were opened in St. Petersburg. At the same time, soldiers' literacy schools were established.

Many nobles preferred to educate their children in private boarding schools, where foreigners usually provided education. In many boarding schools, education was delivered extremely unsatisfactorily. The role of private boarding education was weakened by the establishment of Lyceums - state closed educational institutions for the nobility.

A special role in their creation, in particular in the organization of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, was played by the statesman M.M. Speransky. Lyceum students received an education equivalent to a university one. Home education continued to prevail among the nobility, although the results of such education became increasingly unacceptable.

Prince Alexander Nikolaevich Golitsin exercised significant influence in determining school policy. In December 1812, he became the first head of the Russian Bible Society, which founded several primary schools for the poor, modeled on the schools of J. Lancaster (England). In 1816 A.N. Golitsin headed the Ministry of Education. A manifesto was issued on the creation of the Ministry of Public Education and Spiritual Affairs, which, in essence, meant a blow to secular education. Universities were supposed to train theological teachers for secondary schools. An associate of the minister, M.L. Magnitsky, prepared instructions for universities, which proved that truths based on reason alone: ​​“the essence is only selfishness and hidden pride.” Under the Minister of Education A.S. Shishkov there was a return to national Orthodoxy. True enlightenment, in his opinion, lies in the fear of God. Shishkov pursued the goal of limiting scientific education.

During the reign of Nicholas I, there were attempts to develop a school policy aimed at strengthening social stability. In 1828, Count Lieven was appointed Minister of Education, under which a new Charter on primary and secondary schools was adopted (1828).

The charter confirmed the existing four-stage education system and proclaimed the principle that each class has its own level of education:

1. Parochial schools for the lower classes

2. District schools for children of merchants, artisans, and other urban inhabitants

3. Gymnasiums for officials and children of nobles.

The type of education had to correspond to the social status and future of the student. School life took place under the strict supervision of the headmaster and the police. Misdemeanors were subject to penalties: rods, exile as soldiers, expulsion from school, and for teachers - dismissal from service, arrest.

Children of serfs and serfs were not allowed to attend the university: they could study in parish and district schools, various technical and industrial schools. Lieven failed to fulfill the strategic objectives of protective school policy.

Since 1830, a new social group has been formed - commoners, who become carriers of ideas for the reconstruction of society (intelligentsia). In 1830-1850 In the field of education, two main development trends have emerged:

1. manifestation of official policy in the style of authoritarianism and nationalism.

2. democratic aspirations of society.

In 1833 he was replaced by S.S. Uvarov (Minister of Education until 1849). Since 1818, Uvarov headed the Academy of Sciences. He participated in the reorganization of the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute into a university. Uvarov's formula was of a conservative protective nature. The first two principles:

· Orthodoxy

autocracy

corresponded to the idea of ​​statehood Russian politics, and the principle:

· nationalities

corresponded to the idea of ​​national revival.

For the first time, the government asked the question whether it was possible to combine the world school experience with the traditions of national life? The government was confident in its right to manage school affairs. The idea of ​​freedom of enlightenment and education was alien to him. That is why, under Uvarov, documents like the university charter (1835) appeared, which strengthened the sole power of district trustees and curtailed the autonomy of universities, as well as a resolution depriving universities of the right to elect a rector (1849). S.S. Uvarov’s instructions were reactionary. aimed at making it difficult for low-income commoners to enter universities by increasing tuition fees. But, despite this, special closed educational institutions for nobles are being developed. Gymnasiums developed as schools of classical education. In 1849, natural science was introduced, with particular importance given to Greek and Latin. Other ministries were also involved in the organization of secondary education. In 1839, the Ministry of Finance opened several real classes in gymnasiums in Tula, Kursk, Riga, etc. The Ministry of Justice organized gymnasium courses in jurisprudence in Vilno, Voronezh, Moscow, Smolensk. The Ministry of State Property opens several schools for peasants.

In 1848 - 1852 Three types of gymnasiums were created:

· With two ancient languages

· With training in natural science, law

· With training in law.

The role of private educational institutions under the control of the Ministry of Education is increasing. Teachers of these educational institutions received the same rights, status, wage subsidies and pensions as teachers public schools. Universities have become important centers of educational science. Departments of pedagogy appeared (1851 Moscow University). Sergei Semenovich Uvarov maintained the scheme for training domestic professors at universities in Western Europe.

In the first half of 1800 The minds of teachers were occupied by the idea of ​​national education and training. In a significant part of educated circles, education and training were considered as conditions for the mental and moral formation of civil society.

So M.M. Speransky, a supporter of universal education, proceeded from the fact that rule on a legal basis is possible only in an enlightened country. The theory of “official nationality” understood nationality as the original infallibility of the Russian people; the correctness of his faith; his inner strength, manifested in the defense of the sovereign and the fatherland in difficult moments.

In the mid 1800s. A sharp debate developed between Westerners and Slavophiles on issues of education and upbringing.

V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, V.F. Odoevsky and others warmly welcomed Western European education and were indignant at the class-serf traditions of Russia in education and training. They defended the individual's rights to self-realization. The Slavophiles were also not united in their views. They proceeded from the conviction of the originality of the historical path of the Russian people. The Slavophiles considered the basis of folk, national education:

· religiosity

· love for one's neighbor

morality

Prominent ideologists of Slavophilism in matters of education were: I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1865), A.S. Khomyakov (1804-1860), S.P. Shevyrev (1806-1864).

At the end of the 18th and early XIX century, the most important world-historical events took place. V.I. Lenin called this time the era of bourgeois-democratic movements in general, “bourgeois-national ones in particular,” the era of “the rapid breakdown of outlived feudal-absolutist institutions.”
The Patriotic War of 1812, which saved Europe from the rule of Napoleon, the rise of the national liberation movement in the West under the influence of this war, events in Spain, the uprising in Greece, the action of the noble Decembrist revolutionaries against the autocratic serfdom system - this is a short list of these most important world historical events. events.
In all European countries at this time there was a struggle of advanced forces against feudalism for the establishment of a more progressive bourgeois system at that time.

Creation in Russia state system school education. Due to historical conditions that required the breakdown of feudal-absolutist institutions, “monarchs flirted with liberalism.” In Russia, the tsarist government, forced under the influence of the emerging crisis of serfdom to make concessions to public opinion, carried out an educational reform.
The accession of Alexander I was accompanied by the replacement of an outdated system government controlled- collegiums - ministries that were more in line with the requirements of the time. While reorganizing the state apparatus, the government retained, however, the foundations of the autocratic-serf system. It only renovated its external façade.
Among other ministries organized by the tsarist government in 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created. The name of this body of the tsarist bureaucratic apparatus “people’s” was suggested to the government by advanced Russian people, who naively hoped to direct the activities of the government bureaucracy to satisfy the public interests in the field of education. Of course, the Ministry of Education, hypocritically called the people's ministry, carried out, like all other ministries, the class interests of the feudal landowners and their stronghold - the autocratic government.
In 1803, the “Preliminary Rules for Public Education” were published, and then, in 1804, the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities.” Leading figures of Russian culture were also involved in their development. These documents formalized a new school education system consisting of four types of educational institutions: parish school, district school, gymnasium and university. It was more consistent with the emerging process of development of capitalist relations than the previous system.
According to the adopted charter, Russia was divided into six educational districts: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov, Vilna and Dorpat. Universities were placed at the head of each educational district.
By this time, there were three universities in Russia: in Moscow, Dorpat (now Tartu) and Vilno - and universities were to open in St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kharkov. Along with scientific and educational functions, universities were also assigned administrative and pedagogical functions. They were supposed to manage all educational institutions in their district, in connection with which school committees were created under the university councils and university professors were supposed to serve as methodologists and inspectors (“visitors”).
A strict bureaucratic dependence of the lower levels of the public education system on the higher ones was established: parish schools were subordinate to the superintendent of the district school, district schools to the director of the gymnasium, gymnasiums to the rector of the university, and the university to the trustee of the educational district.
Parish schools with a one-year course of study could be established in all parishes of cities and villages. The purpose of parish schools was, firstly, to prepare students for district schools, and secondly, to give children of the lower strata of the population religious education and reading, writing and arithmetic skills. The government did not allocate funds for these schools, so they hardly developed.
The curriculum of parish schools included the following educational subjects: the law of God and moral teaching, reading, writing, the first operations of arithmetic, as well as reading some sections from the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” which since 1786 has been used in public schools as an official manual, designed to instill a sense of devotion to the autocracy. School classes were supposed to be held 9 hours a week.
District schools with a two-year period of study were created one at a time in provincial and district cities, and if funds were available, in larger numbers. In cities, small schools were transformed into district schools.
The purpose of the district schools was, firstly, to prepare students for admission to the gymnasium, and secondly, to impart to the children of the unprivileged free classes “the necessary knowledge, consistent with their state and industry.”
The curriculum of district schools included the law of God, the study of the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” Russian grammar, and where the population uses another language, in addition to this, the grammar of the local language, general and Russian geography, general and Russian history, arithmetic, basic rules of geometry, basic rules of physics and natural history, basic rules of technology related to the economy of the region and its industry, drawing - a total of 15 academic subjects. Such multi-subjects created an unbearable burden for students. All subjects were taught by two teachers; their weekly workload was 28 hours. Each teacher was required to teach 7-8 subjects.
District schools were better funded than small schools. While small schools were supported by donations collected by orders of public charity, district schools were partially supported by the state budget, as well as by local fees, by taxing the population. This had a positive effect on the growth in the number of district schools.
Gymnasiums were established in each provincial city on the basis of the main public schools, and where they did not exist, new secondary schools should be opened. The course of study at the gymnasium lasted four years. The purpose of the gymnasiums, intended for nobles and officials, was, firstly, preparation for the university, and secondly, teaching science to those who “wish to acquire the information necessary for a well-bred person.”
The gymnasium curriculum was extremely extensive and encyclopedic. It included Latin, German and French languages, geography and history, general statistics and Russian state, initial course of philosophical (metaphysics, logic, morality) and fine sciences (literature, theory of poetry, aesthetics), mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry), physics, natural history (mineralogy, botany, zoology), commerce theory, technology and drawing .
The gymnasium proposed to have eight teachers and an art teacher, with a workload of 16 to 20 weekly hours. Each teacher taught a cycle of subjects: philosophical and fine sciences, physical and mathematical disciplines, economic sciences. This created better conditions for the educational work of secondary school teachers for the privileged population compared to district schools designed for ordinary people.
There was no God's law in the gymnasium curriculum. This was the result of the influence of advanced Russian people on the charter of 1804. At the same time, the Russian language was not supposed to be taught in gymnasiums, which is explained by the disdain for the Russian people that was inherent in the bureaucracy.
Just as in the charter of public schools of 1786, the teaching of academic subjects was recommended to be connected with life. Thus, a mathematics and physics teacher had to take students on walks, show them mills and various machines located at local enterprises. The natural history teacher collected minerals, herbs, and soil samples with the students, explaining to the students their “properties and distinctive features.”
For the purpose of visual teaching, it was recommended that high schools have a library, geographical maps and atlases, globes, “a collection of natural things from all three kingdoms of nature,” drawings and models of machines, geometric and geodetic instruments, and visual aids for physics lessons.
Gymnasiums were placed in better material conditions compared to district and especially parish schools serving the masses. The state took full responsibility for the maintenance of the gymnasiums. Young men of noble origin who graduated from gymnasiums had broad rights to occupy various government positions. Tax-paying people could be approved as teachers (in primary and secondary schools) after graduating from high school only by decision of the Senate.
Universities constituted the highest level of the public education system; those who had knowledge in the scope of a gymnasium course entered them. By making concessions to the scientists who participated in drawing up the statutes, the tsarist government gave the universities some autonomy. Universities were governed by elected councils; professors also elected rector and deans. They were allowed to create scientific societies, have printing houses, publish newspapers, magazines, educational and scientific literature. Professors were recommended to use humane measures towards students. Students could create various societies, circles, and organize friendly gatherings.
But the main task of universities was to train officials for all branches of public service, including in the field of education. Although the availability of school for all classes was proclaimed and it was not mentioned that belonging to the serf class was an obstacle to enrolling in school, a class-based system of public education was actually created. At the same time, this system also had some features characteristic of a bourgeois school: continuity of school programs, free education at all levels, formal accessibility of schools for children belonging to free classes. But the government tried in every possible way to ensure that the newly created system did not violate the foundations of the class-serf system. Thus, some time after the publication of the charter, the minister explained that it was not permitted to admit children of serfs to the gymnasium.
The “method of teaching”, developed in the 80s of the 18th century by the commission of public schools, was introduced into educational institutions. All teachers were instructed to use the organization and teaching methods that were recommended in the book “Manual for Teachers of Public Schools.” As before, no deviations from the rules of official didactics were allowed. In the charter of 1804, as in the charter of 1786, teachers were considered as officials. The tsarist government did not recognize their right to pedagogical creativity.

Development of the school in the first quarter of the 19th century. Despite the many difficulties caused by the existence of the estate-serf system, schooling in the country was steadily developing. This was facilitated by the development of capitalist relations, population growth, especially urban population, the need for literacy, and the activities of advanced scientists and teachers. By the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, there were 47 provincial cities in Russia and almost all of them had gymnasiums, district and parish schools. In district towns there were district, parish and small schools.
The development of schools in St. Petersburg and Moscow proceeded much faster than in other cities. However, there were few schools in the capitals either: in Moscow there were 20, and in St. Petersburg only 17. All of them, with the exception of gymnasiums (one each in Moscow and St. Petersburg), were overcrowded with students. The government did not release funds to create the network of schools needed by the population in the capitals. As for rural areas, there were almost no schools; serfdom prevented their creation.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Ministry of Public Education carried out work to create textbooks for gymnasiums, and in some subjects for district schools. Foreign professors who taught at Russian universities were primarily involved in their creation. Educational manuals, which were compiled by Russian scientists, were often not allowed into schools by the ministry.
However, universities, especially Moscow, published many educational literature. Due to the vastness of the country and the lack of railways, books published by the Ministry of Education in the center of the country rarely reached the provinces, and often, contrary to official decisions, teaching in local schools was carried out according to university publications.
By the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, the government was increasingly moving away from the liberal provisions of the charter of 1804 and was taking measures to use the public education system to spread autocratic-serfdom ideology among the people. Since 1811, the law of God was introduced in all educational institutions.
After the Patriotic War of 1812, when freedom-loving sentiments began to intensify, secret societies of Decembrists arose, and advanced ideas began to penetrate schools. Forbidden literature was distributed in educational institutions: poems by Pushkin, Griboedov and the Decembrist poets - Ryleev, Odoevsky and others, in which a high civic, patriotic feeling was glorified, the desire to devote oneself to serving the motherland and the fight against tyrants. In some schools, progressive teachers told students about the injustice of serfdom and the dark sides of Russian reality.
The teaching of national history played a major role in the spread of anti-government sentiments. Vivid impressions of heroic episodes people's war 1812 forced us to rethink the question of the role of the people in the history of the Russian state. In some educational institutions, the history and literature of ancient peoples were allegorically interpreted, and republican and anti-serfdom ideas were preached. The love of freedom of the Greeks and Romans was emphasized, it was pointed out that “Rome grew by freedom, but was destroyed by slavery” (Pushkin).
In response to growing public discontent and unrest in the country among peasants, Cossacks, soldiers and serf workers, the tsarist government established the Arakcheev regime.
At that time, the tsar's decrees declared that children of serfs should not be admitted to gymnasiums, institutes, and universities. In order to make it difficult for ordinary people to study in schools, tuition fees were introduced in parish, district schools and gymnasiums in 1819.
In order to strengthen religious education in schools, the Ministry of Public Education was reorganized in 1817 into the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (it was reorganized again in 1824). A.P. Golitsyn was appointed head of the unified ministry; he was also the president of the Russian Bible Society. The goal of the ministry was “to base public education on piety in accordance with the act of the Holy Alliance.” The “Holy Alliance” united major European states in 1815 to suppress revolutions and free-thinking peoples.
The activities of the new ministry were primarily aimed at strengthening religious education. In 1819, the curricula of all schools were changed, “reading from the Holy Scriptures” was introduced, and the teaching of natural science was prohibited.
Academic subjects that could contribute to the development of “freedom-loving” sentiments in students, such as philosophy, political economy, natural law, and aesthetics, were excluded from the gymnasium course.
The reaction against universities was especially vehement. In 1819, the Simbirsk governor and president of the local biblical society, Magnitsky, made a pogrom attack on the scientific and educational activities of Russian and Western European universities. He wrote that “professors of godless universities transmit the subtle poison of disbelief and hatred of legitimate authorities to the unfortunate youth, and printing (book printing - M. Sh.) spreads it throughout Europe.” Magnitsky called on the government to finally begin to eradicate this harmful trend, and to “publicly destroy” Kazan University.
Appointed trustee of the Kazan educational district, Magnitsky, using Arakcheev’s methods of school management, drew up instructions to the director and rector of Kazan University, which actually abolished the university charter approved in 1804. This instruction emphasized that the main virtue of a person is obedience to authority and that the instrument of education should be, first of all, religion.
It was proposed to restructure teaching at Kazan University so that philosophy would be taught in the spirit of the apostolic epistles, and political sciences - on the basis of the Old Testament and partly Plato and Aristotle. When studying mathematics, it was recommended to draw students’ attention to the fact that three is a sacred number, and in natural history classes to repeat that all humanity came from Adam and Eve. Magnitsky removed the best professors and progressive teachers from teaching.
Petersburg University, founded in 1819 on the basis of the Pedagogical Institute, suffered the same difficult fate as Kazan University. His professors, who taught courses in philosophical and political sciences, openly spoke in lectures about the injustice of serfdom and the monarchical system of government.
The obscurantist Runich, appointed by the government to deal with St. Petersburg University, removed leading professors from their posts, expelled some students, applied instructions drawn up by Magnitsky at the university, and introduced Arakcheev’s rules in the territory of the educational district. He also closed the teacher's institute operating at the university, in which creative development of methods for the initial teaching of literacy, arithmetic, history, and geography was underway.

The influence of the Decembrists on pedagogical thought and school in Russia. In their revolutionary struggle against the autocratic-serf system, the Decembrists paid great attention to the cause of public education. One of the program requirements of the Decembrist movement was the spread of literacy among the people. The Decembrists sharply criticized the system of bureaucratic supervision established by the government over the activities of scientists and teachers, and made a strong protest against the constraints and obstacles that tsarist officials caused to the development of culture and science in the country.
Secret Decembrist organizations, like individual Decembrists, were engaged in spreading literacy among soldiers, had a great influence on the schools of military orphan departments for soldiers' children, opened schools on their estates for the children of serfs, and in cities - for the children of the urban poor. They sought the creation of a wide network of public schools, which, in their opinion, should be opened by public forces and free from government control.
In their views on the development of society, the noble revolutionaries were idealists; they considered enlightenment to be the most important factor in the transformation of social relations. But some Decembrists (P.I. Pestel and others) rose to a correct understanding of the dependence of enlightenment on the existing system. They saw the destruction of autocracy and serfdom as a necessary condition for the development of education and the correct organization of education.
The “Russian Truth”, compiled by P. I. Pestel, indicated that education is directly dependent on the conditions of people’s material existence, political freedom and other factors reflecting the nature of the existing social system. Pestel spoke of the need to “correct the government, from which morals will also be corrected.”
The Decembrists believed that in new Russia free from despotism and serfdom, one of the essential rights of all citizens should be the right to education. They believed that the new government should create a wide network of schools for the entire population and exercise daily influence on family education in the interests of society.
The new education should be patriotic, popular in content, accessible to all people and have as its goal the education of a person who has civic virtues, loves his people and devotes all his strength to the prosperity of his homeland. The noble revolutionaries were very indignant at the government's attempts to instill in the younger generations a contemptuous attitude towards everything Russian and admiration for everything foreign. They demanded “domestic education” conducted in the Russian language, which, in their opinion, was clear evidence of “national greatness.” “Woe to society,” wrote one of the Decembrists, “where the virtues and pride of the people have been destroyed by foreign education.”
The Decembrists assigned great responsible tasks to teachers, who were to prepare the younger generation for life in a new, more just society.
Educators, according to the noble revolutionaries, should be people “experienced in virtue, known for their love of the fatherland, filled with national pride, and hating foreign influence. They must, by describing the virtues of great people of all nations, instill in the hearts of their pupils a desire to imitate them.”
The noble revolutionaries strongly supported advanced methods of teaching children, opposed rote memorization by students of the material being studied, against cramming and drills. They demanded an organization and teaching methods that would enable students to become familiar with the facts and phenomena themselves and ensure their independent mental activity.
Decembrist Yakushkin, who opened a school in the city of Yalutorovsk after serving hard labor, said that “when teaching any subject, the teacher does not communicate any concept about this subject to his student: he can only through skillful teaching ... contribute to the understanding of the student himself.” .
The Decembrists considered the system of mutual education (Lancastrian) as a means of spreading literacy among the people, i.e. schools in which classes were conducted not in classes, but in departments (dozens), education was entrusted to older students who were instructed by school teachers.
While the tsarist government was going to introduce into Russia the developed Western Europe the Lancastrian system of mutual education in order to spread religion and scripture to the masses of the population, the Decembrists created schools of mutual education to spread literacy, knowledge, and in some cases revolutionary propaganda among the people. They organized the “Free Society for the Establishment of Mutual Education Schools” - a solid public organization engaged in the creation of schools for the people, the production of educational literature and books for public reading, the training of teachers, and free medical care for students. This society was, in fact, a pedagogical branch of the Decembrist “Union of Welfare,” and after its dissolution it was in close connection with the “Northern Society” of the Decembrists. Under the influence of the Decembrists, Russian teachers created didactic materials (“tables”) for teaching literacy at this time in St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Moscow, which contained anti-serfdom ideas. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, the Free Society was closed, the tables were confiscated, and the mutual education schools opened by the noble revolutionaries were liquidated.

The policy of the tsarist government in the field of public education after the defeat of the Decembrist uprising. The government of Nicholas I considered one of the reasons for the Decembrist uprising to be the spread of education and blamed science and school, professors and teachers for this.
In 1826, a special Committee for the Organization of Educational Institutions was created, which was supposed to urgently introduce uniformity into the work of educational institutions and make the school education system more capable of introducing autocratic-serfdom ideology into the consciousness of the people. Minister of Education Shishkov said that appropriate measures should be taken to ensure that everything harmful to the government that has crept into the teaching of sciences “is stopped, eradicated and turned to principles based on the purity of faith, on loyalty and duty to the sovereign and the fatherland... All sciences must be cleansed of all harmful speculations that do not belong to them.” At the same time, education must be given “in accordance with the ranks to which students are destined.”
In 1827, Tsar Nicholas I wrote to this committee that the subjects of study in schools, as well as the methods of teaching them, should, together with “general concepts of faith, laws and morality,” help ensure that the student “does not strive to rise excessively” above that class , “in which, according to the ordinary course of affairs, he is destined to remain.” He pointed out that the main task of the school should be to prepare a person to fulfill his class responsibilities.
In 1828, the reactionary “Charter of gymnasiums and schools run by universities” was published. Each type of school acquired a complete character and was intended to serve a specific class. In order to strengthen the class character of the school system, the successive connection between educational institutions, introduced in 1804, was abolished and the access of children of the tax-paying class to secondary and higher schools was greatly hampered.
Parochial schools, designed for boys and girls from the “lowest conditions,” were no longer supposed to prepare them for district schools.
District schools, intended for the children of merchants, artisans, townspeople and other city residents not related to the nobility, have now become three-year educational institutions. They studied the following academic subjects: the law of God, sacred and church history, Russian language, arithmetic, geometry up to stereometry and without proofs, geography, abbreviated general and Russian history, penmanship, drawing and drawing. The teaching of physics and natural science was stopped, and mathematics had to be studied dogmatically. In order to distract children of unprivileged urban classes from entering gymnasiums, it was allowed to open additional courses at district schools, where those who wished to continue their studies could obtain any profession. The government involved the nobility in supervising the activities of teachers.
Gymnasiums, intended for nobles and officials, maintained a continuous connection with universities. They were supposed to provide preparation for university education, as well as graduate young people into life with knowledge “appropriate to their condition.” At the gymnasium they studied literature and logic, the languages ​​Latin, German and French, mathematics, geography and statistics, history, and physics. In gymnasiums located in university cities, it was necessary to study and Greek language.
Thus, the gymnasiums became classical. Classicism at this time was a kind of reaction to the ideas that arose during the French bourgeois revolution.
The Charter of 1828 and further government orders paid particularly close attention to establishing supervision over the activities of educational institutions and introducing cane discipline into them. Tsarism sought to turn all schools into barracks, and pupils and students into soldiers. The use of physical punishment in schools was allowed. In educational institutions, the number of officials who acted as supervisors over the behavior of students and teachers increased.
Along with the increase in school police, there was increased interference in matters of education by provincial and district officials. Since 1831, Caucasian schools have been placed under the supervision of the chief administrator of the Caucasus, and Siberian schools - the governor of Siberia. The Tsarist police carried out the most decisive struggle against home schooling and the activities of private teachers. It was strictly stated that people who had not received a certificate of graduation from a gymnasium or university or had not passed the exam for the right to be mentors could not teach. The main task of education was the preparation of loyal citizens, instilling in students their responsibilities in relation to “God and the authorities placed over them.”
On the outskirts of Russia, tsarist policy was aimed at the Russification of the peoples that were part of the empire.

Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality as the ideological basis of educational policy. The revolution of 1830 in Europe, the Polish uprising of 1830-1831, and mass unrest within Russia led to the strengthening of the reactionary course of the domestic policy of Nicholas I.
In 1833, S.S. Uvarov was appointed Minister of Public Education. Having justified the government program in the matter of education, he stated that it was necessary to “capture the minds of youth,” who should be instilled with “truly Russian protective principles of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality, which constitute the last anchor of our salvation and the surest guarantee of the strength and greatness of our fatherland.”
The introduction of the principles of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality into the school became the main direction in the activities of the Ministry of Education. It was carried out through a persistent struggle against “destructive concepts”, multiplying the “number of mental dams” on the path of youth development, curbing their impulses and aspirations to acquire “luxurious” (i.e. broad) knowledge.
According to the new university charter of 1835, universities were deprived of the right to run schools and create scientific societies. Educational institutions were transferred to the direct jurisdiction of the trustees of educational districts, autonomy in universities was virtually destroyed, and measures were taken to restrict the penetration of commoners into them.
Tsar Nicholas I especially did not like Moscow University, where, despite the strictest regime, revolutionary circles arose. In 1834, a special instruction was approved for the inspector of students at Moscow University, which took police supervision over students to the extreme limits.
The Ministry of Public Education took a number of measures to reduce the volume of gymnasium education. In 1844, statistics was excluded from the gymnasium curriculum, in 1845 the teaching of mathematics was limited, and in 1847 logic was expelled. 41% of class time was devoted to the study of ancient languages: Latin and Greek.
In gymnasiums, punitive measures against students were intensified. If, according to the charter of 1828, the use of physical punishment was allowed for students in the three junior classes, then in 1838 they were introduced for all gymnasium students.
In 1845, Uvarov made a proposal to increase tuition fees in gymnasiums in order to “restrain young men of non-noble origin from seeking an education.” Nicholas I, having approved the minister’s proposal, wrote on his report:
“Moreover, we need to figure out whether there are ways to make it difficult for commoners to access the gymnasium.” The Tsar called for a decisive fight against the craving of the masses for education.
The tsarist government unleashed a new wave of repression on schools after the 1848 revolution in Western European countries. Classicism, introduced into the gymnasium by the charter of 1828, was declared harmful, since it turned out that the study of ancient literature, the history of Greece and Rome, in which there was a republican system of government, interfered with the formation of devotion to the autocratic-serf system in young men. But the real direction of secondary education, based on the study of natural science, frightened the government with the possibility of awakening materialistic ideas in the minds of students. The government has taken the path of combating the general education nature of secondary school.
In 1852, three types of gymnasiums were created, each with a special curriculum: 1) gymnasiums in which ancient languages ​​were preserved, instead of studying ancient literature, reading the works of church writers was introduced; 2) gymnasiums in which the Latin language remained, and instead of academic subjects of the classical cycle, the study of natural science was introduced in a descriptive spirit and with a theological interpretation of natural phenomena; 3) gymnasiums, in which the main attention was paid to teaching a course of so-called jurisprudence, also in a descriptive-empirical spirit and without studying legal theory.
This reform reduced the number of high schools that prepared for university. In secondary educational institutions, differentiated education and preparation for a future specialty were introduced. A special circular ordered the school administration to pay close attention to the ideological direction of teaching, to the way of thinking and behavior of students, to the political good intentions of teachers and educators.
Tuition fees were increased, and it was forbidden to exempt low-income students of non-noble origin from it.
The tsarist government consistently adapted the school to the interests of the nobility and the monarchy.

Development of the school in the second quarter of the 19th century. The anti-people policy of tsarism, aimed at strengthening the class school, still had to adapt to the requirements of the developing capitalist structure. The bloody dictatorship of Nicholas I could not suppress the growing discontent with the autocratic-serf system. If between 1826 and 1834 there were 145 peasant unrest, up to 16 per year, then from 1845 to 1854 there were 348, an average of 35 unrest per year. The autocracy failed to kill the people's desire for enlightenment.
Despite all the restrictions that the monarchy imposed on the development of school affairs in the country, a network of educational institutions is growing in Russia, albeit slowly. primary schools. If by the end of the first quarter of the 19th century there were 349 parish schools, then by 1841 there were 1021, but they were mainly located in cities.
Serf peasants, who were in the possessions of landowners, learned from sextons and home teachers, who used the letter-compound method of teaching literacy and reading the book of hours. In the villages of serfs, schools were supposed to be opened by landowners, but until the 50s of the 19th century there were almost no schools in serf villages. The Ministry of Public Education did not show any concern about creating schools for peasants.
In city, parish and district schools, especially in the central provinces of Russia, new methods and teaching aids, such as the analytical sound method of teaching literacy, visual aids for teaching reading (cut alphabet, alphabet lotto, letters with pictures, etc.).
From the beginning of the 30s, in the villages where state and appanage peasants lived, the department of state property and the appanage department began to create schools. Their task was to teach literacy to peasant children and to train clerks and accountants for institutions that governed the peasants. In these schools, great attention was paid to developing good handwriting in students and mastering mental arithmetic. Russian abacus has become widespread as a visual aid in arithmetic lessons. These schools were supported by public taxes from peasants. Thus, in the period from 1842 to 1858, it was created in the villages state peasants 2975 schools, which in the 40s of the 19th century were the most numerous rural public schools.
Schools for state peasants (by the early 40s of the 19th century there were more than 20 million state peasants in Russia) were handled by the Academic Committee of the Ministry of State Property, in which for about a quarter of a century (1838-1862) a prominent public figure worked as a senior member of the Committee on Public Education activist, writer and musicologist, outstanding teacher and educator Vladimir Fedorovich Odoevsky (1804-1869). He provided pedagogical supervision of the educational activities of rural schools of state peasants.
In rural parish schools of the Ministry of State Property, as well as in schools of some educational districts (St. Petersburg, Kazan), educational manuals, educational and folk reading books created by V. F. Odoevsky were used. These manuals, according to which children learned to read and write, introduced them to basic information from natural science, geography, history, and surrounding activities, contributed to the development of their mental abilities, and expanded the scope of general educational knowledge. In teaching literacy, Odoevsky introduced the sound method instead of the letter subjunctive (“Warehouse Tables,” 1839).
New didactic ideas were also applied in the field of teaching arithmetic. Thus, F.I. Busse, professor of mathematics at the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg, opened in 1828, recommended starting the teaching of arithmetic by teaching children to do mental calculations, mastering the properties of numbers and understanding the concepts of relationships between quantities. Busse's textbooks introduced students to conclusions and rules and focused on their understanding of mathematical phenomena.
In some gymnasiums, competitive written works were held in the Russian language and literature, history, and literary discussions, during which the best works of students were heard and discussed. However, new didactic ideas did not receive support from government bodies, and the best pedagogical experience was not generalized and disseminated among schools. The political tasks of the autocracy were better served by the school of “drill and cramming,” which it tried to instill in the interests of training loyal subjects, obedient servants of the throne.
Growth of the country's productive forces, industry and Agriculture caused some changes in the development of vocational education. Higher technical educational institutions were opened (in 1828 the Technological Institute was opened in St. Petersburg, in 1832 - the Institute of Civil Engineers, the previously existing Mining and Forestry Institutes were transformed). In the provinces, state secondary and lower agricultural (in Western Europe they were mainly private), technical and commercial educational institutions were organized (since 1839, real classes were opened at some gymnasiums and district schools in which technical and commercial sciences were studied).
The tsarist government believed that youth of non-noble origin should be given more practical and craft skills and abilities and less general educational knowledge.

After the all-Russian reform of 1804, a new system of male education was taking shape in the province. In 1805, a gymnasium was opened in the House of Charity for Neighbors. Its first director was A.N. Khomutov. The multi-subject program of the gymnasium was not constant. In the 1st half of the 19th century, the basis of gymnasium education was the teaching of ancient languages, Greek (1834-1852) and, above all, Latin. Mathematics, French and other new languages ​​also played an important role. In the late 1840s, an attempt was made to increase the volume of science in the curriculum, but this was quickly abandoned. In gymnasiums, paid education was introduced in 1817.

At the beginning of the 19th century, on the basis of public schools, district schools appeared in the cities of Yaroslavl, Rostov, Rybinsk, Mologa, Uglich, and then in other cities. This is the middle school level. The lowest level were parochial schools, where reading, writing, arithmetic and religious education skills were taught. Parish schools were created on the personal initiative of the clergy.

In 1805 it opened in Yaroslavl higher sciences school (Demidov Lyceum).

At the beginning of the century, the lack of a serious need for education in society hampered the development of schools. In 1828, its reform was carried out, and the three-stage model ceased to be the norm. Education had a class connotation (gymnasium was mainly, although not exclusively, for nobles, district schools were for the children of merchants and wealthy artisans).

Women's education developed. In 1816, the art teacher at the Yaroslavl gymnasium, Louis Duvernoy, opened an institute for noble maidens here. In 1820, A. Mathien opened a private boarding school for women. Private boarding houses were then opened in Yaroslavl and other cities. All of them were intended for young noblewomen.

In 1828, the first public school, probably in the village, opened in Porechye near Rostov. In 1834, an exemplary parish school was opened in the village of Staroandreevskoye (now Shagot). Prince M.D. Volkonsky opened a school for peasants in 1835 in the village of Maryino (on the Ildi River). Literacy teaching by fellow villagers was widespread. In the middle of the century, I. Aksakov recorded: “The Yaroslavl province has the most literate people. Not to mention the townspeople: among the townsfolk, the illiterate is a rare exception.” In the 1840s, from 12 to 47 percent of boys (an average of 28.7%) studied in schools in the province.

In 1860–1861, 21 Sunday schools were opened by enthusiasts (including a women’s school in Uglich). In 1862 they were closed for critical deviation.

A gymnasium in Rybinsk was added to the men's gymnasium in Yaroslavl (opened in 1875, became full in 1884). Ancient languages ​​dominate their curriculum. Only at the beginning of the 20th century the time for Latin and Greek was reduced in favor of the Russian language and geography.

Until the early 1860s, there were 4 women's schools in the province (in Yaroslavl, Rostov, Rybinsk, Romanov-Borisoglebsk). In 1861, the Mariinsky Women's Gymnasium of a “lightweight type” appeared in Yaroslavl, which was located in the House of Charity for a Neighbor. Its first boss was F.F. Schultz. It was intended “for girls of all classes.” In 1876, instead of the relocated Mariinsky Gymnasium, the Catherine Women's Gymnasium was opened in the House of Charity for Neighbors. By the end of the century, there were 3 girls’ gymnasiums in the province (2 in Yaroslavl, 1 in Rybinsk), and 3 pro-gymnasiums (Rostov, Uglich, Poshekhonye).

In 1880-1886 in Yaroslavl there was a private real school of P.Ya. Morozov with a bias towards natural sciences. A state secondary school will be opened in the city in 1907.

Developing professional education. By the end of the century, there was a teachers' seminary in the village of Novy, Mologsky district, a technical school named after. Komarov in Rybinsk, Sobolevsky vocational school in Yaroslavl, paramedic school in Yaroslavl (since 1873). In 1859, a school for military clerks appeared in Yaroslavl, on the basis of which a military gymnasium emerged (1868/1869 academic year). Subsequently, it was transformed into a military school and on its basis in 1895 a cadet corps was created, located across the Kotorosl River, where cantonist battalions had been located since the 30s of the 19th century.

At the turn of the century, vocational schools appeared: technical school named after. N.P.Pastukhova; a trade school, which will then be transformed into a commercial school named after Yaroslav the Wise; evening drawing classes in Yaroslavl, a river school in Rybinsk, an agricultural school - first in the village. Vakhtino, Danilovsky district, and then in Uglichsky district, a commercial school in the village of Velikoy, a technical school in the village of Sereda, etc.

In the system of theological education, in addition to the seminary, 4 district theological schools emerged - in Yaroslavl, Rostov, Uglich and Poshekhonye (initially in the Hadrian Monastery). There was a religious school in Pereslavl-Zalessky.

In Yaroslavl in 1848, a school for girls of clergy opened. At first it was three-grade, and since 1903 it became six-grade. In 1880, the six-year Jonathan diocesan girls' school appeared. It also trained teachers for parish and zemstvo schools.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the need for education developed. The education system includes the lower level (literacy schools, one-class schools); two-year schools; district schools (there are 6 of them in the province: in Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Rostov, Romanov-Borisoglebsk, Uglich, Mologa). The state, zemstvo and church interact in this arena.

The zemstvo actively met the people's need for education, but its activity was constrained by material resources.

In the 1860s, on the initiative of some priests (and sometimes at their expense), parish schools emerged - for example, in the villages of Voskresensky, Maslovo, Kuzyaev, Myshkinsky district. Archbishop Neil (Isakovich) worked hard on the development of education. In 1884, a system of parochial schools, financed by the ecclesiastical department, was established.

The most common form public school there was a one-class (three-year) school. Here they studied the Law of God, Church Slavonic and Russian languages, arithmetic, calligraphy, sometimes crafts and needlework, and in parochial schools also church singing. In 1896, the first two-year (six-year) parochial schools (teachers' schools) appeared.

Over the last three decades of the 19th century, the number of educational institutions in the province increased almost five times, and the number of students more than five times. By the end of the century there were 1036 schools of the lower type, with about 56 thousand students. At the end of the 19th century, the province was one of the first in the country in the development of primary education, the number of schools, and literacy of the population, competing with the Baltic states, Moscow and St. Petersburg provinces. And in terms of the percentage of literate people, the province was the first among zemstvo provinces. In some districts, almost universal literacy of boys was ensured (especially in Rybinsk, Yaroslavl, Mologsky and Myshkinsky). The highest level of literacy was in the Koprin volost of the Rybinsk district. Among the conscripts, 86, and in some places 100 percent, were literate. In the families of otkhodniks, literacy reached 90 percent.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, the average literacy rate among the male population reached 61.8%, among women - 27.3% (according to the 1897 census, similar indicators for Russia as a whole were 27% and 13%, respectively).

Ermolin E.A.

S. Soloveichik

Earlier it was told how the school became a little like a school. Previously, students studied on their own. There was a buzz in the room (it’s hard to even call it a class): everyone was cramming their stuff, the teacher was asking questions in turn, the rest of the kids continued to do their thing. And at the very end of the eighteenth century, classes appeared, common teaching and one common blackboard for everyone. The teacher became like a conductor who directs the entire class at once: he talks and everyone listens. He writes on the board - everyone opens their notebooks and writes the same thing. All notebooks contain the same problems. The handwriting is different, and the solutions are different (some are correct, others are incorrect), but the problems are the same.
If you compare the current school and the gymnasium of the very beginning of the nineteenth century, it turns out that they have quite similar outlines - the drawings can be superimposed on one another, and they will approximately coincide. But only general outlines! But the details, the colors, the very content of the drawing are all different.
For a hundred years—the entire nineteenth century—the school itself learned to be a school.
Many things that now seem completely simple had to be painfully invented.
For example, what to teach at school? Today, the lesson schedule is familiar: literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, history, foreign language, social studies, biology, drawing, singing, labor lessons.
But even today people argue about which subjects should be studied and which ones should not be studied. And which subjects should be given more lessons, and which ones should be taught less.
Well, for example, physical education lessons - twice a week. Or maybe we need to do them every day and reduce math lessons? Or introduce completely different subjects, say, lessons in logic - the science of the laws of thinking, or lessons in psychology - the science of human mental life...
This is how they argue today; and what happened in the 19th century, when the whole system of objects had not yet been established!
At that time, many teachers thought that the main subjects in school should not be literature, mathematics, or biology, but Latin and ancient Greek.
They were told: “Why learn Latin if no one speaks this language today?”
“Well, so what,” answered the supporters of “classical” education, that is, an education based on the teaching of ancient, already dead languages, “so what? But the Latin language is strict, beautiful, many beautiful things have been written in this language.” books and scientific works. The Latin language itself, of course, is not needed, but it develops the mind and memory...
And so the schoolchildren learned Latin and Greek every day. Almost half of their time (41 percent to be exact) was spent on ancient language lessons!
The parents were indignant. Latin is a very beautiful language, but you can’t fill your heads with Latin alone! Once in Moscow, at the Maly Theater, the artist Musil sang the following verses:

We have a strong focus
One thing is addressed
So that our upbringing
It was done smartly.
And now there is hope
What in a few years
The ignoramuses will come out
From classic heads...

When the artist Musil sang these verses, something unimaginable rose up in the hall: everyone jumped up, stamped their feet, and began shouting:
"Bravo, bravo, encore, encore!" The orchestra wanted to continue, but it was drowned out by shouts - let the artist once again repeat his verse about the round ignoramuses from the classical heads... For almost a whole century there was a struggle: to study or not to study Latin and Ancient Greek? Latin was then abolished, then reintroduced, and even more lessons were given to it, but gradually the “dead” languages ​​were replaced by “real” sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, geography, astronomy. Only after the October Revolution the ancient, “dead” languages ​​were completely abandoned, and the lesson schedule (also, of course, not immediately) became similar to the current one.
What about the marks? The marks weren’t always there like they are today either. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov suggested, for example, putting the following marks:

V.I. - fulfilled everything.
N.U. – didn’t know the lessons.
N.C.W. – didn’t know part of the lesson.
Z.U.N.T. - knew the lessons unsteadily.
N.Z. – did not submit the task.
X. Z. is a bad task.
B.B. was sick.

Other teachers had their own designations, and, in general, one can say that the marks were given by whoever wanted and whoever wanted what. But in 1835, uniformity was introduced: grades “5”, “4”, “3”, “2”, “1” appeared.
It’s scary to even think how many “fives” and “ones” have been given over the past years. Billions, probably!
Maybe someone finds this comforting: what, they say, is my little “D” in such a huge sea of ​​marks?
But it's better to talk about the "fives". Have you noticed that a person who has all “A” grades is not called a “A student” (as, for example, a “B student”), but is called an “Excellent student.” This is because even before the war and at the beginning of the war, grades at school were different: “excellent”, “good”, “mediocre”, “bad” and “very bad”. Hence - “excellent student”, this word remains. In some schools they also say “good student” (a person who has only “A’s” and “B’s”, but no “C’s”). But this word sounds terrible, and it is better not to use it.
In addition to bad grades, there used to be other punishments. We already know that rods in Russian schools were completely abolished in 1864. But the punishment cell - special rooms where careless students were locked after school without lunch - remained until the revolution. The gymnasium authorities especially severely punished those high school students who read “forbidden” literature. In the 20th century, the works of V. G. Belinsky were studied in high school, and articles by Dobrolyubov, Pisarev, and Herzen were read. And before there was an unspoken rule: for reading Belinsky - six hours in a punishment cell, for reading Dobrolyubov - twelve hours the first time, and if you get caught again, then a whole day. And for Pisarev or Herzen - “Amen!” This is what gymnasium students called expulsion from the gymnasium with a “wolf ticket” - without the right to enter another gymnasium.
In general, high school students were monitored very strictly; Under no circumstances were they allowed to appear, for example, on the street later than the established time. Special guards monitored this. In the city of Nemirov, before the First World War, the following incident occurred: two gymnasium guards hid behind a fence and from there, through a crack, they tracked down late gymnasium students. Suddenly they see a high school student riding a bicycle. Not allowed! To the punishment cell! They ran out, caught up, attacked - it turned out that this was not a high school student, but a student, and a lively one at that: he filed a lawsuit against the guards - why do they pester people on the street? And the court sided with the student!
Diligent and successful students were previously awarded with gifts - books, and upon graduation - gold medals. Since 1872, schools have also had a “Red Board”, or, as they would say now, a “Board of Honor”. On this board they hung signs with the names of the best students. By the way, in the same year, 1872, along with textbooks, schoolchildren began to carry diaries in their backpacks to record lessons at home and for teacher notes: the school began to regularly inform the fathers and mothers of its students how classes were going. Until that time, the school contacted parents only in the most extreme cases, when it came to expulsion. And even later, during the revolution of 1905, parent committees began to be created in gymnasiums - parents began to take part in the life of the school. Pedagogical councils, pedagogical councils, appeared, of course, much earlier - in 1827. Or rather, the following order was issued - to create pedagogical advice. But in fact, there were no councils, and the director of the gymnasium ruled alone until the middle of the 19th century, when the great Russian teacher Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov ensured that they worked. There are a lot of memories about the old, pre-revolutionary gymnasium. Probably everyone has read the interesting book by Korney Ivanovich Chukovsky - it’s called “Gymnasium”. And many other books describe how difficult it was to study before, how soulless the order was. One of the former high school students writes, for example, that friendship between teacher and student in the gymnasium was as impossible to imagine as it is impossible to see a lily growing off the shores of the Arctic Ocean.
But, of course, there were many very good teachers and very good gymnasiums.
There were a lot of bad things in school before the revolution, but we must not forget that many outstanding people of our country, great scientists and writers, studied at this same school. Sometimes they say that one or another of the famous people studied poorly at school. That's right, it happened. The grades were not always good, not everyone received gold medals. But everyone worked very hard. And in the end, without teaching, no one great person in the world would not become great!

Drawings by Yu. Vladimirov and F. Terletsky.