How many years ago did the first man appear? How did man appear? The history of human origins. The first people. The process of human formation

Where did the first man appear on our planet? This question has been troubling scientists since the time of Charles Darwin. The question of where the first man appeared is no less of interest to many curious ordinary people. However, this topic is not as simple as it might seem at first glance. The fact is that if you start to understand it in order to adequately answer the question of where the first man appeared, it turns out that there is still no final and generally accepted opinion among either archaeologists or anthropologists. Who is considered a person? Which link in the evolutionary chain suddenly became human, leaving its own parent at the level of monkeys? After all, evolution is not at all

a one-time act, but long-term and very slow transformations. The second difficulty with the question of where the first person appeared lies in the criteria themselves - how to generally separate a person, by what criteria? By upright posture, opposing the thumb, by the use of tools, or still by the volume of the brain? Let's try to sketch a very brief picture of the path of Homo sapiens.

Where did the first people appear?

The answer is in Africa, apparently. According to modern researchers, the lines of modern and immediate separated approximately 8-6 million years ago. It was then that the first upright walking hominids appeared on the planet. Their earliest fossil representative is the creature Sahelantrom. He lived about 6-7 million years ago and already walked on two legs. Of course, it can hardly be called

the oldest man. The rest of his features were still similar to those of apes, but the fact that they had already descended from the branches significantly changed their lifestyle and directed evolution in the right direction. Sahelanthropus was followed by Orrorin (about 6 million years ago), the well-known Australopithecus (about 4 million years ago), and Paranthropus (2.5 million). These are not all the links found by archaeologists and dating back to this long period, but only some representatives of the chain. It is important that each of these hominids had certain progressive features compared to their predecessors. The first hominids that were truly close to the modern type of people were Homo habilis and Homo ergaster (working), which appeared 2.4 and 1.9 million years ago. Like all previous links, these ancestors of today's people lived in Africa - the cradle of humanity. And finally, the truly undisputed people are Homo sapiens, who appeared only 40 thousand years ago. It is interesting that this species of man also arose in Africa, but at the same time Europe was already inhabited by people! People who, according to modern scientists, appeared already in Europe,

however, over time they disappeared from the face of the Earth and are not direct descendants of modern humanity, but only a dead-end branch of evolution. We are talking about the famous Neanderthals, who became extinct for reasons that are not entirely clear about 25 thousand years ago.

Where did the first ancient civilizations appear?

Be that as it may, it was destined to eventually spread from Africa to all continents of the planet. Since then, people have no longer undergone significant biological changes. However, an important event was the so-called This is the process of transition from an appropriating economy to a reproducing economy, that is, the emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding. New forms of management turned out to be much more effective, allowing tribes to significantly increase their numbers, create a surplus product of labor, giving rise to social stratification. Ultimately, these processes led to the emergence of the first civilizations and states that arose in Mesopotamia.

Humans are the dominant species on the planet. The smartest among us study space and provide answers to questions that were considered unsolvable just 200–300 years ago. However, we still cannot solve the main mystery - the origin of homo sapiens. We propose to consider the most common theories of how man appeared.

How did man appear on Earth?

The question of the origin of man excited the minds of people in primitive, ancient times and continues to excite modern scientists. Throughout history, many assumptions have been made - from myths to well-founded theories.

But, no matter what fantastic or completely reasonable hypotheses are proposed, they can all be divided into three categories:

religious;
philosophical;
scientific.

The religious point of view is similar in concept among many peoples of the world. There are many parallels that cannot be ignored. The view of religion on the emergence of man is based on an unshakable belief in God, and therefore does not require proof. The scriptures say that this question is not worthy of attention, since man himself was not present at his creation, and therefore cannot know anything.

Philosophical hypotheses are based on initial axioms, from which, as a result of reflection, an assumption arises. Philosophers distinguish the concept of “consciousness”. According to them, this is what distinguishes us from animals. When exactly did it arise? Philosophers have been trying to solve this riddle for 2.5 thousand years.

Scientific research is based on facts that scientists obtain through research and experimentation. From these data hypothetical assumptions are born. They, in turn, are rejected or confirmed in the course of further observations. If a hypothesis is confirmed, it becomes a theory. Then it is either confirmed or refuted. In the second case, new hypotheses are put forward, and so on, until the answer is found.

The main theory of the emergence of man

Since the late 19th century, scientists have adhered to the general theory of evolution, which underlies modern biology. According to this concept, all living organisms on Earth, including humans, appeared as a result of the adaptation of species to changing natural conditions. The weak die - the strong survive.

The author of the theory was Charles Darwin, who began working on the then-hypothesis in 1837. It took him twenty years to complete the project. In front of a scientific meeting, he was supported by the eminent naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace. This is how Darwin's theory emerged, which later became the general theory of evolution.

She explains that life on Earth began about 4 billion years ago. This happened in the ocean in the so-called primordial broth of the simplest proteins, molecules and chemical elements. After millions of years, through random mutations, the first living cells appeared. They subsequently developed into complex life forms.

However, this theory does not explain many aspects, for example, where the genetic code containing information for the development of the organism came from in each cell. It is also not clear how reptiles evolved into birds and mammals. Anthropologists and paleontologists have not found any remains of creatures with a similar body structure, and among modern animals there is no one similar.

Mutations in animals under the influence of the environment are not uncommon. Thus, laboratory rats raised in cold conditions produced offspring with denser fur. This explains the adaptability, but not the randomness of evolution. But even if we accept that life on the planet arose by chance, then explaining the appearance of man becomes even more difficult.

In biology lessons they say that humans belong to the class of primates, just like monkeys. Therefore, we must look for our ancestors among them. This is also confirmed by DNA, which is more than 98% identical to the genetic code of chimpanzees.

However, despite the discovered remains of Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and Homo habilis, it has still not been possible to find an intermediate link that would provide concrete confirmation of the origin of Homo sapiens from ape-like people.

It is believed that modern man appeared in the south of the African continent and from there migrated around the world. But not everything is smooth here either. The age of the found remains of the first people in different, even the most remote, corners of the planet is almost identical. This means that the spread of man either occurred very quickly, or people evolved simultaneously in all corners of the world. After this discovery, there were even more questions.

Human Origins: Theories

Despite all the inconsistencies, the theory of human origin through evolution has the most evidence. But at the moment they are not enough. In the meantime, there is no absolute confirmation, other theories have a right to exist. Let's look at a few of the most common:

Intervention theory. Many believe that man appeared thanks to extraterrestrial intelligence. Some people think that the first people were brought by aliens, others that the development of homo sapiens is the result of genetic experiments on animals.

There is an alternative opinion that people arrived on Earth from other galaxies, but over time they forgot about it. These theories are based on ancient drawings discovered in different parts of the planet, which depict people worshiping creatures on flying machines.

The origin of man according to the Koran. According to Islamic beliefs, man was created by Allah Almighty from earth and water. He collected the earth from all corners of the Universe, which was of different colors. This is why the descendants of the first man differ from each other.

The Koran also says that initially Adam was hollow and did not control himself. Seeing this, Allah breathed life into him. Man began to see and hear, speech and reason appeared. According to this theory, God created Adam as a perfect, complete being, so he had no need to evolve.

People are the descendants of gods. According to some legends, the first people were real giants, from 3 to 7 meters tall. Giants appeared from the union of gods and angels. This theory is based on ancient images of bats and controversial finds of huge humanoid skeletons.

Over time, the gods stopped visiting the earth, and the giant people degenerated. Cryptobiologists are confident that most of the remains found are genuine and require careful study.

Aquatic theory. In the 1920s, scientist Alistair Hardy hypothesized that the transitional link in the development of modern humans was Aquapithecus, an ape-like creature that lived in an aquatic environment.

With this, the scientist explained why modern people have practically no hair on their bodies. However, this theory has not become widespread and is currently not being seriously considered in the scientific world.

Despite the adherence of most scientists to evolutionary theory, the answer to the origin of man has not yet been found. Discussion of this issue sometimes develops into conflicts. However, no matter how heated the argument may be, ultimately the truth emerges from it. Remember: it is not so important how a person appeared, what matters more is what kind of people we are now.

The event of greatest importance in the history of the Earth was appearance of the first people.

It is usually believed that this happened at the beginning of the Quaternary period, about 500 thousand years ago. To emphasize the importance of this event in the history of the Earth, many scientists, as mentioned above, call this period the Anthropocene period, that is, the period of the birth and appearance of man.

Man comes from the animal world. Its ancestors are great apes. However, man, unlike all other animals, learned in the process of collective labor not only to use the benefits of nature, but also to remake nature, to subjugate its forces. The remains of the oldest ape-men - Pithecanthropus - were found in the layers of the late Tertiary period, dating back more than a million years. The most ancient ape-people continued to live in the first millennia of the Quaternary period. Therefore, it would be more correct to consider the beginning of the Anthropocene period from the time of the appearance of human ancestors, that is, add to the Anthropocene period part of the Tertiary period - the so-called Pliocene era, which is about 5 million years old. The entire history of modern animal species, starting with their closest ancestors, fits into this period of time.

The remains of Quaternary ape-men, called Sinanthropus, which means “Chinese people,” were found by the Chinese scientist V. C. Pei in Northern China in caves near Beijing.

Along with the bones of Sinanthropus, thick layers of ash from fires, fragments of animal bones, and rough fragments of broken stones that served as knives and scrapers for Sinanthropus were found in these caves. Probably these ancient people used wooden clubs for hunting, but the wood has not survived to this day.

Sinanthropus was significantly different from modern people, but they were still people. They already used fire, and this was the greatest conquest in the history of mankind.

The time of existence of ape-people ended approximately 500 thousand years ago and was replaced by the “Paleolithic”, or in Russian, the Old Stone era (or the Old Stone period). The Paleolithic, as this era (or this period) is sometimes called, in turn was replaced first by the Neolithic, or New Stone Age, and then by the Age of Metal.

The Old Stone Period, or Paleolithic, is divided into two unequal parts: the Lower and Middle Paleolithic, which lasted about 300 thousand years, and the Upper Paleolithic, which lasted no more than 100 thousand years. The duration of all other eras is no more than 12-15 thousand years.

During the Lower Paleolithic, the direct descendants of ape-men lived - primitive people, or, as they are usually called, Neanderthals.

They were still significantly different from modern people and retained some features of their ancestors. The remains of their camps, as we said above, were found in the lower layers of Crimean caves, in Central Asia and in many other places.

Neanderthals were short (155-156 centimeters), but were distinguished by significant strength. A large, elongated head with a low forehead extending back and an overhanging eyebrow, under which small eyes were hidden, sat on a thick short neck, which on the back side seemed to form one whole, with a flat nape. A wide nose and a sloping back, like apes, and not a protruding chin like ours - this was the portrait of our ancestor.

The Neanderthal's gait was extremely awkward. A heavy short body sat on strong legs with short lower legs and wide massive feet. The powerful hands had wide hands with thick short fingers, which, however, could make rough stone wedges (axes) and scrapers. The club in the hands of this primitive strongman was a reliable weapon of defense, attack and hunting.

The favorite habitats of Neanderthals were river valleys and caves.

The enormous advantage of the Neanderthal, as well as his closest ancestors, over other animals was upright walking, as a result of which the hands were free to make various tools, and this primarily expanded the possibilities of hunting. Hunting at that time was, together with collecting fruits and edible plant roots, the main source of subsistence.

For about 300 thousand years, Neanderthals perfected their primitive art of stone processing. Gradually, as a result of labor, their appearance changed. They became more and more like modern people. By the time the Great Glaciation of the Earth reached its greatest extent, man was able to adapt to new living conditions, and he himself had already become completely similar to modern man. At this time, a very important improvement was made in the manufacture of labor and hunting tools. Man learned to make tools not from a whole piece of stone, cutting them with rough chips, like a wooden wedge, but from specially chipped stone plates; at the same time, he learned to produce flint plates that were thin and long, like a knife blade. People began to widely use bone for all kinds of crafts. Dart tips, piercings, awls, carefully crafted scrapers, knives, chisels for carving bones, bone needles with eyes for sewing clothes, and the like appeared.

This stage of development of human society is called Upper Paleolithic.

At sites of that time, in addition to various household items and hunting tools, sometimes they find female figurines carved from mammoth tusks or carved images of various animals used in magical (witchcraft) rituals.

Hard-to-reach caves sometimes served as sanctuaries for our ancestors, and various religious rituals were performed in them. On the walls of some caves, drawings made in red and black paint have survived to this day, depicting bison, mammoths, deer pierced by darts, drawings of hands with chopped off fingers, as well as witchcraft signs that are incomprehensible to us.

Upper Paleolithic people - “new people”, or, as they are usually called, “reasonable people”, were physically no longer significantly different from modern people.

Upper Paleolithic people did not know how to make pottery; they did not know bows and arrows and used darts. They did not have domestic animals and, of course, did not even know the rudiments of agriculture. Hunting was still the main means of subsistence, and in it they achieved significant success.

The “new people” were nomadic hunters. They already knew how to hunt such large animals as bison, rhinoceros and even mammoth, but they also willingly ate the corpses of these animals if they found them in perpetually frozen soil - on the site of a melting glacier. They exterminated smaller and more easily accessible animals, especially reindeer, and birds - ptarmigan, in huge quantities. We find many thousands of bones of various animals during excavations of their sites. But especially a lot of bones of mammoths and reindeer are sometimes found there, which is why Upper Paleolithic people are also called “mammoth and reindeer hunters.”

Many tens of thousands of years have passed, and now, on the verge of modernity, about 15 thousand years ago, humanity was enriched with a new wonderful invention: man invented the bow and arrows. This immediately expanded the possibilities of his hunting, which was still the main source of human existence. Rhinoceroses and mammoths have long been extinct. The huge ice sheet was melting quickly. Its southern border was already near present-day Leningrad. The climate was becoming warmer.

A new era was beginning in the history of mankind - the New Stone, or Neolithic.

The most important discoveries and inventions follow one after another. Man is increasingly seizing power over nature. Almost simultaneously with the invention of the bow, man tamed the wolf in some places and the jackal in others, and thus got the domestic dog. Then the remarkable property of clay was discovered: when fired, it produces a waterproof and sufficiently fire-resistant material. Vessels for cooking food began to be made from clay. People have also learned to process hard stones more skillfully - to drill and polish them. Wooden boats appeared, made from a whole tree trunk.

But hunting, as before, still remains the main source of human existence.

Along with hunting, fishing and hoe farming began to develop.

The Stone Age ended about 6-7 thousand years ago. People learned to mine metal and make hunting and household items from it.

The era of metal has arrived. Knives, spears and arrows were the first metal products. They were first made from pure copper, then from bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) and finally from iron.

In addition to hunting and fishing, cattle breeding and agriculture were added, the beginnings of which, apparently, arose at the end of the Neolithic. From the appropriation of finished products of nature, man moved to their conscious increase.

Our Soviet scientists P. P. Efimenko, S. N. Zamyatnin, M. V. Voevodsky, S. N. Bibikov, P. I. Boriskovsky, G. P. Sosnovsky, O. N. Bader, M. Z. Panichkina and many others have great merit in the discovery and study of the most ancient settlements of the Stone Age on the territory of the USSR.

M. M. Gerasimov managed to develop a method for reconstructing the appearance of people from the skull, and we now have the opportunity to see portraits of our ancestors who lived tens of thousands of years ago. Foreign scientists worked unsuccessfully on solving this problem for many years and declared it unsolvable.

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The appearance of Homo sapiens was the result of a long evolutionary development that took tens of millions of years.

The first signs of life on Earth arose about 4 billion years ago, later plants and animals arose, and only about 90 million years ago the so-called hominids appeared on our planet, which were the earliest predecessors of Homo sapiens.

Who are hominids?

Hominids are a family of progressive primates that became the ancestors of modern humans. Appearing about 90 million years ago, they lived in Africa, Eurasia and.

About 30 million years ago, a global cooling began on Earth, during which hominids became extinct everywhere, with the exception of the African continent, southern Asia and America. During the Miocene era, primates experienced a long period of speciation, as a result of which the early ancestors of humans, the australopithecus, separated from them.

What are Australopithecines?

Australopithecine bones were first found in 1924 in Africa's Kalahari Desert. According to scientists, these creatures belonged to the genus of higher primates and lived from 4 to 1 million years ago. Australopithecines were omnivores and could walk on two legs.

It is possible that by the end of their existence they learned to use stones for cracking nuts and other needs. About 2.6 million years ago, primates split into two branches. The first subspecies, as a result of evolution, was transformed into Homo habilis, and the second into Australopithecus africanus, which subsequently became extinct.

Who is a skilled person?

Homo habilis (Homo habilis) was the very first representative of the genus Homo and existed for 500 thousand years. Being a highly developed australopithecus, he had a fairly large brain (about 650 grams) and quite consciously made tools.

It is believed that it was Homo habilis who took the first steps to subjugate the surrounding nature, thus crossing the border that separated primates from humans. Homo habilis lived in sites and used quartz, which they brought to their home from distant places, to create tools.

A new round of evolution turned skilled man into working man (Homo ergaster), who appeared about 1.8 million years ago. The brain of this fossil species was much larger, thanks to which it could make more advanced tools and kindle fire.

Later, the working man was replaced by Homo erectus, whom scientists consider as the direct ancestor of humans. Erectus could make tools from stone, wore skins and did not disdain to eat human flesh, and later learned to cook food over a fire. Subsequently, they spread from Africa throughout Eurasia, including China.

When did Homo sapiens appear?

To this day, scientists believe that Homo sapiens replaced Homo erectus and its Neanderthal subspecies about 400–250 thousand years ago. According to DNA studies of fossil humans, Homo sapiens originated from Africa, where Mitochondrial Eve lived about 200 thousand years ago.

Paleontologists gave this name to the last common ancestor of modern humans on the maternal side, from which people inherited a common chromosome.

The ancestor in the male line was the so-called “Y-chromosomal Adam”, who existed somewhat later - about 138 thousand years ago. Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam should not be identified with biblical characters, since both of them are only scientific abstractions adopted for a more simplified study of the emergence of man.

In general, in 2009, after analyzing the DNA of the inhabitants of African tribes, scientists came to the conclusion that the oldest human branch in Africa were the Bushmen, who probably became the common ancestors of all humanity.

First man

Adam; Michelangelo

Religious views

According to the Book of Genesis: in Judaism, Christianity

According to the ideas of Kabbalah, the spiritual development of humanity began with Adam. For the first time in the history of mankind, he received a desire to understand the spiritual world and comprehended the nature of both worlds - the material and the spiritual. Adam is credited with the authorship of the ancient Kabbalistic book “Sefer Raziel ha-malach” (Book of the angel Raziel).

Among the ancient Germans and Scandinavians

From sparks and melt water arose the giant Ymir and the cow Audumla, who fed him with her milk. From the sweat of Ymir a couple was born - a man and a woman, and one leg with the other conceived a son. These were the first frost giants. Ask and Embla are people whom the gods found on the seashore in the form of tree prototypes, lifeless and “devoid of fate”; having revived them, they gave them reason and speech. (See also Storms).

Based on the Sumerian epic Enuma Elish

Among the ancient Indians

Purusha - according to the mythology of Ancient India, a creature living in the human heart and at the same time inhabiting the Cosmos. Moreover, every human being carries within itself a particle of immortality. wtsvtsvtsv

Among the ancient Persians

In the culture of Ancient Persia, the first ancestor of people was Gayomart, who emitted light. After the death of Gayomart, all the metals “sprayed” from his body, the soul turned into gold, and from the seed the first married couple appeared in the form of a rhubarb bush: Mashya and Mashyana.

In Ancient Greece

Phoroneus is the ancestor and creator of humanity, the son of the river god Inach and the nymph Melia. The historian Akusilaus called him in his Genealogy the first "man and the first earthly king", king of the entire Peloponnese. Plato in the Timaeus and Clement of Alexandria in the Stromata also argued that Phoroneus was the first man or the “father of mortals.”

East Africa

One day a toad crawled onto a deserted seashore - the first creature on the earth's surface. In those days there was nothing in the sky except the Moon. The Moon had an idea to create a man, and she told the Toad about it. But the toad outpaced the moon and, swelling beyond belief, gave birth to two twins - a man and a woman. These were the first people on earth.

The Moon was angry with the Toad and incinerated her. Taking into her care people - the children of Toad, she helped them bring their bodies to perfection, endowed them with reason and the gift of speech, giving them a resemblance to modern people. And the Moon named the man Bateta, and the woman Hannah.

Bateta and Hannah lived on earth several times longer than people live now, and when life became not a joy for them, the Moon, as promised, descended to earth and took them with it. Soon their firstborns died and were buried in the ground, and then death began to come for people more and more often.

West Africa

In heaven, Olorun, the Supreme Being, began to create the first people. Orisha Nla sculpted their forms from the earth, but only Olorun could breathe life into them. Orisha Nla hid in Olorun's workshop to spy on how this would happen. But Olorun found out about this and put Orisha Nla into a deep sleep; so that only Olorun knows the secret of reviving the body. To this day, Orisha Nla makes new human bodies through the father and mother of the unborn newborn, but it is Olorun who breathes life into them.

According to the Koran in Islam

Unlike the Bible, which gives a systematic account of Adam, the Qur'an mentions Adam in several separate suras (chapters). Individual verses (verses) mentioning his name are scattered throughout the Quran. In the thirty-second sura “Petition” it is said that Allah created Adam from clay:

“He is the One who knows the hidden and the manifest, the great, the merciful, who made beautiful all things that he created, and created man for the first time from clay” (32:6-7).

The second sura “Cow” most fully reveals the purpose of Adam:

And your Lord said to the angels: “I will appoint a governor on earth.” They asked: “Will You place on earth someone who will sin and shed blood, while we glorify You with praise and sanctify You?” Allah replied: “Verily, I know what you do not know” (verse 30). And Allah taught Adam all the names, then asked the angels about them and told them: “Explain to me [the essence] of these names, if you are sincere” (verse 31). The angels replied: “Praise be to you! We know only what You taught us. Verily, You are the omniscient, the wise” (verse 32). Allah said: “O Adam! Explain to them [the essence of] names.” When Adam explained to the angels the [essence of] names, Allah said: “Did I not tell you that I know the unseen of the heavens and the earth, I know what you do openly and what you conceal?” (verse 33). And then We commanded the angels: “Prostrate yourself before Adam.” Everyone fell on their faces except Iblis, [who] refused [to prostrate], became proud and became an unbeliever (verse 34). Then We said: “O Adam! Settle with your wife in the Garden of Eden, eat there to your heart’s content, whatever you want, but do not approach this tree, otherwise you will be among the wicked” (verse 35).

The seventh sura “Fences” tells about the reasons for Iblis’s discontent:

[Allah] asked: “What prevents you from bowing down, since I commanded you?” [Iblis] replied: “I am better than him: You created me from fire, and him from clay” (verse 12). Then Allah warned Adam: “And then We said: “O Adam! Truly, he is an enemy to you and your wife. May he not force you both to leave heaven - because [then] you will become unhappy” (twentieth sura “Ta Ha”, 117 verse). In paradise you will neither have to starve nor walk naked, there you will not suffer from thirst or heat.” But the shaitan began to whisper to him: “O Adam! Shall I show you a tree [with fruits that bestow] eternity and eternal power?” [Adam and his wife] ate [the fruit of that tree], and they saw their nakedness. They began to cover themselves with the leaves of the trees of paradise folded [together]. So Adam disobeyed his Lord and went astray from the right path. Then the Lord chose him [from among others], forgave him and directed him to the straight path. [Allah] said: “Descend from Paradise, both of you, and let some [of your descendants] be the enemies of others. If, by my will, you step on the straight path, then whoever follows it will not be in error or in disaster” (verses 118-123).

Literature

Lafargue P., The Myth of Adam and Eve, [trans. with German], St. Petersburg. 1906;
Trencheni-Valdapfel I., Social background for two myths about Adam, in the book: Origin of the Bible, M., 1964;
Gunkel N., Die Urgeschichte und die Patriarchen, Gott., 1911;
Hubner P., Vom ersten Menschen wird erzählt in Mythen, Wissenschaft und Kunst, Düsseldorf, ;
Patai R., Adam we-Adamah, Jerusalem, 1942;
Quispel G., Der gnostische Anthropos und die jüdische Tradition, “Eranos Jahrbuch”, 1953, Bd 22;
Röhrich L., Adam und Eva, 1968;
Schûöpfungsmythen, Darmstadt, 1977;
Strothmann F., Die Anschauungen von der Weltschöpfung im alten Testament, Münster. 1933;
Westermann C., Der Mensch im Urgeschehen, “Kerygma und Dogma”, 1967, Jg. 13, H. 4.
Beck E., lblis und Mensch, Satan und Adam: der Werdegang einer koranischen Erzählung, “Le Museon”, 1976, v. 89, fasc. 1-2.

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Carloman (King of the Franks)
Monazite

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