Dictionary of terms and concepts in social science. Dictionary of terms in social studies for a high school course. Social studies terms for the OGE by sections and topics

Absolute truth- complete, unchangeable, established once and for all knowledge about any object or phenomenon.
Alcoholism (drug addiction)- a disease that develops as a result of systematic use of alcohol (drugs).
Basis- a set of social relations that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods.
Being— the existence of man in all the diversity of its manifestations.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)) - the total value of all goods and services produced by a country per year (at market prices)

Gross National Product (GNP)- GDP + amount of net income from abroad

Possession- the ability to have something (property).
Voluntarism— absolutizes free will, bringing it to the arbitrariness of an unrestricted individual, ignoring the objective conditions and patterns of social development.

Perception(1) - the process of forming a holistic image that reflects objects and their properties that directly affect the senses.

Perception(2) - a form of sensory knowledge.
Hypothesis- putting forward and justifying certain assumptions with the help of which they want to explain those empirical facts that do not fit into the framework of previous teachings.
The state budget— a list of planned income and expenses.

State- a political-territorial sovereign organization of power in society, which has a special apparatus to carry out its functions and is capable of making its orders binding on the population of the entire country.
Civil (personal) rights(Articles 9-25, 45-54, 60, 62 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation) - rights belonging to a person as a biosocial being
Civil society- a system of relations between people that ensures the satisfaction of their inalienable rights and interests on the basis of self-government and freedom.

Deviant behavior- behavior deviating from generally accepted norms
Delinquent behavior- a set of crimes.
Democracy- a political regime based on the recognition of the people as the source and subject of power.

Activity- the activity of people aimed at transforming the world around them.

Discriminationtion- derogation of the rights of any group of citizens based on their nationality, race, gender, etc.

Differentiation- division
Spiritual production- the activity of consciousness in a special social form, carried out by specialized groups of people who are professionally engaged in qualified mental work.

Imperative mandates- the right to recall a deputy by voters before the expiration of his term of office

Individual( 1) - a single specific person, considered as a biosocial being.
Individual(2) - taken separately, a representative of the entire human race.

Individuality- the unique identity of a person, a set of his unique qualities.

Integration- Union
Art- a specific form of social consciousness and human activity, which is a reflection of the surrounding reality in artistic images.
True— correspondence of the received titles to the content of the object.

Historical patterns- common features inherent in a group of historical phenomena.
Historical process- a temporal sequence of successive events that were the result of the activities of many generations of people.
Class- a large group of people united by the following characteristics:
1) ownership of the means of production 2) participation in the distribution of profits, 3) organizes production or directly participates in it.
Communication subsystem political system of society - a set of relations and forms of interaction that develop between classes, social groups, nations, individuals regarding their participation in the exercise of power, development and implementation of policy.
Constitution- This is the fundamental law of the state.

Consensus- consent without formal voting

Collectivism- the principle of community, collective principle in social life, in work, in any activity

Kosrepresentative democracy- the ability of the people to exercise power through their representatives in various government bodies

Culture- all types of industrial, social and spiritual activities of man and society, as well as all their results.
Cultural-ideological subsystem political system of a society - a set of political ideas, views, perceptions, and feelings of participants in the political system that are different in content.
Cultural rights— rights that ensure the spiritual development and self-realization of the individual.
Personality( 1) - a person who actively masters and purposefully transforms nature, society and himself.
Personality(2) - a human individual who is a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant traits, properties and qualities that he realizes in public life.

Morality- this is a set of rules of behavior derived from people’s ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, good and bad, the implementation of which is a consequence of a person’s internal conviction or the influence of the force of public opinion on him

Multi-party system- existence and legal activity of two or more parties in the state
Observation- purposeful study of individual objects and phenomena, during which a title is obtained about the external properties and characteristics of the object being studied.
Superstructure- a set of political, legal, ideological, religious, cultural and other views, institutions and relations not covered by the basis.
Tax- a mandatory payment established by the state for citizens and enterprises.

Nationality- a community of people, historically formed in the process of decomposition of tribal relations on the basis of the unity of language and territory and developing communities of economic life and culture.

Popular masses- social communities that have developed in a certain territory, whose members have a common mentality, culture, traditions and customs and jointly create material and spiritual values.
The science- theoretically systematized views on the world around us, reproducing its essential aspects in an abstract-logical form (concepts, theories, laws) and based on the results of scientific research.
Scientific theory- a logically consistent description of the phenomena of the surrounding world, which is expressed by a special system of concepts.

Scientific and technological revolution(STR) is a qualitative leap in the development of the productive forces of society, its transition to a new state based on fundamental changes in the system of scientific titles.
Nations- the most developed ethnic formations that arose on the basis of linguistic, territorial, cultural, economic, socio-psychological community.
Regulatory subsystem political system of a society - political norms and traditions that determine and regulate the political life of society.
Moral standards- norms that express people’s ideas about good and bad, good and evil, justice and injustice, the implementation of which is ensured by the internal conviction of people or the strength of public opinion.
Education- purposeful cognitive activity of people to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, or to improve them.

Communication— the process of information exchange between equal subjects of activity.
Public associations- voluntary, self-governing formations created on the basis of a community of interests to achieve a goal common to all their members.
Society(1) - a set of people united by historically determined social forms of life and activity (a group of people united to communicate and jointly perform any activity);

Society(2) - an integral social organism, including large and small groups of people, as well as connections and relationships between them (a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country).

Society(Z) is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification

Society(4) - a dynamic self-developing system, that is, a system that is capable of seriously changing, but at the same time maintaining its essence and qualitative certainty.
Objective truth- reliable knowledge, independent of people’s preferences and interests.
Custom- a historically established rule of behavior that has become a habit through repeated repetition.
Deviant(deviant) behavior - does not meet the requirements of social norms.
Relative truth- incomplete, limited knowledge is true only under certain conditions that a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of its development.
Branch of law- a systematized group of legal norms regulating a certain area of social relations.

Feeling- a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects in the surrounding world, which directly affect the senses.
Parliamentarism— the leading position of parliament in the system of state power and administration.
Party system- the totality of all parties existing and operating in the country.

Political Party- is a specialized, organizationally ordered group that unites active adherents of certain goals, ideas, leaders, serving to fight for political power

Legal political party- a party whose activities are permitted by the state and officially registered

Political party is illegal- a party that is banned by the state and operates underground

Tribe- an ethnic and social community of people connected by tribal relations, culture, language and self-name.

Cognition- a process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his consciousness, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.

Subsystem- an “intermediate” complex, more complex than the element, but less complex than the system itself.

Cognition- the process of obtaining and constantly updating the knowledge necessary for a person.
Policy( 1) - the art of government.

Policy(2) - relations between states, classes, social groups, nations arising from the seizure, exercise and retention of political power in society, as well as relations between states in the international arena.
Policy(3) - the activities of state bodies, political parties, public associations, in the sphere of relations between social groups (classes, nations, states), aimed at integrating their efforts in order to streamline political power or its conquest.
Policy(4) - the sphere of activity of groups, parties, individuals, states, associated with the implementation of generally significant interests with the help of political power.

Policy(5) - basic principles, norms and directions of activity for the exercise of state and public power

Political ideology- 1. a system of ideas and views that expresses the fundamental interests, worldview, of any political subject (class, nation, society, party, social movement); 2. theoretical justification of the value system of policy subjects

Political communication— dissemination and transmission of political information, both between elements of the political system and between the political system and society.
Political culture(1)—a complex of ingrained patterns of behavior, value orientations, and political ideas typical of a given society.

PoliticalChinese culture(2) is the experience of political activity transmitted from generation to generation in which knowledge, beliefs, and patterns of human behavior and social groups are combined
Politicalthe consignment- a specialized, organizationally ordered group that unites active adherents of certain goals, ideas, leaders, serving to fight for political power.

Political rights— rights that provide opportunities for citizens to participate in the political life of the country

Politic system— a mechanism for the implementation of political power and political management of society.
Political system of society- a set of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interactions and relationships between them, in which political power is exercised.
Political norms(1) - legal, political and moral rules that underlie the functioning of the political system. (2) - norms established by various political organizations.
Political rights— the rights of a citizen, providing the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country.

Ppolitical roles personalities - political functions, normatively approved images of political behavior expected from everyone who occupies a given position in the political system

Political socialization personality - the process of an individual mastering socio-political knowledge, norms of values and skills of activity, as a result of which he assumes a certain political role

Political status— a person’s position in the political system, the totality of his political rights and obligations, the ability to influence the political life of the country.

Political rule— the process of developing, adopting and implementing political decisions.
Use— the opportunity to use the useful properties of the property.

A concept is a form (type) of thought that reflects the general and essential characteristics of objects and phenomena.

Customs duty is a special government tax on goods purchased abroad
Human rights- a measure of an individual’s possible behavior guaranteed by law.
Right( 1) - a system of generally binding norms (rules) of behavior established or sanctioned by the state and ensured by its coercive force.
Right( 2) - a system of concepts about generally binding rules of behavior, human rights and responsibilities, prohibitions, conditions for their occurrence and implementation.

Right(3) is a system of generally binding, formal norms established or sanctioned by the state (and sometimes directly by the people), the implementation of which is ensured by the authority or coercive force of the state.

Constitutional state- a state that is subject to the law in all its activities, operates within the boundaries defined by law, providing legal protection to its citizens.
Legalstatus personality - a set of rights and freedoms of the individual that belong to it by law.
Legal standards- formally defined rules of behavior established or sanctioned by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by its authority or coercive force.

Direct (immediate) democracy- the ability of the people to directly make political decisions and exercise their power

Offer- this is the quantity of goods that the seller can offer to the buyer in a specific place at a specific time.
Itemart- a person, his relationships with the outside world and other individuals, as well as the life of people in certain historical conditions.

Entrepreneurial activity- activities carried out on one’s own initiative, at one’s own risk and responsibility, independent, aimed at making a profit
Performance- a form of cognition in which a sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is retained in consciousness, which allows it to be reproduced mentally, even if it is absent and does not affect the senses.
Prestige- society’s assessment of the social significance of a particular status, enshrined in culture and public opinion.
Privatization- the process of transferring state property into private hands
Progress- direction of development from lower to higher, from simple to complex
Labor productivity- the quantity of goods produced per unit of time.

Productive forces— means of production (subject of labor and tools of labor) + labor.
Relations of production- relationships between people in the production process

Proletariat- hired workers deprived of means of production

Duty- this is a special state tax on goods purchased abroad

Workingforce- people with their skills, abilities and abilities.
Order— the ability to change the purpose and affiliation.

Revolution- a revolution in the life of society, which leads to the elimination of the previous social and political system and the establishment of a new government

Religious norms- norms, which include rules of behavior contained in the texts of sacred books or established by religious organizations.
Religion( 1) - a set of certain myths, dogmas, cult and ritual actions, as well as religious institutions.
Religion(2) - a system of views based on the concept of the sacred, holy.
Religion(3) is one of the forms of human adaptation to the surrounding world characteristic of culture, the satisfaction of his spiritual needs.

Religion (4) - belief and worship of fictional, supernatural beings (gods, spirits, etc.)

Market- the totality of all relationships, as well as forms of organizations and cooperation of people with each other, relating to the purchase and sale of goods and services.
Market economy- an economic system in which decisions regarding what, how and for whom to produce are the result of the interaction of sellers and buyers in the market.
Self-education— acquiring knowledge through independent study, without the help of a teacher.
Self-knowledge- a person’s knowledge of his own capabilities and qualities.
Self-realization- implementation of goals, plans, ideas, projects that are significant for a person.
Liberty— independence of social and political subjects (including individuals), expressed in their ability and ability to make their own choices and act in accordance with their interests and goals.
Human freedom- the legalized opportunity to act in accordance with one’s will, the absence of constraints or restrictions on human activity.

Own- the relationship between a person or group of people on the one hand, and objects and things on the other.
Estates- large groups of people who have certain rights and responsibilities that are inherited.
Socialization- the process of influence on them by society and its structures that occurs throughout the life of individuals, as a result of which people accumulate social experience of life in a particular society and become individuals (i.e., the formation of personality).
Social mobility- the possibility of a person moving from one social level to another, from one group to another.
Social role- some pattern of behavior recognized
appropriate for people of a given status in a given society.
Social sanction- the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation.
Social stratification(structure) - stratification and hierarchical organization of various layers of society, as well as a set of institutions and relationships between people.
Social norms- rules, patterns, standards of human behavior established in society that regulate public life.
Social rights- the right to prosperity and a decent life.

Social status- a position in society associated with a certain set of rights and obligations.

Demand- this is the quantity of goods of a certain type that the buyer is willing to buy at a certain price level; the desire and ability of the consumer to buy a specific product at a specific time and in a specific place
Price- the amount of costs invested in the product.
Strata- large groups of people differing in their position in the social structure of society.
Judgment- a form of thought in which a connection is established between individual concepts and with their help something is affirmed or denied.

Type (essence) of state- a set of the most important aspects, properties and connections of the state, generated by a specific historical era and reflecting its essence
Labor activity- a form of human activity aimed at transforming the natural world and creating material wealth.

Inference- obtaining new judgments based on existing ones using the laws of logical thinking.
Level of division of labor— distribution of functions between participants in the labor process.
Fatalism- considers every human act as an inevitable realization of an initial predestination that excludes free choice.
Stock market- stocks and bods market.

State form - ways of organizing and exercising power in the country: form of government, form of government, form of political regime
Formation- a historically specific type of society, considered in the organic interrelation of all its aspects and spheres, arising on the basis of a certain method of production of material goods.
Policy functions- a set of processes that express its purpose in society.

Functions of the state- the main directions of its activities, expressing the essence of the state and corresponding to the main tasks of a certain historical stage of development
Target- an ideal image of the result.
Price- monetary expression of value.

Value- positive or negative significance of objects in the surrounding world for a person, group, class, society
Civilization( 1) - level, stage of development of society, material and spiritual culture, following barbarism, savagery.

Civilization( 2) - qualitative specificity (originality of material, spiritual, social life) of a particular group of countries or peoples at a certain stage of development.
Human- a creature belonging to the human race (HOMO SAPIENS).
Economy- a system of social production, that is, the process of creating material goods necessary for human society for its normal development and existence (industry, agriculture, financial system, trade).
Economic rights- legalized opportunities for free disposal of the means of production, labor and consumer goods.
Experiment- a method of studying phenomena, which is carried out under strictly defined conditions, and the latter can, if necessary, be recreated and controlled by the subject of knowledge (scientist).

Empirical description— recording information using language signs or other sign forms.
Ethnic groups(peoples) - large groups of people, distinguished on the basis of a common culture, language, and awareness of the indissolubility of historical destiny.
Efficiencylabor- costs/results.

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Social studies terms

Block “Man and Society”

Man is a biosocial being with conscious speech, moral qualities and the ability to make tools.
An individual is a representative of the human race, endowed from birth with special qualities that distinguish them from other people.
Individuality is specific traits that distinguish a person from the totality of his own kind (external and internal).
Personality is a human individual who is a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant traits, properties and qualities that he realizes in public life
Socialization is the process of an individual’s assimilation of patterns of behavior, social roles and norms, and spiritual values.
Agents of socialization are institutions that play the most important role in the process of socialization (family, education, army, inner circle)
Society is a part of the surrounding world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, representing the totality of all methods of interaction and forms of unification of people.
Worldview is a system of views, concepts and ideas about the world around us.
Truth is objective knowledge that accurately expresses the essence and properties of the subject under consideration.
Absolute truth is undoubted, once and for all established knowledge, a certain ideal to which our knowledge strives.
Relative truth is incomplete, limited knowledge.
Thinking is an active process of reflecting the objective world in concepts, judgments, theories
Activity is a form of a person’s active relationship to the world around him, suggesting its expedient changes and transformations.
Cognition is a process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his consciousness, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.
Needs are a person’s needs for what is necessary to maintain his body and develop his personality
Freedom is a specific way of being for a person, associated with his ability to choose a decision and perform an action in accordance with his goals, interests, ideals and assessments, based on an awareness of the objective properties and relationships of things, the laws of the surrounding world.
Responsibility is a socio-philosophical and sociological concept that characterizes an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, and society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of mutual requirements placed on them.
Culture is the totality of all types of transformative human activity, aimed both at the external environment and at himself.
Science is a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws.
Education is one of the ways to develop personality through people’s acquisition of knowledge, acquisition of skills and abilities, development of mental, cognitive and creative abilities through a system of social institutions such as family, school, and the media.
Religion - belief in the supernatural; a set of views and ideas, a system of beliefs and rituals that unites people who recognize them into a single community.
Art is a practical human activity aimed at mastering and creating aesthetic values.
Morality is a form of social consciousness, consisting of a system of values and requirements that regulate people's behavior.
Social progress is the direction of development of society, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect.
Globalization is the process of integration of states and peoples in different fields of activity.
Scientific knowledge is a special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, man and society
Social cognition is the process of acquiring and developing knowledge about a person and society.
Spiritual culture is a set of spiritual values and creative activities for their production, development and application: science, art, religion, morality, politics, law and others.

Block "Economy":

Factors of production are resources that are involved in the process of producing goods and services.
Factor income is income received from factors of production (wages, rent, profit, interest).
Demand is the desire and ability of consumers to purchase products at every possible price level.
Supply is the desire and ability of sellers to sell products at every possible price level.
An economic system is an established and operating set of principles, rules, laws that determine the form and content of basic economic relations that arise in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of an economic product.
Costs (expenses) are a monetary assessment of the cost of material, labor, financial and other resources for the production and sale of products over a certain period of time.
Securities are a document drawn up in the prescribed form and with the presence of mandatory details, certifying property rights, the exercise or transfer of which is possible only upon presentation of this document.
Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the working population cannot find a job and becomes a reserve army of labor.
Inflation is a long-term stable tendency towards an increase in the average (general) price level.
Economic growth is a long-term increase in the real volume of gross domestic product (GDP) both in absolute values and per each resident of the country.
GDP is the annual market value of final goods and services produced by an economy on a territorial basis.
Taxes are mandatory payments made by individuals and legal entities to the state.
The state budget is an estimate of state revenues and expenses for a certain period of time, compiled with an indication of the sources of government revenues and directions, channels for spending money.
Business cycle - periodic fluctuations in levels of employment, production and inflation.
The labor market is the sphere of formation of demand and supply of labor (labor services).
Equilibrium price - the price at which the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied
Competition is rivalry between participants in a market economy for the best conditions for the production and purchase and sale of goods.

Block “Social Relations”:

Social stratification is a set of vertically arranged layers (strata), whose representatives differ among themselves in the unequal amount of power and material wealth, rights and responsibilities, privileges and prestige.
Social mobility is the movement of groups and individuals in the social structure of society, changing their statuses.
A social elevator is a mechanism through which you can change your social position.
Social groups are collections of people (2 or more) who have common views and are connected with each other in relatively stable patterns of social interaction.
Ethnic communities are historically established stable groups of people in a certain territory that have common features of culture, language, self-awareness, historical memory, as well as awareness of their interests, their unity, and differences from other similar entities.
Social conflict is a clash of interests of individuals and groups.
Social norms are rules of behavior established in society that regulate relationships between people.
Social control is a system of regulations, prohibitions, beliefs, and coercive measures that ensures compliance and streamlines interaction between individuals.
Sanctions are means of reward and punishment that encourage people to comply with social norms.
Family is a social group whose members are related by kinship, marriage or adoption and live together, cooperating economically and caring for children.
Deviant behavior is behavior that deviates from the norms or set of norms accepted by a significant part of society.
A social role is a pattern of behavior corresponding to the status that a person occupies.
Social status is the position of a person in society, occupied by him in accordance with age, gender, social status, profession, and presupposing certain rights and responsibilities.
A social institution is a historically established, stable and enshrined in the norms of morality and law, a system of social relations.

Block "Politics"

Power is the ability of one party (individual or group) to influence the behavior of another party, regardless of whether the latter is ready to cooperate or not.
The state is an organization of political power that manages society within a certain territory and has sovereignty.
A political system is a set of interactions between political subjects and relations between them, organized on a single normative and value basis, related to the exercise of political power.
A political regime is a set of ways and methods of interaction between government authorities and the population.
The form of the state is a set of characteristics that determine the method of organization and structure of the state.
Democracy is a method of political organization of society based on the participation of citizens in the formation and exercise of government power, the adoption of political decisions by the majority while respecting the interests of the minority.
Civil society is the sphere of self-expression of free citizens and voluntarily formed organizations, protected by relevant laws from direct interference and arbitrary regulation by government authorities.
A rule of law state is a democratic state in which the principle of the rule of law, rights’ and freedom of man and citizen is realized, and there is mutual responsibility of the state and citizens.
The political elite is a relatively small social group that has concentrated a significant amount of state power in its hands.
A political party is an organization whose members are united by common goals, ideals and strive to obtain and exercise power.
A socio-political movement is an organization that is created on the basis of a community of interests to achieve common goals by influencing government power
A political leader is a leading person in the political process, exerting a constant and decisive influence on political transformations in the country.
Electoral system - the procedure for electing representative institutions and elected officials, as well as determining the results of voting.
The political process is a set of actions of political subjects aimed at implementing their roles and functions within the political system, at realizing their own interests and goals.
Political participation is the actions of a citizen in order to influence the adoption and implementation of government decisions, the selection of representatives to government institutions.
Political culture is a set of norms and values that are shared by the majority of citizens and are expressed in their political activities, in their assessment of political events and in their attitude towards politics and its components.
Political ideology is a formed system of values, focused on the expression of political interests, the basis for the formation of goals of political actions.
Absenteeism is a form of apoliticality, manifested in the evasion of voters from participating in referendums and elections to government bodies.

Block "Right":

Law is a set of generally binding, formally defined rules of behavior established or sanctioned by the state and ensured by its coercive force.
Constitutional system is a system of social, economic and political-legal relations established and protected by the constitution and other constitutional and legal acts of the state.
Legal liability is the application of government coercive measures to a violator for committing an unlawful act.
Legal capacity (civil) - the ability of a citizen to acquire and exercise civil rights through his actions, create civil responsibilities for himself and fulfill them (full from the age of 18)
Branch of law - a set of legal norms regulating a certain area of public relations
The institution of law is a group of legal norms regulating any specific type of homogeneous social relations. Example: Institute of Labor Protection in Labor Law
Civil law is a branch of private law that regulates property and personal non-property relations.
Organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurial activity are a set of property and organizational differences, methods of forming the property base, features of the interaction of owners, founders, participants, their responsibilities to each other and contracts.
Property rights are rights arising from the possession of any property or from its transfer by one person to another.
Moral rights (personal rights) are a special category of civil rights that belong to a citizen from birth and are inalienable from him.
Labor law is an independent branch of law that regulates relations in the sphere of labor.
An employment contract is an agreement between an employee and an employer, which describes the mutual rights and obligations of the parties.
Family law is a branch of law that regulates personal and derivative property relations arising from marriage, consanguinity, and the adoption of children into a family for upbringing.
A marriage contract is an agreement of persons entering into marriage, or an agreement of spouses, defining the property rights and obligations of spouses in marriage and (or) in the event of its dissolution.
Marriage is a legally formalized, free, voluntary union of a man and a woman, aimed at creating a family and giving rise to mutual rights and obligations for them.
International humanitarian law is a set of international legal norms and principles governing the protection of victims of war, as well as limiting the methods and means of waging war.
Administrative law is a branch of law that regulates social relations arising in the process of exercising executive power by state bodies
Environmental law is a set of legal norms regulating social relations in the sphere of interaction between society and nature in the interests of conservation and rational use of the natural environment.
Citizenship is a stable legal connection between a person and the state, expressed in the totality of their mutual rights, duties and responsibilities.
Criminal law is a branch of public law that regulates relations that arise in connection with the commission of a crime
Criminal process - pre-trial and judicial proceedings in a criminal case.
A preventive measure is a special group of procedural coercion measures, which are ways and means of restricting the personal freedom of the accused, and in exceptional cases, of the suspect.
Legal relations are relationships between people regulated by the rules of law.
An offense is a socially dangerous guilty act (action or inaction), contrary to the rules of law and causing harm to society, the state or individuals, entailing legal liability.
A normative legal act is a legal document issued in a special procedural manner by a competent government body, establishing or repealing the rules for regulating public relations.
Alternative civil service is a special type of labor activity in the interests of society and the state, carried out by citizens instead of military service.
Law enforcement agencies are bodies carrying out law enforcement activities that have the appropriate competence and the necessary material resources.

The USE dictionary includes a list of basic concepts and definitions in social studies, arranged in alphabetical order.

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Absenteeism– a manifestation of political culture (behavior), which consists in deliberate avoidance of participation in elections.
Absolute truth– comprehensive knowledge about a subject (phenomenon) that will never be refuted.
Absolute monarchy- a form of government in which the power of the monarch (king, king) is not limited either by law (constitution) or parliament.
Autonomy– independence in solving important social problems (personal, national-cultural, political).
Authoritarianism– a non-democratic type of political regime, characterized by complete control of a group of people (monarch) of political life, and non-interference in other spheres of public life.
Agents of Socialization– people who influence the process of socialization and education (parents, teachers).
Adaptation– the process of adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
Administrative responsibility– a type of legal liability that occurs for offenses that violate public order or are committed in the sphere of public administration. The measure of liability is administrative penalties, including a warning, a fine, correctional labor, and administrative arrest for up to 15 days.
Administrative law– a branch of public law that regulates social relations arising in the field of management and related to the maintenance of law and order and security.
Promotion– a security that confirms ownership of part of the property of an enterprise (economic complex). The type of income of the share owner is dividend.
Excise tax- a type of indirect tax paid by the buyer of a state-defined product (usually a luxury item, tobacco, alcohol) as a percentage of the price of this product.
Alternative civil service- a form of military service (a constitutional obligation of a citizen of the Russian Federation if he has the corresponding religious and pacifist beliefs (refusal of war, violence, carrying weapons). The duration of such service is longer than military service - from 18 to 21 months, it is carried out in production, or in social institutions service.
Animism– one of the earliest forms of religion, belief in the human soul, the afterlife.
Anomie social- this is a crisis state of social life in which the majority or a significant part of its subjects violates established social norms or is indifferent to them, and normative social regulation is sharply weakened.
Apartheid- literally separate existence, the policy of restricting the rights and isolation from public life of the black majority by the white minority in South Africa of the 20th century.
Arrest- keeping the convicted person in conditions of strict isolation from society.
Army- the armed forces of a country, performing the function of any state to protect its territory, borders and population. The most important institution and social elevator (mobility channel) according to P. Sorokin.
Assimilation- absorption of one people by another.

Bank- a credit institution that trades money.
Barter- non-monetary exchange.
Business– risky volitional activity of a subject of economic relations aimed at making a profit.
Exchange– a financial institution, a place for transactions with large quantities of money (currency) and securities (stock).
Marriage- a voluntary union of a man and a woman aimed at creating a family and raising children (as defined by the Family Code of the Russian Federation).
Buddhism– one of the three world religions (along with Islam and Christianity). The most ancient world religion. Originated in India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The founder is Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha (enlightened one). God and prophet - Buddha. According to various estimates, there are about 700 million Buddhists on Earth.
Budget– financial resources at the disposal of an economic entity
Budget(state) – annual breakdown of government expenditures and revenues. In the Russian Federation it has the status of a Federal Law (FL).

Currency- the officially established monetary unit of the state.
GDP(gross domestic product) is the main indicator of economic development, accepted today in economic science, which reflects the growth of material production. GDP is defined as the market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a year.
Supreme Court of the Russian Federation– the highest court of appeal in criminal, administrative, civil and arbitration (since 2014) cases.
Westernization– the onset of Western commercial culture, threatening national traditions and language.
"Veto"– the constitutional right of the President of the Russian Federation to reject any Federal Law adopted by the State Duma and approved by the Federation Council. The State Duma can overcome the President's disagreement with two-thirds of the vote (qualified majority).
Guilt– mental attitude to the offense committed.
Power– the ability to influence the behavior of other people, the main (first) institution of the political sphere.
External costs– costs that are included in the financial statements are also called accounting costs. This includes payment for raw materials, transport, and tax payments.
GNP(gross national product) is the main indicator of economic development, characterizing the economic activity of the country as a whole, including outside its national borders. Unlike GDP, which reflects the total value of all goods created on the territory of a country, gross national product reflects the total value of goods created only by its residents, regardless of their geographic location.
Internal costs– costs associated with organizing activities within the company.
War- a military conflict between countries or their blocs, leading to the death of people and the destruction of material assets. The methods and rules of warfare are governed by the rules of International Humanitarian Law (IHL).
Perception- the second stage of sensory cognition after sensation, at which the information received by the brain from the senses is assessed. Goes into presentation. For more details, see the analysis of the topic “Cognition”.
Harm– material, moral or physical damage caused as a result of the offense.
Secondary socialization- the process of personality formation that occurs in adulthood with the help of official groups.

Galloping inflation– a type of inflation in which there is a rapid rise in prices (100-150% per year).
Gender– a sociological term meaning the sexual characteristics of an individual that determine his social status and roles.
Genocide– extermination by one people of another (for example, Jews by Nazi Germany 1939-1945, Armenians by the Turks in 1915).
Hyperinflation– a type of inflation that destroys the country’s financial system and is characterized by extremely high price increases (up to 1000% per year).
Globalization– the process of forming a single economic, information and cultural space based on the achievements of scientific and technological revolution, which occurs in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries and is the main prerequisite for the emergence of global problems of mankind.
Global problems– threats of the 21st century that, in the absence of measures to address them, can bring humanity to the brink of complete destruction (environmental, world war, North-South, terrorism, epidemics, drug addiction).
Epistemology– section of philosophy, theory of knowledge (from the Greek gnosis – knowledge). Epistemology solves a number of important cognitive problems of ideological order.
The State Duma– the lower house of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation (bicameral parliament). Consists of 450 deputies elected according to a proportional system for 5 years. Reviews and adopts Federal laws.
State- a form of organization of power in a certain territory that has sovereignty.
Citizen– a subject of legal relations with rights and obligations established by law.
Civil(civil material) responsibility– a type of legal liability that occurs for violation of property rights - failure to fulfill contractual obligations, causing property damage. The main measure of liability is compensation for losses; compensation for moral damage.
Civil relations– these are property and personal non-property relations regulated by civil law.
Civil society– a set of non-state institutions and organizations that are not directly dependent on the orders of government authorities and take an active part in public and political life.
Civil law– a branch of private law that regulates property and personal non-property legal relations.
Citizenship– a stable political and legal relationship between a citizen and the state, expressed in a system of mutual rights and obligations.
The state budget– annual breakdown of government expenditures and revenues.
Humanism- from lat. Homo (man), a philosophical concept of a humane attitude towards a person, which consists in maximum consideration and development of his personal qualities and abilities.

Deviant behavior– the same as deviant behavior. Behavior of individuals and social groups that does not correspond to generally accepted norms of a given society. It can be positive and negative.
Delinquent behavior- from lat. delictum - misconduct. A type of deviant behavior expressed in violation of legal norms. Illegal behavior that harms individuals and society.
Demo version– a demonstration version of the Unified State Exam, the draft of which for each subject is developed by FIPI and approved after discussion in the professional community. Contains a list of tasks and criteria for their evaluation, the main document for preparing for the Unified State Exam.
Democracy– a type of political regime characterized by the provision of maximum rights and freedoms to the population and their state guarantee.
Money– a financial asset used for transactions. A special product of absolute liquidity.
Deposit(bank) – valuables (money) deposited in a bank and subject to return under certain conditions (bank interest, as a rule).
Shortage– lack of goods and services, a situation that does not satisfy consumer needs. Characteristic of a command economy under state control.
Deficit budget– executed by the state with an excess of expenses over income.
Default– recognition by the state of its inability to fulfill economic obligations (on public debt, for example). An indicator of a deep economic crisis. In the Russian Federation in 1998, for example, it occurred after the state refused to pay interest on short-term GKO bonds.
Activity– a form of human activity aimed at transforming the environment and society.
Social dynamics– development, the movement of a society that is constantly in the process of change, which consists in the fact that the institutions it needs develop, complicating social relations, and unclaimed institutions die off.
Dividend– type of income of the share owner, one of the factor income on capital.
Disciplinary responsibility– a type of legal liability that occurs for violation of labor, educational, military, or service discipline. Measures of influence on the offender - reprimand, reprimand, dismissal, expulsion from the educational institution.
Differentiation(social) – differences between individuals and groups, identified according to a number of socially important characteristics (income, prestige, education).
Income– a set of funds (in kind or cash) received as a result of economic activity.
Dualistic monarchy- a form of government in which a monarch (king, king) heads the executive branch, government and army. It turns out that the government bears double responsibility: both to the monarch and to parliament. This rare form of monarchy is found, for example, in Morocco and Jordan.

Legislative process- this is the procedure for adopting Federal Laws in the Russian Federation.
Wage- remuneration in cash received by an employee. The minimum wage is established in the Russian Federation by the state (minimum wage). There are time-based and piece-rate forms of remuneration.
Expenses– the same as production costs.
"The Golden Rule of Morality"- the basic moral requirement for human behavior, which can be presented in the form of a formula: “Treat others the way you want to be treated.”

Ideology(political) – a stable system of political norms, values and methods of political struggle adopted by a specific political movement. There are three main types of modern political ideologies: conservative, liberal and revolutionary.
Costs– all the costs of an enterprise in the process of economic activity and production. There are fixed and variable costs, external (accounting) and internal, economic.
Import– import of goods and services into the country.
Individual– any specific representative of the species “human” (homo sapiens), a newborn child.
Individuality- a unique set of biological (eye color, hair color, character traits, temperament) and social qualities (features of communication, social interactions) that is unique to each person, distinguishing him from other individuals.
Investments– capital (from capital) investments in production. They invest to make a profit, but do not always pay off (for example, if the project did not bring profit).
Industrial society– a historical type of civilization based on a market economy (capitalism), the introduction of scientific achievements in production, and the elimination of the monarchical political system of the Middle Ages. For more details, see the analysis of the topic “Types of Societies”.
Industry– from English industry, heavy industry.
Integration– 1) economic - the unification of the economies of independent countries, the creation of common markets (for example, the European one) 2) ethnic - a form of development of interethnic relations based on cooperation and interaction of close peoples.
Institute of Law- a small group of norms within an industry that regulate one type of social relations.
Socialization institutions– groups and institutions involved in the process of socialization of the individual.
Institutes(social) – the most important social groups, types of relations or institutions that are reproduced in any historical society and perform the functions necessary for it.
Intensive economic growth– increase in output per unit of resources used. For example, this is the introduction of scientific developments, scientific and technological progress results, computerization of production and the introduction of electronic production management systems. It opposes the extensive type of growth characteristic of traditional and industrial economies.
Inflation- a violation of the law of monetary circulation, expressed in the depreciation of the money supply and a long-term increase in prices for goods.
Art- one of the institutions of the spiritual sphere of social life, an aesthetic way of understanding the world around us.
Islam– one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Christianity). The youngest of the world's religions. Originated in Arabia in the 7th century. Founder: Mohammed. God is Allah. Islam means submission, its adherents are Muslims (believers). It has over 800 million adherents and, due to its youth, is the most aggressive world religion in its methods of propagation.
True– this is the correspondence of our ideas about the cognizable object to its real essence. Distinguish between absolute and relative truth.
Source of law– a historically established form of expression of a legal norm (there are several main types - legal custom, legal precedent, religious text and legal act).

Mobility channel– a social institution (institution) that allows social mobility (education, army, church). Same as social elevator.
Kant Immanuel- the great German philosopher of the 18th century, the author of the categorical imperative of morality: “act only in accordance with such a maxim, guided by which you can at the same time wish that it becomes a universal law.”
Capital– funds invested in circulation (business, bank) and generating profit. It is one of the factors of production.
Capitalism– an economic system of management associated with the active use of capital to make a profit, entrepreneurship. Identified with a market economy.
Codifier– a state document regulating the content of the Unified State Exam, the draft of which for each subject is developed by FIPI and approved after discussion in the professional community. Contains a list of topics and a set of knowledge and skills tested on the Unified State Exam. The main document for preparing for the Unified State Exam.
The colony- a controlled territory deprived of independence, subject to the laws of another state (metropolis).
Team(centralized, planned) economy– a completely state-controlled (center) economic system. It is based on the establishment of development plans by the state, the absence of private property and the monopoly of state property. The state is both the customer, the producer, and the consumer of goods, and dictates prices for them.
Complement– a complementary good in economic theory. Typically, both complementary goods are consumed together; an increase in the price of one of them leads to the consumption of both. For example, a car and gasoline, cigarettes and matches.
Competition– the struggle in the market for the consumer between economic entities, a necessary condition for the existence of a market economy. There are monopolistic and pure competition.
Constitutional system- the structure of society and the state, enshrined in the norms of constitutional law in countries with a constitutional structure, for example, in the Russian Federation.
Constitution- the fundamental law of the state of the highest legal force.
Constitution of the Russian Federation- the fundamental law of the Russian Federation, adopted by a popular referendum on December 12, 1993, establishing the legal democratic republican federal character of the state, its social and secular orientation.
Social control– a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individuals and social groups in society with the help of norms, sanctions, self-control and conscience.
Confession- a large social group distinguished by religion.
Confederation– a temporary association of sovereign states to solve political and economic problems (for example, the European Union). It may develop into a federation or cease to exist.
Indirect taxes- payments that are included in the price of the goods and are paid by the buyer at the time of purchase of the goods (excise taxes, customs duties, VAT).
Cosmopolitanism- an ideology that proclaims the primacy of universal values over national ones, the “unity” of all inhabitants of the planet, without taking into account their national characteristics. Opposes nationalism.
Culture- everything that is created by man, as opposed to nature (second nature).
National culture- the totality of the achievements of the material and spiritual culture of one people, the inhabitants of the country.
World culture– world cultural fund, the best achievements of national cultures.
Cultural studies– humanities science that studies culture.

Legitimacy- the main feature of state power, which consists in its voluntary recognition by the population and its readiness to submit to its power, including violence. The founder of the theory of legitimacy in politics, M. Weber, distinguished three types of legitimacy - traditional, charismatic and legal.
Liquidity– the ability to transform assets into value (money).
Elevator (social)– a social institution (institution) that allows social mobility (education, army, church). Same as mobility channel.
Personality– a subject of conscious social activity, possessing a worldview, statuses, roles, and having undergone socialization.
Lumpen- an individual who has sunk to the social bottom, no longer having a real chance of taking a place in other social groups (homeless people, drug addicts, prostitutes, criminals).

Magic– one of the early forms of religion, belief in the possibility of non-contact influence on a person and his behavior.
Majoritarian electoral system– elections of senior officials (the President of the Russian Federation, for example), in which the candidate must receive a majority of votes (in one or two rounds of voting) of voters.
Marginalized– individuals who have lost their previous social status, who can either return to their previous social group or fall in the social structure (intermediate strata of society).
Macroeconomics– a branch of economic theory that studies global economic processes (inflation, unemployment, budget).
Maslow Abraham– author of the basic classification of human needs - the “pyramid of needs” (physiological, existential, social, prestigious, spiritual).
International humanitarian law(IHL) is a branch of international law that defines unacceptable methods and means of warfare and protects victims of war.
International law– a set of rules governing relations between states and legal entities from different countries.
International division of labor– global specialization of states in the production of certain goods and services.
Mentality(mentality) is a characteristic way of behavior for representatives of one ethnic community and conscious self-attribution to this community. One of the important signs of an ethnic group.
Metropolis- a state that owns colonies (subordinate dependent territories).
Microeconomics– a section of economic theory that studies the economy of an economic entity (firm, family).
World economy– global economic exchange based on the specialization and advantages of countries.
Worldview– a stable view of the individual on the world, formed under the influence of socialization and life experience.
Mobility(social) – change in the status of individuals, movement of people and social groups in the social structure.
Monarchy– a form of government in which the source of power is the monarch and power is inherited (absolute, limited, dualistic).
Monopoly- a large enterprise that controls a significant segment of production and sales of goods in a specific market. Sets monopolistically low and exclusive prices, destroying competition in the market.
Monotheism(monotheistic religion) – monotheism, belief in the universal absolute – the highest spiritual power (deity). For example, all world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam) are monotheistic.
Morality- a historically established system of norms, customs, and values that regulate social relations and secured by the power of public opinion.
Moral categories– the most general concepts with the help of which a person’s behavior is assessed by other people and by himself (love, good, evil, duty, virtue, conscience, honor, dignity, justice, nobility, happiness).

Taxes– generally obligatory state-established payments of individuals and legal entities.
People- the main ethnic group connected by a common language, traditions, historical past and territory of residence.
Subsistence economy– production for own consumption.
The science– one of the institutions of spiritual culture, a system for creating new knowledge.
Scientific knowledge- a system of theories established and tested using special methods of science, included in the general system of sound knowledge.
Nationalism- political ideology and practice based on the unity of the people around the national idea. Nazism in its extreme form.
Nation– the highest type of ethnic group, a people with developed statehood and a single economic space.
Inequality(social) is the different access of people and social groups to social benefits (power, wealth, education), due to differentiation.
Legal nihilism– the attitude of individuals towards the law, which consists in their unwillingness to comply with laws, arises on the basis of a low level of legal culture.
Norm is a special regulator of social behavior (rule) established by society in order to control the behavior of individuals and groups.
Rule of law– the smallest structural unit of the legal system, expressed in the form of a specific law.
NTR– scientific and technological revolution of the mid-20th century, a qualitative leap in the development of the productive forces of society based on the improvement of scientific knowledge and technology.

Bond– government security.
Education is an institute of spiritual culture that transmits knowledge from generation to generation.
Society- a part of the material world separated from nature, closely connected with it.
Public relations– diverse relationships between spheres and institutions that unite society into an integral system.
Limited(constitutional, parliamentary) monarchy- a form of government in which the power of the monarch (king, king) is limited either by law (constitution) or by parliament.
Responsibility– 1) a quality of personality close to consciousness, the obligation to be responsible for actions, their results and consequences 2) the obligation provided by law to answer for offenses.
Relative truth– a type of truth that characterizes a certain stage in the development of science and is characterized by the subjectivity of assessments.
Branch of law- a large group of norms regulating an important type of social relations.
Feeling– primary information obtained through the senses (vision, touch, smell, hearing, taste) at the stage of sensory cognition. For more details, see the analysis of the topic “Cognition”.

The consignment- a political institution and a group of people united by ideology and the desire to achieve power or influence it.
Parliament- the highest legislative body in a republican state. Russia has a bicameral parliament - the Federal Assembly.
Mass party– a type of political parties distinguished by their organizational structure and characterized by the presence of compulsory membership, party contributions, party cards and regional organizations. Political parties in the Russian Federation are massive.
Party personnel– a type of political party distinguished by its organizational structure and characterized by the absence of compulsory membership and other formal signs of an individual’s connection with the party. This is how the parties in the USA and Great Britain are structured.
Primary socialization– the process of personality formation that occurs with the help of small groups in the process of interpersonal relationships at an early age.
Variable costs– costs that change with changes in production volume. For example, these are payments for electricity, transport services, and depreciation charges.
Periphery– economically backward countries (the so-called South: countries of Africa and Southeast Asia).
Maslow's pyramid of needs– the structure of human needs, introduced into scientific circulation by the American psychologist A. Maslow (physiological, existential, social, prestigious, spiritual).
"Floating" tax scale- one of the principles of establishing taxes, in which income recipients pay different percentages of income depending on its size. There is progressive and regressive.
Plebiscite(referendum) - a nationwide poll on an issue of national importance. The decision of the plebiscite becomes law.
Pluralism– a key feature of democracy, which consists in ideological diversity, the possibility of guaranteed public discussion and difference of opinions about the problems of society. In political practice, it is expressed in a multi-party system and competition between socio-political forces and forms of ownership.
Income tax- the main type of taxes in the economy, a type of direct tax, established as a percentage paid by the recipient of the income. In the Russian Federation - the lowest in Europe, 13%.
Polytheism(polytheistic religion) - polytheism, belief in the forces of nature, each of which is identified with a corresponding deity (for example, Slavic paganism).
Policy- the struggle of large groups of people for state power and the opportunity to influence it.
Political ideology– a political concept formalized in the form of a program or scientific theory that expresses the interests of social groups, parties and political movements.
Politic system– organized interaction between subjects of political activity and the environment (society). The author of the theory of the political system is the modern American political scientist Gabriel Almond.
Political process is a set of actions of subjects and institutions of the political system associated with the struggle for political power.
Political regime– a set of ways and methods used by the authorities to control the population (democratic and non-democratic).
Political science– a humanities science that studies political processes and relations in society related to the activities of the state and other subjects of political activity.
Concept– definition of the object being studied, from which the stage of rational knowledge of the world begins. For more details, see the analysis of the topic “Cognition”.
Post-industrial (information) society– a modern type of civilization based on the dominance of information (computer technology) in production and the media. The result of scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century. For more details, see the analysis of the topic “Types of Societies”.
Fixed costs– costs that do not change when production volume changes. For example, this is payment of utility bills, repayment of loans.
Need– a person’s perceived need for living conditions. See Maslow's pyramid of needs.
Government of the Russian Federation– the highest executive body in the Russian Federation.
Right- a system of generally binding norms, secured by the power of state coercion.
Constitutional state- a state that sets as its main task the protection of human rights and freedoms guaranteed by it. Main features: the supremacy of legal law, the inviolability of human rights and freedoms, separation of powers.
Law enforcement– a system of state and non-state bodies that protect human rights and freedoms and carry out activities to protect law and order.
Legal awareness- the quality of the civil and political culture of society, which consists in the understanding and conscious implementation of the rules of law by citizens. A high level of legal consciousness characterizes a developed democratic, legal and civil society with an activist political culture.
Company(firm) is an economic entity that creates goods and services to sell them on the market. From a legal point of view, it is a legal entity operating in a market economy and seeking to make a profit.
Performance- the final phase of sensory cognition, the result of which is the image of a perceived object, which our brain, with the help of abstract thinking, can reproduce at any moment, even without coming into contact with the senses.
Offer- the quantity of goods on the market that the manufacturer is ready to supply at a specific time at a specific price.
The president- the highest official in a republican state, head of state.
Presidential republic- a type of republican form of government, characterized by significant powers of the highest official of the President, who heads the Government and is the supreme commander in chief (for example, in the USA).
President of the Russian Federation- the head of the Russian Federation, who has the status of supreme commander-in-chief, guarantor of the constitution. Elected by popular vote for 6 years, determines the main directions of internal and external
country politics and representative functions.
Presumption of innocence- a legal principle meaning that the accused cannot be considered guilty except as a result of a judicial decision.
Prestigious needs– one of the five types of human needs according to A. Maslow, related to the self-realization of the individual in society (power, wealth, career).
Crime- a serious type of offense that causes harm to life, health or serious damage to property and entails criminal liability.
Profit– the main indicator of the efficiency of economic activity. Income minus all production costs.
Privatization– transfer (sale) of state property into the ownership of private individuals.
Progress– the progressive development of society, expressed in the complication of the social structure.
Progressive taxation- a system of taxation in which the greater the income of the recipient, the higher the tax rate. It is actively used in Western European countries.
Production- creation of material wealth.
Proportional electoral system– elections to a representative body of state power (parliament), in which seats in parliament are distributed in accordance (by proportion) with the votes received. also, the participating party needs to overcome a certain threshold (5-7% usually). In the Russian Federation, this is how the State Duma is formed.
Misdemeanor- not a serious type of offense that does not result in harm to life, health or serious damage to property and entails disciplinary, civil or administrative liability.
Protectionism– government policy of limiting free trade through tariff and non-tariff barriers, opposes free trade.
Surplus budget– carried out with an excess of state revenues over expenses.
Procedural law– a special type of legal norms regulating law enforcement practice in the process of legal relations.
Direct taxes- payments levied on the recipient of income or property (income, transport, land, profit).

Separation of powers– the principle of the rule of law and the republican structure, according to which state power, in order to protect it from monopolization, is divided into legislative, executive and judicial. Guaranteed by a system of “checks and balances”.
Rational cognition– stage of the cognitive process, which consists in the mental processing of information collected at the stage of sensory cognition with the help of experience (empirics). In science it is expressed in the form of hypotheses and theories.
Revolution- a type of social change initiated by the population and changing all aspects of social relations. The opposite of reform, evolution. There are political, scientific and technical (STR) revolutions.
Revolution political- a change of state power, carried out primarily by force.
Regression– degradation of social structure and social relations (the opposite term to PROGRESS, its antonym).
Regressive taxation- a system of taxation in which the greater the income of the recipient, the lower the tax rate. It can be established by the state to stimulate the development of production, a specific industry, or a segment of the economy.
World religion- the most widespread religious systems on the planet, professed by huge denominations including up to a billion people (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam).
National religion– a religion professed by representatives of one ethnic group (Judaism, Shintoism, Hinduism).
Respondent– a person answering questions from a social survey (correspondent).
Republic- a form of government characterized by the election of government bodies and democracy. The people are recognized as the source of power.
Republic(as part of the Russian Federation) is the highest type of federal subject in the Russian Federation, possessing full state power, Constitutions and the right to establish a national language.
Referendum- a popular vote (poll) on an issue important to the life of the country, the highest manifestation of democracy.
Reform- a type of social change initiated by the state and changing one type of social relations. The opposite of revolution.
Genus- the primary form of an ethnic community, united by blood ties (large family of primitive society). Some ethnic groups have a clan.
Role(social) – behavior expected from a person related to his position and status in society.
Rosobrnadzor– a federal service that monitors the quality of Russian education and directly develops and leads state policy in the direction of the Unified State Exam.
Russian ruble– the official currency of the Russian Federation, the only monetary unit subject to issue on the territory of the Russian Federation.
Labor market- a specific market (along with the markets for goods, services, stock and currency, means of production and others), regulating supply and demand in the labor market, and therefore requiring special care of the state.
Market economy- the most effective way of managing, associated with the development of capitalism and based on the principles of competition, the laws of demand, supply, cost and money circulation.

Trade balance– the difference between a country’s exports and imports, active (with superiority of exports) and passive (with superiority of imports).
Liberty– the ability to act independently, independently, relying on one’s own strengths. At the same time, enjoy your rights in civil society, without violating or limiting others. In the classic definition of the classic philosopher Hegel, “Freedom is a conscious necessity.”
Segregation– one of the forms of discrimination of social groups and ethnic conflict associated with the forced separation of representatives of different ethnic groups and races in public life (for example, apartheid in South Africa).
Family is the main institution of the social sphere that performs the function of reproduction. A small social group united by blood, marriage, raising children, and living together.
System– a set of elements organized in a special way. The system of society consists of spheres (subsystems), they, in turn, consist of institutions, and unite them into a single whole (system) of social relations. The main features of the system are integrity, dynamism and self-organization.
Economic system– a type of economic management that has historically developed in the economy of a country and society in accordance with the answers to the basic questions of economics: 1. What to produce? 2. How to produce? 3. For whom to produce? There are traditional, command (planned), market and mixed systems.
System of "checks and balances"– a mechanism for guaranteeing the existence of the separation of powers in a legal republican state, achieved by consolidating in the text of the Constitution the competencies of each of the highest bodies of state power and their interdependence.
Smelser Neil- an outstanding American sociologist, one of the founders of economic sociology.
Mixed electoral system– elections to a representative body of state power (parliament), in which half of the seats in parliament are distributed according to a proportional system, and the other half according to a majoritarian (single-member) system.
Mixed Republic– a type of republican form of government, characterized by mutual responsibility of the Government between the President and Parliament (for example, in the Russian Federation).
Mixed market economy- the most relevant economic system today, characterized by the action of market laws with active government intervention in solving its problems (monopolization, unemployment, inflation).
Own- a legal right expressed in the owner’s relationship to the property. Involves the possibility of owning, disposing and using property.
Council of the Federation– the upper house of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation (bicameral parliament). Each subject of the Russian Federation is represented in the Federation Council by two deputies. Approves Federal laws.
Consciousness– the ability of an individual to foresee the results and consequences of activities.
Sorokin Pitirim– an outstanding Russian-American cultural scientist and sociologist, founder of theories of social stratification and social mobility.
Socialization– the process of becoming a personality from an individual with the help of institutions and agents.
Social group– a sustainable association of people based on joint activities and important social characteristics.
Social structure– a set of relatively stable communities of people, their connections and interactions, as well as the relationships that social groups enter into regarding the conditions of their life.
Welfare state- a state that sets the task of maximum concern for the welfare of the population. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 7), Russia is a social state.
Demand– a person’s solvent need for a product (service).
Mass media(mass media) – an institution of civil society and the political system, technical means of creating, replicating and distributing information (TV channels, radio, press, Internet).
Means of production- a resource that allows you to create economic benefits. As a rule, this is what the equipment is called.
Stagnation- the collapse of production (in the narrow economic sense), in a broader sense - the cessation of the development of the country and civilization. An example of such a phenomenon is the development of the USSR under L.I. Brezhnev.
Stagflation– hyperinflation with a simultaneous collapse of production.
Price– socially useful time spent on the production of goods (cost), the totality of funds.
Stratification– hierarchical identification of groups according to socially important characteristics and the degree of possession of a public good.
Subsidy– measures of economic support from the state for business entities or individuals.
Substitute- a substitute product in economic theory. When the price of one good increases, the consumption of its substitute will increase. For example, jackets and coats; tea and coffee.
The subject of the Russian Federation– a part of the territory of the Russian Federation with limited sovereignty, laws, legislative and executive authorities, and taxes.
Sovereignty (independence)- the main feature of the state, the monopoly right of the state to issue laws on its territory and represent the interests of the country’s population abroad.
Court– a government body, part of the country’s law enforcement system, whose competence includes the administration of justice and protection of law.
Judgment- a complete thought consisting of concepts and representing the second stage of rational knowledge.
Sphere(life of society) – the main type of social relations (subsystem).

Customs duty– a special type of indirect tax levied on the price of a product when crossing a national border.
“Solid” tax scale- one of the principles of establishing taxes, in which all income recipients pay the same percentage of income, regardless of its size.
Theory- a chain of logical judgments that turns into a conclusion, and is the final conclusion of scientific research and its result, explaining the cognizable phenomenon.
Terror– repressive state policy against dissidents and opposition. Carried out primarily by totalitarian states.
TNK– a transnational corporation, the highest type of international monopoly association in the modern world economy.
Product- a product created for sale.
Trade– economic exchange, monetary and non-monetary (barter).
Totalitarianism– a political regime seeking complete (total) control of all spheres of social life, reducing social initiative to zero (Stalin’s regime of the 1930s, fascist Italy and Japan, Nazi Germany).
Totemism- one of the earliest forms of religion, belief in the plant or animal origin of man.
Traditional economics– a type of economic system based on subsistence farming and traditional production. Characteristic of a traditional society.
Traditional society- a historical type of civilization based on natural production, a monarchical system and the predominance of religious values and worldview.
Tradition– a pattern of behavior in a specific situation that is stable for representatives of a specific historical community or social group (ethnic group, for example).
Transfers– social non-market transfers from the state budget to the regional ones for the payment of pensions, benefits, subsidies, salaries for public sector employees and other measures of social support for the population.
Employment contract- in labor law, an agreement between an employee and an employer establishing their mutual rights and obligations.
Labor law– a branch of private law that regulates social relations between an employee and an employer.

Criminal liability- a type of legal liability that occurs exclusively for crimes. Only a court can impose criminal liability and determine its extent. Criminal penalties - imprisonment, death penalty.
Moderate (creeping) inflation– a type of inflation in which prices rise at a moderate pace and gradually (up to 10% per year).
Inference- a chain of logical judgments, which at the stage of rational cognition turns into a final conclusion, which in science takes the form of a theory that explains the cognizable phenomenon.
Urbanization– the process of growth of cities and urban populations, characteristic of the transition from a traditional to an industrial society.
Service– the result of economic activity that satisfies the needs of the consumer. Unlike goods, payment for services is usually made upon receipt.

Factor income– funds received from the use of the main factors of production (labor, land, capital, entrepreneurial abilities, information).
Federalism– recognition of the integrity and indivisibility of the territory of the federation with a guarantee of national autonomy, one of the foundations of the constitutional system and national policy of the Russian Federation.
Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation– the highest legislative body in the Russian Federation, a bicameral parliament.
Federal Law of the Russian Federation- the main regulatory legal act in the Russian Federation, adopted by the Federal Assembly and signed by the President.
Federative Treaty– a set of normative agreements between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, which are one of the main sources of constitutional law of the Russian Federation in the field of regulation of federal relations. Signed on March 31, 1992.
Federation– a form of government characterized by limited sovereignty of the constituent entities of the federation and a three-level system of legislation and taxation.
Fetishism- one of the early forms of religion, the deification of objects, natural objects.
Individual– a citizen who has the rights and responsibilities defined by law.
Stock exchange (market)- a special institution of a market economy where the purchase and sale of securities (shares, for example) takes place.
Form of government– the relationship between the powers of central and local government bodies (unitary, federal states and confederations).
Form of government– a way of organizing the highest bodies of state power (monarchy and republic).
Free trade– economic policy of free trade contradicts protectionism.

Charisma- a set of personal qualities of a politician (oratorical, military leadership talents, ability for political intrigue), which the population endows him with and which allow him to come to power and retain it. In M. Weber’s theory of legitimacy, one of its types.
Christianity– one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam). It arose in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire (Palestine, Egyptian Alexandria, Asia Minor) in the middle of the 1st century AD. e. The founder is Jesus Christ. God is Jesus Christ. Has 1.5 billion supporters. There are a large number of branches of Christianity, sects. The most popular direction is Catholicism.

Price– monetary expression of the value of a product on the market.
Centralized economy– a system completely controlled by the state (center). Such a system is also called a command, planned system. Let's take the Soviet five-year plans as an example.
Central Bank of the Russian Federation(Bank of Russia) is the only bank of issue on the territory of the Russian Federation according to the Constitution.

Human- a biosocial being with thinking and speech.
Sensual(experienced, empirical) cognition- the initial stage of the cognitive process with the help of sensory organs, which, in contact with a cognizable object, supply information about it to the brain (vision, touch, smell, hearing, taste). Its stages are sensation, perception, representation. Is a prerequisite for rational knowledge.

Masterpiece– the highest achievement in a certain type of activity.
Chauvinism- an extreme aggressive form of nationalism, proclaiming the idea of the superiority of one ethnic group over another.

Evolution– progressive change in social relations, for example in the form of reforms.
Biological evolution– the formation of modern humans (Homo Sapiens). Same as anthropogenesis.
Ecology- a system of social relations associated with people’s relationship to nature.
Ecological crisis– one of the main global problems associated with the possibility of destruction of humanity as a result of disruption of the natural balance.
Economy– 1) economy, creation of material wealth. 2) a science that studies ways to satisfy limitless human needs with limited resources.
Economic system- see economic system.
Economic costs– the total sum of external and internal costs (production costs).
The economic growth– long-term trend of increasing real GDP.
Extensive economic growth is an increase in output using additional resources. It resists the most relevant intensive type of growth today.
Extremism- a method of solving political problems by force, used by political parties and groups.
Elite culture– a type of spiritual culture aimed at a narrow circle of specialists in the field of art, for example, ballet, non-commercial cinema, abstract painting, classical music.
Emission– issue of banknotes. In the Russian Federation, the function of the Central Bank.
Empirical knowledge– the same as sensory (experiential) knowledge.
Aesthetics– a branch of philosophy, the humanities about beauty.
Ethnology– a humanities science that studies ethnic groups and ethnic processes.
Ethnos- a large social group distinguished by nationality and united by a common historical path, traditions and cultural characteristics.

Entity– a company or organization registered with special government bodies.
Legal liability– the obligation provided by law to answer for offenses. There are criminal, administrative, disciplinary and civil liability.
Legal force– priority and subordination of legal norms among themselves in the legal system of a particular state. The Constitution has the highest legal force in the Russian Federation.

Artasov I.A. On the system and principles of preparing students for the Unified State Exam in history and social studies. Formation of skills necessary for successfully passing the Unified State Exam (Document)

Bablenkova I.I., Akimov V.V., Surova E.A. Social science. All topics for preparing for the Unified State Exam (Document)

Rutkovskaya E.L., Liskova T.E. and others. Unified State Exam 2009. Social studies: Collection of tasks (Document)

Unified State Exam 2011 - 2 demo options for social studies for Unified State Exam 2011 (Document)

Social Studies Terms (Document)

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Section "PHILOSOPHY"

Human biosocial being, the highest level of development of living organisms on Earth. It is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. Biological nature is manifested in human anatomy and physiology. The social essence is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.

The main differences between humans and animals:

thinking and speech,
conscious, purposeful creative activity,
transformation of the surrounding reality in the process of activity,
making tools and using them as means of producing material goods.
satisfaction of spiritual needs.

Worldview- a system of views on the objective world and man’s place in it, on man’s attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself, as well as the basic life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals and value guidelines determined by these views. Basic aspects of worldview:

Ordinary worldview arises in the process of a person’s personal practical activity.

Religious worldview based on the values of one or another religious teaching.

Scientific worldview includes a scientific picture of the world, generalized results of the achievements of human knowledge, principles of human relationships with the natural and artificial environment.

Functions of worldview:

worldview gives a person guidelines for all his practical and theoretical activities, allows him to formulate the goals that he intends to achieve in the process of his activities;
worldview gives people an understanding of how to achieve their goals and objectives, equips people with methods of cognition;
Based on the value orientations contained in the worldview, a person in his activity gets the opportunity to find the true values of life and culture, to distinguish what is truly important for life from what has no real meaning, is false or illusory.

Cognition- active reflection or reproduction of reality in the human mind, i.e., the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, conditioned primarily by practice, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement. Main directions in the theory of knowledge:

empiricism- the only source of our knowledge is sensory experience;
rationalism- our knowledge can only be obtained with the help of the mind. without relying on feelings.

Sensual cognition man of the world is carried out in such norms as:

feeling, i.e., a reflection of the properties of objects and processes arising as a result of their direct impact on the senses, the original source of our knowledge;
perception - impact on the senses of a holistic image of an object;

performance- a sensory image of objects and phenomena, stored and produced in consciousness without their direct impact on the senses. Rational cognition carried out in the following forms:
concept, i.e. a thought that reflects objects or phenomena in their general and essential characteristics;
judgment- a form of thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something about an object, phenomenon, or process is affirmed or denied;
inference- the logical connection of several judgments and the identification of a new judgment on their basis.

Scientific cognition- the process of obtaining objective, true knowledge. Signs of scientific knowledge: consistency, evidence, verifiability, consistency.

Forms of scientific knowledge: question, problem, hypothesis, theory, concept. Levels of scientific knowledge: theoretical (methods: analysis, synthesis, generalization) and empirical (methods: experiment, comparison, observation).

Social cognition - the study of society and the processes occurring in it. Features of social cognition: the coincidence of the subject and object of cognition, the complexity of the object being studied, limited opportunities for conducting observations and experiments.

Principles social knowledge: consideration of social reality in development; the study of social phenomena in their diverse connections: identifying the general and special in social phenomena.

The basis of knowledge about society is social data: events that actually took place (objective fact) and knowledge about the event (scientific fact).

Types of social facts: actions of people and social groups, products of human activity, verbal actions.

Values- the results of the transformative activity of man and society in the process of material and spiritual production, as well as the characteristics of certain ideas, principles, objects from the point of view of their significance for man and society.

Values play the role of guidelines in a person’s daily life.

There are personal, group and universal values. Material values- objects of material culture: buildings, sculptures, cars, furniture, etc.

Spiritual values- products of people’s spiritual creativity: musical and literary works, scientific discoveries, religious teachings, traditions, moral norms, legal laws, etc.

Progress- the direction of social development, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher forms, from less perfect to more perfect. The concept of progress is opposite to the concept of regression. Regression is characterized by movement from higher to lower, processes of degradation, and a return to obsolete forms and structures. Progress criteria:

progress of science and technology;
development of productive forces, including man himself;
improving people's morality;
an increase in the degree of freedom that society can provide to a person.

Liberty- a person’s ability for active creative activity in accordance with his aspirations, desires, intentions, ideals and values.

The concept of “freedom” is closely related to the concept of responsibility.”

Responsibility - a type of relationship between an individual and a team or society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of mutual requirements placed on them.

Types of responsibility: historical, political, legal, individual, group.

Needs- this is the need experienced and realized by a person for what is necessary to maintain the human body and develop his personality. Types of needs:

biological- the vital need for breathing, nutrition, water, movement, self-preservation, preservation of the species, etc.;
social - the individual’s need for diverse relationships with other people, for self-realization, self-affirmation, public recognition of their merits;
perfect- the need to understand the world around us, to understand one’s place in it, the meaning and purpose of one’s existence.

Satisfying needs is the most important motive for human activity.

True- the process of adequate, correct reflection of reality in the human mind. Types of truth:

objective true - reflects the real state of affairs, the world around us as it is, as it exists outside and independently of our consciousness:
absolute true- complete, exhaustive knowledge, not refuted by subsequent developments of science;
relative true - incomplete, limited knowledge. Depends on specific historical conditions and human cognitive capabilities.

Criteria of truth: sensory experience, reason, theory, practice.

Activity- a type of human activity aimed at understanding and changing the world around us and the person himself, as a result of which something new will be created. The structure of activities includes:

target- a conscious image of the anticipated result; subject- That. who carries out the activity;
an object- what the activity is aimed at;
facilities achievements- something with which the activity is carried out;
result- what results from the activity. Types of activities: play, study, work, communication. Material activity- creation of necessary for

satisfying the needs of gay people with material objects.

Spiritual activity- creation of ideas, images, artistic and moral values.

Evolution and revolution are two paths of social development. Evolution- gradual consistent change in society as a whole or its individual spheres.

Revolution a radical, qualitative change in the foundations of the social structure of the entire society or its individual spheres (science, technology).

Society and nature.

Society in a broad sense - a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, including methods of interaction and forms of unification of people. Society in the narrow sense:

a circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin;
a separate specific society (for example, Russian);
historical stage in the development of mankind (for example, feudal society);
humanity as a whole.

Nature in a broad sense - the entire world around us in the diversity of its forms and manifestations.

Nature in the narrow sense is the natural-geographical environment.

GlobalProblems- a group of problems of a planetary scale that arose in the second half of the 20th century, on the solution of which the existence of human civilization depends. Signs global problems:

affect the interests of all humanity:
urgently require a solution;
manifest themselves as an objective factor in the development of society;
involve cooperation between different countries in solving them;
The future fate of human civilization depends on their decision.

Priority global problems: environmental, energy, food, raw materials, demographics, international terrorism, drug addiction, preventing a new world war, overcoming the backwardness of developing countries. Directions solutions global problems:

Widely informing people about global issues:
a comprehensive study of the causes and conditions of the emergence and aggravation of problems;
observation and control of global processes on the planet;

creation of a clear international forecasting system;

concentration of efforts of all countries to solve global problems.

Section "ECONOMY"

Supply and demand.

Demand - This is the desire and ability of the consumer to buy a specific product or receive a service at a specific time and in a specific place. The basis of demand is needs, but limited by the buyer’s solvency, i.e., the amount of funds that he can allocate from his income to purchase a specific product or service. Demand is inversely related to price. The higher the unit price of a product, the less demand for that product.

Offer- this is the desire and ability of sellers to sell a specific product at a specific time and in a specific place. Supply is directly dependent on price: the higher the unit price of a product, the more goods producers are willing to produce and sell.

Economists call the situation in the market when the seller can and wants to sell exactly as much goods and at such a price as the buyer wants and can buy for this price market balance.

Profit- the difference calculated in monetary terms between the proceeds from the sale of products and the costs of their production.

Profit is the most important indicator summarizing the financial results of an enterprise.

Maximizing profit is the goal of the manufacturer. To do this, he strives to reduce production costs. The amount of profit in comparison with costs shows the effectiveness of the enterprise, the profitability of a particular business activity. If revenue does not cover all costs, then the enterprise is unprofitable.

Manufacturer (production).

Manufacturer- an economic entity that uses economic resources to produce goods and services for the purpose of sale and profit.

The producer of goods and services can be either a state enterprise or a private entrepreneur. A product produced by a free producer for exchange is called goods. The manufacturer selects for production those goods, but for which the profit is the greatest.

Production - the process of transforming economic resources into economic goods, i.e., objects that satisfy certain human needs.

The main groups of resources used in the production process are called factors of production. Factors of production:

natural resources. used in production: land (arable land, location of production facilities), minerals, forests, water and air, flora and fauna;
work- this is the labor force involved in production, the so-called “human capital” - abilities and skills, health, education, qualifications of workers:
capital - these are financial resources and means of production created by people (buildings and structures, machines and tools, equipment);
entrepreneurial capabilities - the totality of the active activity of entrepreneurs, their organizational and economic innovation (search and implementation of new ideas, technologies, approaches) and willingness to take risks when organizing a new business;
information - an important resource used in economic processes. This is, first of all, knowledge, messages, data used in the process of analysis and development of economic and managerial decisions, etc.

Tax- a certain amount of money that each producer of goods, recipient of income, owner of this or that property (building, vehicle, etc.) is annually obliged to pay” to the state.

Direct taxes are levied directly on some income or property in a specified amount. All enterprises and organizations pay income tax, and the population pays income and property taxes.

Indirect taxes- taxes on sales of goods and services, existing in the form of price premiums.

Money- this is a product by which the value of other goods is measured and the purchase is paid for. Currently, money is special papers and coins issued by the Central Bank of each state.

Functions of money: a means of payment, a means of exchange, a means of measuring the value of goods, a means of storing savings.

Market. An economic system in which the decision of what, how and for whom to produce is the result of the interaction of sellers and buyers in the market is called market economics.

Free market economy characterized by the most important features:

unregulated supply (producers independently decide which goods to produce and in what quantities):
unregulated demand (the buyer, depending on the availability of funds, independently determines what and in what quantities to purchase);
unregulated price that balances supply and demand. If all these signs are present, market self-adjustment, or market regulation of economic activity, occurs.

Economists call the situation in the market when the seller can and wants to sell exactly as much goods and at what price as the buyer wants and can buy for this price market balance, and the price at which the real deal is concluded is equilibrium yen. Equilibrium foam is not just a condition for the sale of a product, it becomes an important guideline for producers, telling them what can be bought on the market and at what yen. therefore, it can be produced.

Competition- the struggle of producers (sellers) of goods and services for the sales market and consumer sympathy in order to obtain higher profits.

Competition encourages manufacturers to improve their products and look for the most efficient ways to obtain and use limited resources for their production. Types of competition:

perfect(the struggle of many producers of one product who do not have the ability to influence the price of the product);
monopolistic (the struggle for consumer sympathy between manufacturers of interchangeable goods, for example, washing powder and soap);
oligopolistic (a struggle between several large producers of one product who have the ability to influence the yen).

Own- property owned by a private person, local government body, or state.

The owner has the rights to own, use and dispose of his property. He has the right, at his own discretion, to perform any actions in relation to his property that do not contradict the law.

Possession- actual possession of a thing, creating for the owner the possibility of direct influence on the thing. Use - extraction of useful properties from property. Order- the ability to change its ownership, condition, purpose.

Owners can be individuals (citizens) and legal entities, the state and local governments.

Methods of acquiring property: purchasing an item, making an item, using the property, receiving it by inheritance or as a gift, etc.

Entrepreneurship - carried out on their own initiative, independent, risky, responsible activity of citizens aimed at making a profit.

Types of entrepreneurship: individual (one person); partnership (linden group); manufacturing (construction, agriculture, manufacturing of consumer goods); provision of services (catering, entertainment, transportation, insurance).

An entrepreneur has the right to: acquire the necessary property, use the property of other citizens by agreement, hire workers under the terms of an employment contract, establish forms and amounts of remuneration, independently determine a program of economic activity, set prices, and freely dispose of profits. These and other rights of an entrepreneur are regulated by law.

Consumer (consumption).

Consumer - an economic entity that purchases goods and services for personal use and not for resale for profit.

The consumer of goods and services can be a state, an individual (citizen), or a legal entity (organization).

Consumption- the process of a person using economic benefits to satisfy his needs. The level of consumption depends on the amount of consumer income.

Income- funds in cash or in kind received as a result of the economic or financial activities of individuals. enterprises and the state.

Sources and corresponding types of income:

labor (wages);
capital (interest);
land (rent);
business activity (profit).

Chapter"POLITICAL SCIENCE"

State- an organization of political power that manages society and protects its economic and social structure. This is a set of laws.

Executive and judicial authorities, as well as public order, state security, armed forces, etc. Signs states:

territorial integrity and territorial division;
sovereignty;
the exclusive right to adopt generally binding laws;
the presence of public authority with a strong system of bodies and institutions;
tax collection system; symbolism.

Forms of government.

monarchy (absolute, dualistic, parliamentary);
republic (parliamentary, presidential, mixed). Forms state-territorial devices
federation (individual territories have great independence);
unitary state (administrative units do not have sovereignty, their leaders are appointed from the center and carry out its decisions);
confederation (a permanent union of independent states aimed at achieving specific joint goals).

Types political modes: totalitarian, authoritarian, democratic.

Functions of the state: Internal:

public order protection;
political - ensuring the conditions for the activities of political institutions;
economic - regulation of economic relations and structural changes in the economy;
social - ensuring a decent standard of living for citizens;
cultural, educational and ideological - education of members of society, formation of civic and patriotic values.

External:

ensuring defense and national security;
defending state interests in international

relationships;

development of mutually beneficial cooperation with other countries;
participation in solving global problems.

Power- the ability or possibility of any subject (individual or group of persons) to exercise their will using various methods and subordinate structures.

Sources authorities: law, sanctions, authority, traditions, wealth, knowledge, charisma.

Subjects authorities: political leader, hereditary monarch, parliament, political parties, courts.

Objects authorities: Citizens, social groups, society as a whole.

Functions authorities: management, coordination, organization, control.

Facilities (methods) authorities: law, traditions, coercion, violence, persuasion, encouragement.

Kinds authorities: political (ability and ability to implement the function of public management), economic (control over economic resources), social (control over the distribution of statuses, positions and privileges), informational (control over people through the media)

Principles of sustainability of power: legitimacy (legitimacy), effectiveness of actions.

The essence of power. Power is a form of social relations, which is characterized by the ability to influence people's behavior through administrative and legal mechanisms. The system of power includes relations of dominance and subordination, relations of subordination (multi-level subordination) and hierarchy.

Power is forced (but not forced) submission to the rules established in society. Voluntary respect for authority is based on internal motivation, gratitude, obedience to the law, and affection. Formal submission to power is based on legal laws, the action of social control and sanctions. Disobedience to authority is regarded as deviant behavior and is punishable by law. Sometimes power is understood as the legal right to make key decisions that determine people's behavior.

Democracy

In a broad sense, it is the form of structure and functioning of any organization based on the principles of equal rights of its members. decision-making by a majority of votes, legal election and accountability of bodies to the general meeting, conference, congress that elected them.

Democracy in the narrow sense is a form of state political structure that has certain characteristics: the principle of separation of powers, a multi-party system, equality in voting rights, guarantees of minority rights. Kinds democracy:

direct (direct) - direct participation of the masses in the formation of government bodies, resolving issues of state policy, social and political life through elections And referendums;
participatory (participatory democracy) - participation of the lower population in elections, decision-making, in the political process, monitoring the implementation of decisions with the active role of the state:
representative (representative) - indirect participation of people in politics through parliament as the highest representative body of power in the state.

Socialstate is a state that strives to provide every citizen with decent living conditions, social security, participation in production management, and personal self-realization.

Principles of the welfare state: civil peace, social harmony, social justice. The welfare state is based on:

a fairly high level of economic development;
democracy of the political system;
compromise between the main political forces regarding the goals and ways of development of society;
development of a system of social partnership;
increasing the role of the state in the system of planning and regulation of socio-economic processes. The welfare state provides:
movement towards the establishment of social justice in society;
weakening social inequality;
providing every person with a job or other source of livelihood;

maintaining peace and harmony in society;

creating a living environment favorable to humans.

Civil society- this is the sphere of self-expression of free citizens and voluntarily formed associations and organizations, protected by relevant laws from direct interference and arbitrary regulation by government authorities.

Prerequisites for civil society:

economic: private property, mixed economy, free market and competition;
social: large share of the middle class in society;
political and legal: legal equality of citizens, full provision of rights and their protection, democratization of power, political pluralism;
cultural: ensuring human rights to information, high educational level of the population, freedom of conscience. Structure civil society: political parties,

socio-political organizations and movements, cooperatives, entrepreneurs' unions, consumer associations, charitable foundations, sports societies, local governments, churches, families, independent media.

Policy- conscious activity in the political sphere of society, aimed at achieving, maintaining and exercising power; activities related to determining the content of the tasks and functions of the state. Politics expresses the fundamental interests of individual social groups and strata.

Functions politicians: management of social processes: integration of various groups and sectors of society into a single whole; ensuring order and integrity of society; involvement of the individual in public affairs; reasonable overcoming of contradictions and resolution of conflicts between government and society.

Subjects politicians: social communities, political organizations, political elites, professional politicians.

There are internal (economic, cultural, social, national, demographic) and external (relations between states in the international arena) policies.

Goals politicians: long-term (strategic) and current, priority (main) and secondary, real and unrealistic.

P politician- a person participating in political activities. The German sociologist Max Weber identified three types of politicians:

"occasional" politics - the voter when he casts his ballot into the ballot box;
“part-time” politicians - all those proxies of the board of parties of political unions who engage in this activity only when necessary;
professional politicians - those. who live for politics, or at the expense of politics, for whom politics is the main occupation in life and the main source of their material well-being.

Methods of politicians: persuasion, encouragement, coercion, violence.

Politicalthe consignment- an organization of like-minded people. representing the interests of citizens, social groups and classes, with the goal of realizing them by conquering state power or participating in its implementation. Classification parties:

by participation in the exercise of power: ruling (in power) and opposition (not in power and seeking to obtain this power);
by the nature of membership: personnel (few, valid only during election periods, free membership); mass (numerous, act systematically, have primary party organizations);
on the scale of the political spectrum: left (for reforms, social protection of workers, for ousting the private sector), centrist (for compromise, cooperation), right (for a strong state, protection of private property, for stability). Functions political parties: struggle for power in the state, participation in the exercise of power, participation in the formation of government bodies, formation of public opinion, expression of the interests of social groups, training of politicians, political education of the masses.

Man and state. The state acts as a force (professional administrative apparatus, army, police, detectives, courts, prisons, etc.) capable of exercising coercion against any member of society. The state arises to protect the interests of citizens, i.e. acts as a servant. However, often the servant turns into a master, and citizens have to defend themselves from him. Relations between people and the state throughout history have been difficult: harmony and conflict, the desire to suppress and establish equal, partnerships.

Ideal relations between a person and the state develop only in one case - when legal state. It is based on the rule of law in society, the freedom of people, their equality in rights. Members of society voluntarily accept certain restrictions and undertake to obey general laws. In a rule of law state, the source of laws is civil society. It defines the state, and not vice versa. In this state of affairs, the individual has priority over the state.

The situation is different in a totalitarian state. Individuals and civil society are suppressed, human political rights are not respected, the law is established arbitrarily to please the ruling class or ruler. The equality of all citizens before the law is not respected.

HumanAndpower. Power is a form of social relations that is characterized by the ability of some people to influence the behavior of others through administrative and legal mechanisms. The formal submission of a person to authority is based on legal laws, the operation of social control and sanctions. A person's disobedience to authority is regarded as deviant behavior and is punishable by law.

Section "LEGAL"

Law- a normative legal act of the highest legal force, issued by a state body in the prescribed manner, establishing, amending or repealing the rules of law. Signs law:

published by the competent government authorities:
protected and provided by the state;
has a written form;
is legitimate;
contains rules of law;
characterized by vagueness of the addressee. Functions laws:
regulate social relations;
establish the rights and obligations of citizens and organizations:
oblige to take active positive actions;
are a criterion for the lawful and unlawful behavior of people and the basis for the application of measures of state coercion;
instill in people a sense of goodness, justice, and humanity.

Kinds regulatory acts RF: Constitution, federal constitutional laws, federal laws, Presidential decrees, Government decrees.

Rightsperson- social opportunities that provide a person with a certain standard of living. As a rule, human rights are understood as natural, inalienable rights that belong to a person from birth. Kinds rights person:

civil (personal) - rights that belong to a person as a biosocial being (the right to life, equality before the law, etc.);
political - rights that provide the opportunity for citizens to participate in political life (freedom of speech, the right to vote, etc.);
economic - rights that allow you to dispose of the means of production, labor, consumer goods (ownership rights, the right to work, etc.);
social - rights to welfare and a decent standard of living (the right to social security, to medical care, etc.);

cultural - rights that ensure the spiritual development and self-realization of the individual (freedom of creativity, the right to access cultural values, etc.).

Legalstate- a type of state whose activities are actually limited by law, in which there is a real separation of powers, guarantees of individual freedom and control over power by society.

The main goal of the rule of law is to guarantee Iraq and the freedoms of citizens in all areas. Signs legal states

the rule of law in all spheres of society, including over the state;
real separation of powers;
mutual responsibility of the state and the individual;
equality of all before the law;
human rights and freedoms are the highest value:
political and ideological pluralism.

Section "SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY"

Behavior- the process of human interaction with the environment and society. Kinds behavior:

conformal - corresponding to social norms;
deviant - deviating from social norms, and deviations can be both positive (invention, collecting) and negative (crime, drug addiction) in nature;
delinquent - a type of deviant command, which is expressed in violation of formal (written) social norms (theft, vandalism).

Human behavior consists of many different actions.

Morality- a specific sphere of culture in which high ideals and norms of behavior that regulate human behavior and consciousness in various areas of public life are concentrated and generalized.

Functions morals: regulation of human behavior in all spheres of life and activity, maintenance and approval of certain social foundations; affirmation of the human in man.

Moral requirements: norms of behavior (don't steal, don't kill), moral qualities (justice), moral principles (collectivism), moral and psychological mechanisms (duty; conscience). Highest moral values (meaning of life, freedom, happiness).

Education one of the ways to develop a personality by acquiring knowledge, acquiring skills and development of mental, cognitive and creative abilities through a system of social institutions such as family, school, and the media. Functions of education:

social - socialization of the individual;
cultural - transfer of accumulated cultural values to subsequent generations;
economic - formation of the social and professional structure of society.

The education system includes: preschool educational institutions, schools, secondary (vocational) educational institutions, higher educational institutions.

Main trends in the development of education: democratization, humanization, humanitarization, internationalization of knowledge, continuity, computerization.

Education is the process of acquiring skills and development of mental, cognitive and creative abilities through a system of social institutions such as family and school. Learning is one of the main types of activity where a person can act both as a subject and as an object.

Upbringing- the process of a person acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities to interact with other people through a system of certain social institutions.

The function of educating an individual is performed by social institutions such as family and school. Main types of education:

authoritarian - is built on the unquestioned authority of parents;
liberal- is built on a high assessment of the child, trust in him, minimal restrictions and control;
democratic - is built on the self-determination of the child’s personality, recognition of his right to self-development, and the parents’ readiness to compromise.

Culture- in the most general sense, culture is understood as all types of transformative activity of man and society, as well as its results.

Culture is an essential characteristic of the life of society, and, therefore, it is inseparable from man as a social being. In the process of life, a person is formed as a cultural and historical being. His human qualities are the result of his assimilation of language, familiarization with the values and traditions existing in society, the result of mastering the techniques and skills of activity inherent in a given culture, etc. Culture represents the measure of humanity in a person.

There is a distinction between material and spiritual culture. Objects of material culture are created by people in the process of material production. Its products are buildings and structures, equipment, vehicles, household items, etc.

Spiritual culture includes the process of spiritual creativity and the spiritual values created in the form of musical and literary works, scientific discoveries, religious teachings, etc.

Functions of culture:

cognitive - will give a holistic idea of the people, country, era;
evaluative - selection of values, enrichment of traditions;
regulatory - the creation of a system of norms and requirements for all members of society;
informative - transfer of knowledge and values to subsequent generations:
communicative - preservation and dissemination of cultural values;
socialization - the individual’s assimilation of a system of knowledge of norms and values, accustoming him to social roles and normative behavior.

Forms of culture:

folk - created by anonymous creators who have no professional training (fairy tales, ditties);
elitist - created by a privileged part of society or at its request by professional creators; her works are difficult to understand for an untrained person (classical music);
mass - standard works are created that are understandable to any consumer without distinction of classes, financial status, level of training (pop music);
subculture - part of the general culture, a value system of a large social group (youth, professional, criminal);
counterculture is the direction of development of modern culture. the norms and values of which are opposite to the main components of the dominant culture (hippies, punks).

Religion- one of the forms of spiritual culture, worldview and attitude, as well as corresponding behavior, based on belief in the existence of God or gods, the supernatural.

Functions of religion:

worldview - the formation of a person’s view of the world around him and his place in the world:

moral - instills in a person basic moral concepts through a system of moral prohibitions (don’t kill, don’t steal, don’t bear false witness, etc.);

regulatory - managing people's behavior;
integrating - religion unites people, their behavior, feelings, aspirations, helping to maintain stability in society;
culturally transmitting - religion contributes to the development of certain foundations of culture, ensures the preservation and development of the values of religious culture and their transmission to subsequent generations:
legitimizing - religion legitimizes certain social orders, institutions, relationships.

Early religions: totemism, fetishism, animism. National religions: Judaism, Shinto, Hinduism, Confucianism.

World religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism.

Personality- this is a human individual as a subject of relationships and conscious activity; a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society.

There are two approaches to personality in science. The first considers the essential (most important for understanding a person) characteristics. Here the personality acts as an active participant in free actions, as a subject of knowledge and change of the world.

The second direction of studying personality considers it through a set of functions, or roles. Man acting in society.

It manifests itself in a variety of circumstances, depending not only on individual traits, but also on social conditions. A person can simultaneously carry out actions, performing different roles - worker, family man, athlete, etc.

The concept of “personality” is inextricably linked with the social properties of a person. Outside of society, an individual cannot become an individual (since then there is nothing or no one to compare his properties with), much less a personality.

Communication- social interaction between people through sign systems for the purpose of broadcasting (transferring) social experience, cultural heritage and organizing joint activities.

Communication functions:

communicative - receiving and transmitting information;
regulatory-communicative - organization of interaction between people in their joint activities;
perceptual-effective - perceiving people as social objects, influencing their emotional sphere; affective-expressive - emotional self-expression of a person.

Forms communication: household, business, professional, private and public.

Kinds communication: between real subjects (between two or more people); between a real subject and an imaginary partner (a person with God); between imaginary partners (communication of fictional characters).

Section "SOCIOLOGY"

Socialstratification- the presence in society of many social formations, the representatives of which differ among themselves in the unequal amount of power and material wealth. rights and responsibilities, privileges, prestige.

Strata- a social stratum, a group of people united by some common socially significant feature (education, profession, power).

Historical types of stratification:

slavery is a form of social relations when one person is the property of another and when the inferior is deprived of all rights and freedoms;
castes are social groups in which membership depends solely on a person’s origin;
estates - large social groups, membership in which is legally secured by rights and responsibilities transmitted by inheritance;
classes are large social groups formed on the basis of fundamental social interests and differing in their role in all spheres of society. Such types of stratification as slavery, castes, estates.

refer to a closed society in which social movements from lower to higher strata are completely prohibited or significantly limited.

The class type of stratification refers to an open society in which movement from one stratum to another is unlimited.

Socialnorms- rules of behavior that regulate relationships between people and social life.

Social norms guide human behavior, allow it to be controlled, regulated and evaluated. With the help of social norms, the functioning of people, groups, and the entire society becomes orderly. In these norms, people see standards, models, standards of proper command. By perceiving them and following them, a person is included in the system of social relations. gets the opportunity to interact normally with other people, with various organizations, with society as a whole. Kinds social normal

customs and traditions in which habitual patterns of behavior are reinforced (for example, wedding or funeral ceremonies, household holidays, etc.). They become an organic part of people's lifestyle and are supported by the power of public authority;
legal norms. They are enshrined in laws issued by the state, which clearly describe the boundaries of behavior and penalties for breaking the law. Compliance with legal norms is ensured by the power of the state;
moral standards. Unlike law, morality carries mainly an evaluative load (good - bad, noble - vile, fair - unfair). Compliance with moral rules is ensured by the authority of collective consciousness, their violation is met with public condemnation;
aesthetic norms consolidate ideas about the beautiful and the ugly not only in artistic creativity, but also in the command of people, in production and everyday life;
political norms regulate political activity, relations between individuals and authorities, between social groups, and states. They are reflected in laws, international treaties, political principles, moral standards;

religious norms. Compliance with religious norms is supported by the moral consciousness of believers and the belief in the inevitability of punishment for sins (deviation from these norms). In terms of content, many of the religious norms act as moral norms, coincide with the norms of law, and reinforce traditions and customs.

Socialsanctions- the reaction of society and the state to the behavior of a person or group when observing or violating social norms.

Social sanctions are divided into formal (followed by official structures, such as the state) and informal (followed by surrounding people).

Formal positive sanctions: awarding an order, bonus, promotion and many others. Formal negative sanctions: reprimand, fine, imprisonment, execution and others.

Informal positive sanctions: praise, declaration of gratitude. applause. Informal negative sanctions: refusal to shake hands, insulting tone.

Socialconflict- the highest stage of development of contradictions in the system of relations between people, social groups, institutions representing different interests and values.

Causes social conflicts: social heterogeneity of society, religious differences, differences in income levels, and possession of power.

Components of the conflict:

Subjects are opposing sides;

object - some finite resource or control over such a resource;
subject - an objectively existing or imaginary problem. causing disagreements between the parties. Participants in the conflict: witnesses, instigators, accomplices,

intermediaries.

Types of conflicts:

by duration (short-term, long-term, one-time, protracted, recurring);
by volume (global, regional, local, group, personal);
by source of occurrence (objective, subjective, false);

by shape (internal, external):

by the nature of development (intentional, spontaneous);
but the means used (violent, non-violent);
by influence on the course of development of society (progressive, regressive);
by spheres of public life (economic, political, ethnic, family and everyday life).

Socialstatus- the position of a person in society, which he occupies in accordance with his age, gender, origin, education, position. Kinds statuses:

group - the status that a person occupies in society as a representative of a large social group:
personal - the position of an individual in a small group, depending on how the members of this group evaluate him in accordance with his personal qualities;
prescribed - a social position that is prescribed in advance by society and the species, regardless of its personal qualities;
achieved - social position. acquired as a result of free choice, personal effort and under the control of a person;

mixed - has the features of prescribed and achieved statuses.

Socialrole- a model of behavior focused on a certain social status. Kinds roles:

psychosomatic - behavior depends on biological needs, the level of human culture;
psychodramatic - the behavior of the individual depends on the requirements of the social environment;
social - a person behaves as society expects.

Socialrelationship- diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups or within them. Kinds social relations:

material relations - arise and develop directly in the course of a person’s practical activity, outside of his consciousness and reality (production, environmental relations):
spiritual relations - are formed, first passing through the consciousness of people, determined by their spiritual values (moral, political, legal, philosophical, religious relations).

Socialization- the process of influence on him by society and its structures that occurs throughout the life of an individual, as a result of which people accumulate social experience of life in a particular society and become individuals.

Institutes socialization- institutions that influence the process of socialization and guide it (for example, kindergarten, school).

Agents socialization specific people responsible for mastering social roles and teaching cultural norms (parents, teachers, friends).

Social mobility is the transition of people from one social group to another.

Types of social mobility:

horizontal - change of position at one socio-economic level (student transfer to another school, divorce and creation of a new family) or geographical movement between regions, cities, etc.
vertical - movement up (ascending) or down (descending) along the social ladder. Channels of upward mobility (“social elevators”): school, university, church, army.

Family- an association of people based on marriage or consanguinity, bound by a common life and mutual responsibility.

Family functions:

reproductive - reproduction of new members of society:
socialization - the formation of an individual as a personality:
economic - general economy, assistance, support;
protective - physical, psychological protection;
status - belonging to a certain social stratum.

Family types:

by the number of children (childless, small children, large families);
by the nature of the distribution of household responsibilities (traditional, collectivist);
by related structure (nuclear, extended, polygamous);
by type of upbringing (authoritarian, liberal, democratic).

Nationalrelationship- one of the types of social relations that develop on the basis of a national community. Main trends in the development of national relations:

interethnic differentiation- the process of separation, confrontation between different ethnic groups and peoples in a variety of ways. Manifestations: self-isolation, protectionism in the economy, religious fanaticism and extremism, nationalism in politics and culture:
interethnic integration- the process of gradual rapprochement of nations and peoples, the gradual erasing of traditional boundaries, the transformation of humanity into a single political system.

Manifestations national regarding: economic and political unions, transnational corporations, international cultural centers, interpenetration of cultures and religions.

Absolutism- a form of feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power.

Abstract- 1) abstract, cut off from life; 2) purely theoretical.

Advice— notification of changes in the state of mutual settlements sent by one counterparty to another; associated with the movement of funds from one account to another.

Autonomy- the right to independently exercise state power or control, granted by the constitution to any part of the state.

Holdings– 1) assets with which payments are made and liabilities are repaid; 2) bank funds in foreign currency held in its account with foreign correspondent banks.

Adaptation- adaptation to changing conditions.

Acceptance- in civil law - consent to enter into an agreement on the terms specified in the proposal (offer).

Excise tax- a type of indirect tax on consumer goods and services, which is included in the price of goods or fees for services.

Corporatization- in modern Russia, one of the methods of privatization is through the issue of shares (securities) for the fixed assets of an enterprise with the subsequent transfer (paid or free) of these shares into the hands of private individuals; a share gives its owner the right to receive a portion of the profits.

Altruism- unselfish concern for the welfare of other people, as opposed to selfishness.

Depreciation – the cost of replacing worn-out equipment in production, transport, etc.

Anarchism- a current of social thought that denies the existence of any state.

Anathema- church curse, excommunication.

Animism- belief in the existence of spirits and souls. Primitive people believed in the universal animation of nature.

Annexation- forced annexation by one state of the territory (or part thereof) of another state.

Anomie- a state of social consciousness characterized by the decomposition of the value system due to the general crisis of the state or society.

Antisemitism- a form of national intolerance, expressed in a hostile attitude towards Jews, infringement of their legal and social rights.

Antiscientism– sharp criticism of science and technology, which are unable to “ensure” social progress and improve the quality of life of people.

Anthropic principle- the argument “We see the Universe like this, because only in such a universe could an observer, a person, arise,” which asserts why in the Universe we observe there are a number of non-trivial relationships between various fundamental physical parameters that can lead to the formation of intelligent life.

Anthroposociogenesis– the transition from a biological form of movement of matter to a socially organized one, its content is the emergence and formation of social patterns, restructuring and change of the driving forces of development that determined the direction of evolution.

Rent- use of the property of another owner") for a certain period and under certain conditions.

Artel- an association of persons of certain professions to work together with participation in common income and common responsibility.

Artifact- an object made by a person. Part of material culture. Artificial as opposed to natural.

Asceticism- extreme degree of abstinence, renunciation of life's blessings.

Assimilation- ethnic absorption, the dissolution of one people into another or several peoples (has other meanings).

Atheism- an ideological position based on the denial of the existence of God.

Attribute- a necessary, essential property of something or someone.

Affiliation– merger of an enterprise or firm with another, larger enterprise.

Basis- the economic structure of society, the set of production relations corresponding to a certain stage of development of the productive forces. The term was introduced by K. Marx.

Unemployment- a socio-economic phenomenon when part of the economically active population does not find work and becomes “superfluous”. According to the definition of the International Labor Organization (ILO) - International Labor Organization (ILO), an unemployed person is anyone who is currently unemployed, is looking for work and is ready to start work, i.e. only the person who is officially registered at the labor exchange.

"White collars"— workers engaged in automated production, scientific and applied development, as well as in the field of information.

Benefit– an event, the proceeds from which almost or entirely go to the benefit of one or more participants.

Unconscious- a theoretical construct denoting mental processes for which there is no subjective control. Everything that does not become the subject of special actions of awareness turns out to be unconscious. The experimental development of the concept of the unconscious was started by S. Freud, who showed that many actions, the implementation of which a person is not aware of, have a meaningful nature and cannot be explained through the action of instincts. He examined how this or that motivation manifests itself in dreams, neurotic symptoms, and creativity. Subsequently, the concept of the unconscious was significantly expanded.

Biosphere- the area of distribution of life on Earth.

Bipolar system of international relations- a system based on the confrontation between two superpowers and the military-political blocs they created - for example, NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs.

Broker- a type of stock speculator. Intermediary in concluding transactions between buyers and sellers of securities.

Budget- a financial plan that summarizes income and expenses for a certain period of time (most often a year).

Valuation– determining the value of any value, a work of art, or determining the ratio of the value of foreign currency in comparison with domestic.

Currency- monetary unit of a country.

Currency corridor- in 1995 - 1998 limits established by the state for fluctuations in the exchange rate of a given country’s currency in relation to the currencies of other countries.

Verdict- during a court hearing, a judgment as to whether the defendant is guilty or innocent.

Power- influence based on law or tradition, i.e. non-physical influence exerted by some people on others. There are many types of power: moral, economic, political, spiritual, scientific, military, etc.

Military dictatorship- a form of coup d'état carried out with the direct participation of the military and with their subsequent assumption of control of the state.

Military-industrial complex (MIC)- a union of the national military production system and political forces interested in its gradual development.

Voluntarism- arbitrary political decisions that ignore objective laws, real conditions and opportunities.

Globalization- a historical process of bringing nations and peoples closer together, gradually erasing traditional boundaries and transforming humanity into a single system.
Epistemology– philosophical science about knowledge, its boundaries and basic principles.

Coup d'etat- a violent change of power in the country bypassing the current legislation.

State- the political organization of a given country, including a certain type of government regime (monarchy, republic, etc.), bodies and structure of government (government, parliament).

Civil society- one of the phenomena of modern society, a set of social formations (groups, collectives) united by specific interests (economic, ethnic, cultural, and so on), implemented outside the sphere of state activity and allowing to control the actions of the state machine.

Deviation- so-called “deviant behavior”, a person’s deviation in his actions or habits from generally accepted norms. May be harmful to society.
Disintegration- disintegration, dismemberment of the whole into its component parts.

Declaration— an official statement of a person, organization or state; Usually, the principles of community life, foreign and domestic policy, program provisions of political parties, etc. are proclaimed in the form of a declaration.

Decree- a normative act of a state or government, an important law.

Demilitarization- destruction of military installations: prohibition of having military bases and troops.

Denationalization- transfer of state property to private ownership.

Denomination— consolidation of the country’s monetary unit in order to streamline monetary circulation.

Denunciation- refusal of one of the parties to fulfill the contract.

Money- the universal equivalent of value, a means of implementing exchange relations in society.

Deportation- forced expulsion, exile.

Dealers- stock exchange speculators selling retail products purchased in bulk.

Discourse(French discours, English discourse, from Latin discursus 'running back and forth; movement, circulation; conversation, conversation') the process of linguistic activity; way of speaking. An ambiguous term for a number of humanities, the subject of which directly or indirectly involves the study of the functioning of language - linguistics, literary criticism, semiotics, sociology, philosophy, ethnology and anthropology.

Dissident- a person who does not share the dominant ideology and policy of the authorities, a dissident.

Distortion– (from Latin distortio - “curvature”) a gap in changes in economic quantities, the evolution of which must correspond to a certain relationship between them.

Doctrine- a scientific or philosophical theory, a system of guiding theoretical or political principles.

Subsidy– allocations from the state budget to cover losses of enterprises, firms, financial support for the military industry, infrastructure sectors, etc.

Natural law- a set of principles, rights and values determined by human nature itself and independent of social conditions, government institutions and current legal norms. An eternal inalienable right of the individual, having a moral nature and the nature of absolute value.

Closed society- a society where social movements from lower to higher strata are either completely prohibited or significantly limited.

Wage– price for employee labor, measured per unit of time; is calculated at a certain rate multiplied by the amount of time worked.

A game- a type of activity aimed at satisfying the needs for entertainment, pleasure, stress relief, as well as the development of certain skills and abilities. A game is also called a form of free self-expression of a person that is not related to the achievement of a utilitarian goal and brings joy in itself.

Identification– recognition of identity, identification, inclusion; in sociology and social psychology, the process of emotional and other self-identification of a person with another person, group, or model.

Hierarchy- arrangement of parts of the whole in order from highest to lowest; the order of subordination of lower (ranks, titles, positions, etc.) to higher categories.

Suffrage– a set of legal norms establishing the procedure for electing the head of state, representative bodies, etc.

Investments- long-term capital investments in the economy.

Individuality– 1) a combination of psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, difference from other people; 2) a manner, method, style, method, etc. that sharply distinguishes a given representative of this type of activity from others.

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all sectors of the national economy, and above all in industry.

Industrial society- a society in which the process of creating a large, technically developed industry, predominant over agriculture, has been completed.

Intelligentsia- a social stratum of people who, as a rule, have a higher education and are professionally engaged in mental, mainly complex, creative work.

Intervention- violent intervention of one or more states in the internal affairs of other countries and peoples; can be military (aggression), economic, diplomatic, ideological.

Inflation- a fall in the purchasing power of money, its depreciation associated with an excess of money supply and a shortage of consumer goods.

Capital- condition, a set of material assets (can be in the form of movable or immovable property).

Capitalism - a socio-economic formation based on private ownership of the means of production and exploitation of wage labor by capital (replaces feudalism).

Cartel- a form of association of firms, companies, banks that agree on production volumes, sales markets, prices, while maintaining production independence.

Category- any concept that is “extremely general” or close to it; a concept with great power (volume). In dialectical logic, a category (logical category) is understood as a concept that reflects the successive stage of formation of any specific whole (respectively, the process of its spiritual and theoretical reproduction).

In metaphysics categories being or just categories different ways of being are called. One of the most abstract areas of modern mathematics - category theory - uses the term “category” as its base. It is argued that this term was used by its authors in connection with the terminology of Immanuel Kant.

Cybernetics- the science of the general laws of control processes and information transfer.

Clause- a condition, clause or separate provision, clause of a contract, law.

Clerical- associated with the church, striving to provide religion with a leading role in society.

Coalition government- a government formed from representatives of various parties.

Coalition- union.

Collaborationism- voluntary cooperation with a political regime imposed from outside by force, with the occupiers.

Colonization- settlement, development of empty lands.

Comprador- a local trader who mediates between foreign capital and the national market of a developing country.

Convention- an international agreement on a special issue that is binding on the states that have joined (signed, ratified) it.

Conversion (in economics)- transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Convertibility (currencies)- unhindered exchange of banknotes of one country for banknotes of another.

Bill of lading– a receipt given by an agent of a transport company to the shipper that the cargo has been accepted for transportation, and containing an obligation to release the cargo at the destination

Consolidation- rallying individuals, groups, organizations to strengthen activities.

Constitution(from the Latin constitutio “device”) - a normative legal act of the highest legal force of a state or state-territorial entity in a federal state, establishing the foundations of the political, legal and economic systems of a given state or entity, the foundations of the legal status of an individual.

Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.

Counterculture- a specific type of subculture. From the point of view of cultural studies, counterculture is a movement within traditional culture that is directed against certain values of traditional culture.

Concentration camp- a place of isolation for prisoners of war and prisoners.

Foreign Policy Concept- a system of views on the place and role of the country in the world and the resulting tasks in the international arena.

Concern- a form of association of enterprises that formally retain independence, but are actually subordinate to centralized financial control and management.

Confession- religion.

Conformism- agreement, reconciliation, adaptation to prevailing views and sentiments.

Confrontation(French confrontation, from Latin cum - together, against and frons, genitive frontis - forehead, front), confrontation, opposition (of social systems, class interests, ideological and political principles, etc.); collision.

Production concentration- growth in the number of large enterprises in certain regions and the concentration in them of most of the productive forces of society.

Concession- an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; also means an enterprise organized on the basis of such an agreement.

Counter-reforms- reforms aimed at returning to the old order.

Cooperation- a form of organization of production and labor based on the group ownership of members of the cooperative, the connection between enterprises engaged in joint production.

Co-optation– the introduction of new members to the elected collegial body by its own decision, without holding additional elections.

Corruption- criminal use by officials of the rights and power entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment.

Cosmopolitanism- an ideological movement that preaches the rejection of national traditions, culture and patriotism, putting forward the ideas of a world state and world citizenship.

At the end of the 1940s. this concept was used as a political accusation of unpatriotic behavior and way of thinking.

Cult of personality- exaltation of the role of one person, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development.

Latifundia- large land holdings (over 500 acres in size).

Legality– this is strict compliance with the officially existing law. If we compare a specific political or legal case with the rules of the law, we can clearly decide whether it is legal or illegal. If something does not contradict the law, then it is legal, and if it does, then it is illegal.

Legitimacy(from Latin legitimus - agreeing with the laws, legal, lawful) - the consent of the people with the authorities when they voluntarily recognize their right to make binding decisions. The lower the level of legitimacy, the more often power will rely on force.

Personal consumption- use of income to purchase goods to satisfy needs.

Personality in politics- a subject of conscious, purposeful activity, expressing and realizing the interests of political forces in unity with their own interests, integrating them into a single whole (state, party, socio-political, international political, etc.). Unlike other spheres of public life, in which a person can realize his interests as individual ones, in politics a person realizes them as an element of some general, that is, political, interests.

Personal income- household income after taxes, used for consumption and savings.

Personal status- the position occupied by a person in a small, or primary, group, depending on how he is assessed by his individual qualities.

Lobby- organized groups within legislative bodies that exert pressure (including bribery) on legislators and government officials in order to make the necessary decisions.

Lockout(English lock out, literally - to lock the door in front of someone, not to let them in), one of the forms of class struggle of the bourgeoisie against the working class, expressed in the closure of capitalists of their enterprises and the mass dismissal of workers to put economic pressure on them. By means of strikes, entrepreneurs try to prevent a strike that is being prepared or to suppress a strike that has already begun.

Lumpen proletariat- declassed layers of society: tramps, beggars, criminal elements.

Majoritarian system- the procedure for determining the voting results, in which the candidate (or list of candidates) who received the majority of votes in the electoral district is considered elected.

Majorate- transfer of power and property from father to eldest son.

Macroeconomics- a section of economic theory that studies the functioning of the economy as a whole as an integral system.

Marginalized- 1) boundary layers in society; 2) people who left their social group and did not join the values of another.

Marketing- a method of enterprise management that involves careful and active consideration of demand factors.

Marxism- a philosophy and political movement based on the belief in the inevitability of the death of capitalism and the victory of communism as a result of the class struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie, which should culminate in a social revolution.

international trade- exchange of goods and services between national economic economies.

Interpersonal conflict- a type of conflict, which is based on a divergence of goals and interests between communicating subjects, or contradictions that arise in the relations between them.

Measure- 1) expression of the dialectical quality and quantity of an object; 2) proportionality, which underlies rhythm, harmony of melody in music, ensemble in architecture, etc.

Metaphysics- a way of cognition when things and phenomena are considered unchangeable and independent of each other.

Method- way to achieve the goal; a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality.

Methodology- the science of construction principles, forms And methods of scientific knowledge; a set of rules of scientific thinking, techniques and means of reflecting the laws of the objective world.

Microeconomics- a section of economic theory that studies the economic activities of subjects: households and firms, as well as the interaction of these subjects in the process of formation of larger structures - markets.

Modernization- updating the foundations of society through various innovations and improvements.

Monarchy- a form of government in a state, the head of which is the monarch as an individual person who has full power, which is inherited.

Monogamy- monogamy, the historical form of marriage and family.

Monopoly- a situation in the market when an individual manufacturer occupies a dominant position and controls the market and the price of a given product.

Monopsony- a situation in the market when there is only one buyer.

Morality(lat. moralis - relating to morals) - one of the main ways of normative regulation of human actions.

Morality covers moral views and feelings, life orientations and principles, goals and motives of actions and relationships, drawing the line between good and evil, conscience and dishonesty, honor and dishonor, justice and injustice, normality and abnormality, mercy and cruelty, etc.

Motive- a conscious impulse that determines an action to satisfy any human need; the motivating reason for a person’s behavior and actions, arising under the influence of his needs and interests and representing an image of the good desired by a person.

Thinking- a set of mental processes underlying cognition; Thinking specifically includes the active side of cognition: attention, perception, the process of associations, the formation of concepts and judgments. In a narrower logical sense, thinking involves only the formation of judgments and conclusions through analysis and synthesis of concepts. Thinking is an indirect and generalized reflection of reality, a type of mental activity consisting in knowledge of the essence of things and phenomena, natural connections and relationships between them.

Superstructure- in Marxist theory - the sphere of social practice, depending on the economic basis of society and including: culture, law, morality, philosophy, science, politics, etc.

Tax- a mandatory, gratuitous payment collected from individuals and legal entities in order to ensure the activities of the state.

Naturalization is the acquisition of foreign citizenship in a country.

Nationalism- ideology, politics, psychology and social practice of isolation and opposition of one nation to another, based on the ideas of national superiority, national exclusivity.

National violence- suppression or belittlement of the interests of the nation, the forms of which are infringement of the rights of the nation, prohibition and persecution of religion, culture, language, traditions.

Non-tariff barriers- barriers (except for import duties) limiting international trade: import quotas, special licenses, sanitary passports.

Nominal wages- the amount of money that employees receive.

Nominal income- the amount of money received by individuals during a certain period.

Noosphere- the sphere of interaction between nature and society, within which intelligent human activity becomes the main determining factor of development.

Rule of law- a generally binding, formally defined rule of behavior of people as participants in recurring social relations regulated by this rule, which provides them with legal rights and obligations, established (sanctioned) by the state and protected by it from possible violations.

Regulatory legal act- an act of lawmaking issued in the prescribed manner by the competent authorities of the state, containing legal norms.

Political norms- rules of political behavior, expectations and standards, prohibitions and regulations governing the political activities of individuals and social groups V in accordance with the values of the relevant political culture, strengthening the stability and unity of the political system of society. In politics, as in any other social activity, there is also a measure, that is, a reasonable limit of what is permissible. This measure is determined by the interests of security and stable development of society. Political norms represent the “rules of the game” in politics.

Bond- a security that gives its holder income in the form of a percentage of its face value or the opportunity to win.

Lifestyle- forms of human (individual and group) life activity, typical for a historically specific society.

Communication- 1) specific interpersonal interaction of people as members of society, representatives of certain social groups; 2) a type of activity in which ideas and emotions are exchanged.

Social consciousness- a set of views and opinions of people regarding the subject, content and form of existence of a particular sphere of social practice. Social consciousness at the everyday practical level manifests itself as social psychology, and at the scientific and theoretical level - as ideology.

Society- a relatively stable system of social connections and relationships between people, isolated from nature and formed in the process of historical development, based on joint activities aimed at reproducing the material conditions of existence and satisfying needs.

Civil society- a system of non-state and non-political institutions and relations in society.

An object- that which opposes the subject, that towards which the objective-practical and cognitive activity of a person is directed. The object of activity can be nature as a whole or its individual aspects, as well as various spheres of human activity.

Object in politics- part of the political system, reality, which is included in the sphere of activity of the political subject And to which its activities are directed; and the subject is a source of conscious and purposeful political activity.

Ecumene– (from Greek) part of the globe inhabited by humans.

Oligarchy- the power of few; power belonging to a small group of rich people; the ruling group itself.

Oligopoly- 1) division of the market between several largest companies; 2) a market situation in which a few large firms control the market.

Ontology- the doctrine of being, a section of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of existence, being.

Fundamentals of the constitutional system- basic, fundamental principles of state organization, the implementation of which ensures its functioning as a constitutional state.

Responsibility- awareness of objective conditions and a subjectively set goal, the need to choose a method of action to achieve this goal.

Open Society- a society with a dynamic social structure. One of the types of society in different classifications. The concept of an open society was originally created by the philosopher Henri Bergson. It was then developed in detail by Karl Popper, who combined the philosophy of the open society with his philosophy of scientific rationality.

Public relations- material and spiritual relationships that arise between people in the process of their life.

Political relations- relationships and interactions between people regarding political power, management and regulation of political interests; are a mechanism of stability of the state system.

Ochlocracy- the power of the crowd instead of the power of the people.

Political parties- voluntary organizations of people who are united by common goals and actions, the desire to possess political power, or to participate V it, in order to realize the interests of certain classes and social groups; arise in order to express the interests of a certain social group and realize these interests with the help of political power.

Partocracy- the power of the party apparatus.

Permutations– movement of values that does not change the balance sheet; There are active and passive permutations.

Planned Economy- an economic system in which the economic activities of all entities are built in accordance with a single plan, which is developed by special government bodies.

Plebiscite- expression of the will of the population through popular vote.

Plutocracy- the power of a few rich people.

Pluralism- 1) a philosophical concept that recognizes several or many principles and types of being; 2) the exercise of political power by opposing and balancing political parties, trade unions, religious, peasant and other organizations.

Behavior- a set of actions and deeds of an individual.

Aggressive behavior- an action, deed aimed at causing moral, physical and other damage (up to complete destruction) to another creature or object.

Antisocial behavior- behavior characterized by the denial of social norms and values accepted in society.

Regulations- regulatory legal acts of competent state bodies and local self-government bodies, which are based on the law, cannot contradict it and are issued in pursuance of the law.

Polygamy- polygamy, one of the forms of marriage and family.

Policy- relations between large social groups regarding political power.

Use of property- operating means of production in the production process.

Concept- the unity of essential properties, connections and relationships of objects or phenomena reflected in thinking; a thought or system of thoughts that identifies and generalizes objects of a certain class according to certain general and generally specific characteristics for them.

Needs- the objective need of people for something objectively necessary to maintain life, development of the body, personality, requiring satisfaction.

Human rights and freedoms- the natural capabilities of the individual, ensuring his life, human dignity and freedom of activity in all spheres of public life. Human rights and freedoms, in accordance with the generally accepted classification, are divided into socio-economic, political, civil, cultural, personal.

Offense- a socially dangerous unlawful act committed by a guilty subject and entailing legal liability.

Legal capacity- the ability of the subject to have rights and legal obligations.

Pragmatism- 1) a direction in philosophy that considers the usefulness of concepts, views, ideas, and their practical results to be the criterion of truth; 2) a direction in politics focused on achieving immediate benefits, ignoring the moral content and long-term consequences of actions.

Offer- the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity of it that sellers are willing and able to sell.

Subject of labor- what a person influences in the manufacture of the products he needs.

Entrepreneurial skills- a set of abilities inherent in individuals who have access to the means of production; abilities realized in conditions of risk, uncertainty and instability of economic development.

Entrepreneurship- proactive activity of economic entities taking risks, aimed at making a profit.

The president- the head of state elected for a certain term in most countries with a republican form of government.

Presumption- recognition of a fact as legally reliable until the contrary is proven.

Prime Minister- head of government, council or cabinet of ministers in a number of countries.

Prestige- a comparative assessment by a social community or group and its members of the significance of various social objects based on a certain value system.

Crime- committed guilty socially dangerous act (action or inaction), prohibited by the Criminal Code under threat of punishment.

Preferences– special benefits provided by one state to another on the basis of reciprocity or unilaterally, without extending to third countries.

Precedent- a court decision made in a specific case and mandatory when resolving similar cases subsequently.

Profit- 1) the excess of income from the sale of goods or services over production costs; 2) the difference between the cost of producing a product and the selling price.

Privilege- an exclusive right, an advantage granted to someone.

Nature- the totality of natural and historical conditions of existence of man and human society; all forms of motion of matter.

Social forecasting- obtaining knowledge about the future of society, about what does not yet exist in reality, based on objective and subjective prerequisites for the expected course of events, based on the use of extrapolation methods, historical analogy, computer modeling, creating future scenarios, expert assessment.

Political program- a document establishing the main goals and objectives of the state, party, political organization, defining the ways and methods of achieving them.

Progress- a type of development of society, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from simple to complex, from less perfect to more perfect.

Labor productivity- volume of products produced per unit of time.

Productive forces- means of production and the people who operate them, thanks to labor skills, knowledge and production experience.

Production assets- investment resources or capital goods in monetary form used by a company in its business activities.

Production- the process of creating material goods and services in order to satisfy needs.

Promiscuity- the stage of unrestricted relations between the sexes, which preceded the establishment of any norms of marriage and family in human society.

Proportional system- the procedure for determining the voting results, in which the distribution of seats between parties participating in the elections is carried out in accordance with the number of votes they received as a percentage.

Protectionism- government policy aimed at protecting the interests of domestic producers by establishing barriers to free international trade.

Protestantism- one of the three main directions in Christianity, which is a collection of numerous churches and sects associated with their origins with the Reformation.

Political process- a set of activities of political subjects, guaranteed by law and covering all stages of development of the political system.

Psychoanalysis- a psychological system proposed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Having first emerged as a method of treating neuroses, psychoanalysis gradually became a general theory of psychology. Discoveries based on the treatment of individual patients have led to greater understanding of the psychological components of religion, art, mythology, social organization, child development and pedagogy. Moreover, by revealing the influence of unconscious desires on physiology, psychoanalysis has made a significant contribution to understanding the nature of psychosomatic illnesses.
Equality– a formally equal attitude of all to rights and laws, as well as a formally equal attitude of the law to everyone.

Radicalism- 1) decisive implementation of intentions, the desire to radically change the existing situation; 2) a political movement advocating deep social, economic, and political reforms.

Divorce- dissolution, termination of marriage during the lifetime of the spouses.

Racism- a theory and political practice that asserts that there are “full-fledged” and “inferior” races and nations, in order to justify the policies pursued.

Rationalism- knowledge of the surrounding world with the help of reason.

Real wage- the quantity of goods and services that can be purchased for a nominal wage, taking into account changes in the price level.

Real income- the quantity of goods and services that can be purchased with disposable income during a certain period, i.e. adjusted for changes in price levels.

Revisionism- a movement in the labor movement that advocates a revision of the basic tenets of Marxism: the theory of class struggle, the relative and absolute impoverishment of the proletariat under capitalism, social revolution as a way of transition to a new society.

Revolution- an abrupt qualitative change, a sharp transition from one qualitative state to another, a radical revolution in the life of society.

Social revolution- a method of transition from an old society to a new one, the signs of which are the transfer of power from the hands of one class to the hands of another, a change in the dominant mode of production and the political system of society.

Regalia– enterprises run by the state and serving as a source of state revenue (post office, telegraph, metro).

Political regime- designation of a set of means, methods and methods of exercising power in a given state, which characterizes it from a functional point of view.

Religious morality- a system of moral ideas, rules, requirements, principles regulating human behavior in his relations with God, the sacred, the supernatural, as well as relations between people, based on religious faith and enshrined in the form of moral and religious commandments.

Religious consciousness- a set of mental feelings, strong emotional experiences, perceptions, ideas, imaginations, illusions, thoughts, ideas, teachings based on a sense of faith in the existence of God, the sacred, the supernatural, about their relationship with the world, man and society.

Religious organizations- a social form of organization of people professing religion.

Religious cult- spiritual and practical forms of a person’s relationship (veneration, worship) to God, the sacred, supernatural, transcendental in the form of rituals, ceremonies and other forms of religious practice based on certain religious ideas and traditions.

Religion- illusory idea of the surrounding world; people’s ideas that God exists (gods, the sacred, the supernatural) and the practice of human connections With them.

Renaissance- Renaissance era, falling on the XIV-XVII centuries. Accompanied by great discoveries and inventions, a revival of interest To ancient culture and human personality.

Rent- regularly received income on capital, government bonds, property or land, which does not require the recipient to engage in entrepreneurial activity.

Profitability- an indicator of cost efficiency, defined as the ratio of profit to one-time and current costs, due to which profit is obtained.

Republic- a form of government where collective rule, separation of powers is carried out, the source of power is the popular majority with the election of government bodies.

Production Resources- a set of natural, social and spiritual forces that can be used in the process of creating goods, services and other values.

Referendum- national poll, identifying people’s opinions on particularly important issues; direct and immediate appeal to voters to resolve a political issue. Referendum decisions have the highest legal force in themselves and do not require any subsequent approval. In Russia, a referendum is appointed by the President of the Russian Federation and is conducted on the basis of equal universal and direct expression of will by secret ballot. Each referendum participant has one vote and votes in person. Participation in a referendum is free, control over the expression of the will of a citizen is not allowed, no one can be forced to express their opinions and beliefs or to renounce them. A referendum is a form of direct democracy.

Reflection- analysis by the subject of his consciousness and his attitude to life.

Reform- changing any aspect of social life while maintaining the foundations of the existing system; a consciously carried out transformation aimed at changing or restructuring any aspect of social life.

Reformation- a movement for a radical renewal of the Catholic Church, which took place in Western Europe in the 16th century.

Reformism- a political movement that advocates reforms as the main way to restructure society.

Roman Club- an international organization created in 1968 in Rome from representatives of the business community and leading scientists, engaged in research in the socio-economic field and social forecasting. One of the founders is a prominent scientist and public figure Aurelio Peccei (1908-1984)

Risk in business- probability of losses compared to planned income.

Rochrematics– the science of managing material flows (goods, materials, etc.) using mathematical modeling. The goal is to reduce costs.

Labor market- a set of social and labor relations regarding the hiring and use of workers in the production of goods and services.

Market economy- an economic system where the coordination of economic life is carried out on the basis of prices that are freely formed in the markets.

Sacral- sacred, related to a religious cult and ritual, ritual.

Self-knowledge- one of the types of human cognitive activity aimed at understanding the inner world of a person, his own "I".

Self-realization- implementation of human capabilities.

Sanction- part of a legal norm that specifies the legal consequences of violating the law.

Saving- household funds remaining after using disposable income for consumption.

Supernatural- something independent from nature and society, but capable of influencing them.

Liberty- one of the most important categories of philosophy, starting with Democritus, Plato and Aristotle. The ability of an individual to think and act in accordance with his ideas and desires.

free will- a concept meaning the possibility of unhindered internal self-determination of a person in fulfilling certain goals and objectives.

Freedom of conscience- the right of a person to think and act in accordance with his convictions without external coercion, his relative independence in moral self-esteem and self-control of his beliefs and actions.

Freethinking- a broad spiritual movement based on the rights of the human mind to a free critical examination of religion, its concepts and ideas, religious practices, the activities of religious organizations and the actions of religious people.

Freedom of religion (belief)- allowing by state laws the activities of different faiths in society, granting them equal rights and imposing equal responsibilities on them, free, unhindered activity of religious people and associations, excluding violations of the laws of the country.

Family- a small social group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are bound by a common life, mutual assistance and moral responsibility.

Incomplete family- one type of family structure that includes children with one parent.

Sensationalism- a direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations and perceptions are the basis of knowledge.

Simulacrum- a phenomenon described and interpreted for the first time by Jean Baudrillard: it is an image without an original, a representation of something that does not actually exist.

System- an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming an integral unity.

Political system- a set of political subjects, their relationships based on political norms, consciousness, culture and political activity, the essence of which is the regulation of people’s behavior through political power and political interests; a set of organizations and citizens interacting in the process of realizing their social interests through the functioning of government institutions.

Sculpture- a type of fine art, the works of which have a three-dimensional, three-dimensional shape and are made of hard or plastic materials.

Sobornost- the concept of Russian philosophy, expressing “unity in plurality”, the Orthodox Church, as well as government and society, organically combine two principles: freedom and unity.

Own- a social form of appropriation of things, i.e. relations between people regarding the appropriation of goods.

Consciousness- a set of mental processes for a person’s understanding of the world around him and his existence.

Social consciousness- views, ideas, ideas, various theories reflecting society’s views on the world around us.

Solidarity- unity of beliefs and actions, mutual assistance and support of members of a social group, based on common interests and the need to achieve common group goals, joint responsibility.

Estate- a social group that has rights and obligations established by law or custom.

Social democracy- a political movement that advocates the transformation of capitalist society through strengthening state regulation of the economy.

Socialization- the process of personality formation, the individual’s assimilation of values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given society, social group, or particular community of people, as well as the realization of his capabilities and abilities.

Socialization political- the process of involving an individual in politics, introducing him to political norms and values, developing an activist type of political behavior.

Socialism- a social system based on public ownership of the means of production, the principles of social justice, freedom and equality.

Social group- a set of individuals united by some common feature: common spatial and temporal existence, activity, economic, demographic, political and other characteristics.

Social differentiation- a development process associated with the division of society into interconnected spheres, parts, elements.

Social mobility- change in the position of an individual or group in the social structure of society.

Social role- a set of norms that determine the behavior of individuals operating in a social system depending on their status, and the behavior itself that implements these norms.

Social stratification- the presence in society of many social formations (strata), which differ in unequal attitudes to power, material well-being, level of education, and social prestige.

Social structure- a set of interconnected and interacting social groups, social institutions and relationships between them.

Social being- the life of society associated with activity, the production of material goods, which includes a variety of relationships into which people enter in the process of life.

Social norms- patterns, standards of activity, rules of behavior, the fulfillment of which is expected from a member of society and is supported by sanctions.

Social conflict- a clash of opposing interests, goals, views, ideologies between individuals, social groups, classes.

Social status- a set of rights and responsibilities of an individual or social group associated with their performance of a certain social role.

Sociogenesis- the process of historical and evolutionary formation of society.

Sociology- the science of society as a whole, individual social institutions, processes and social groups.

Sport- a social phenomenon that arose at the dawn of the formation of class society; an integral part of physical education, a means and method of physical education, a system for organizing competitions in various physical exercises.

Capabilities- individual psychological characteristics, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity.

Justice and injustice- concepts reflecting a situation that corresponds or does not correspond to the essence and rights of a person.

Demand- the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity of it that buyers are willing and able to purchase on a given product market within a certain time.

Means of production- objects of labor and means of labor in the aggregate.

Means of labor- that by which a person influences the objects of labor and adapts them to meet his needs.

Marriage stability- stability, strength of marital relationships.

Stagflation- a state of the economy when there is a simultaneous decline in production, rising prices and unemployment.

Personal status is political- the position of an individual in the political system, which is characterized by a certain set of rights, freedoms and obligations and is enshrined legally (for example, in Chapter 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation “Rights and freedoms of man and citizen”). The political status of an individual determines his political role in society, i.e. human behavior associated with his place in a given political system and typical for persons of a given status in this system.

Subordination- 1) putting in order; 2) subordination of the younger to the older; 3) implementation of the rules of official discipline.

Subject- the one who carries out actions has activity aimed at the object. The subject of the activity can be an individual, a group of people, an organization or a government body. The subject's actions can be directed at another person or at himself.

Subject and object in politics- in political science - reflective concepts that denote interaction in politics and show the vector of its direction.

Subjectivism- 1) a theory that rejects the objective approach to reality, denies the objective laws of nature and society, absolutizes the role of the subject in various fields of activity, primarily in the process of cognition; 2) political subjectivism is characterized by decision-making based on arbitrary attitudes.

Subjective duty- the type and measure of proper or required behavior of a person corresponding to the subjective right of another person by virtue of the instructions of the law.

Subjective law- the type and measure of possible behavior of a participant in a legal relationship, provided by the state.

Sovereignty- 1) complete independence of the state from other states in foreign and domestic policy; 2) power belongs to the people, the nation.

Judgment- this is a form of thinking in which the connection between an object and its attribute or the relationship between objects is affirmed or denied and which has the property of expressing either truth or falsehood.

succession– succession in law or inheritance.

Spheres of public consciousness – so-called “ideologies”; modern social philosophy identifies the following spheres of social consciousness: religion, science, philosophy, public morality, aesthetic sphere, economic sphere, political sphere, legal sphere.

Scientism– an ideological and methodological attitude that extols the role of science in the life of society, absolutizing science in history and culture.

Talent- outstanding abilities, a high degree of talent in any area.

Creation- 1) activity that generates something qualitatively new, possessing signs of uniqueness, originality and socio-historical uniqueness; 2) the cognitive-active ability of a person to create qualitatively new material and spiritual values.

Theater- a type of art, the specific means of expression of which is stage action that occurs during the actor’s performance in front of the viewer.

Temperament- a set of individual abilities that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity.

Theocracy- a form of government in which power belongs to the clergy, the church.

Theory- a system of generalized knowledge, explanation of certain aspects of reality.

The theory of separation of powers in the state- the mode of functioning of political power in a democracy, which is designed to prevent its concentration in the hands of one person or body, which inevitably leads to forms of tyranny and despotism. At the same time, power is divided into legislative, executive and judicial.

Terror- a special form of political violence, characterized by extreme cruelty, the desire to achieve one’s goal by intimidating society, instilling fear in it.

Terrorism- violent actions with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, imposing a certain line of behavior on them.

International terrorism- dissemination of terrorist acts on a global scale with the aim of changing the domestic or foreign policy of certain states.

Political terrorism- a set of particularly harsh forms and methods of political violence that are used to achieve their own, often non-political, goals.

Technique(ancient Greek τεχνικός from τέχνη - art, skill, skill) - a cultural phenomenon inherent in human society for the last several thousand years - a general name for various devices, mechanisms and devices that do not exist in nature and are manufactured by man. The word “technique” also means “a way of making something” - for example, painting technique, potato growing technique, etc.

Technocracy- a concept based on the belief that the future of humanity is connected with the widespread use of science and technology, advanced technologies; on highlighting the special role in society of technocrats - a social system engaged in the use of new equipment and technologies.

Product- an economic good that can satisfy any human need and is intended for exchange.

Tolerance- 1) absence or weakening of the response to any unfavorable factor as a result of decreased sensitivity to its effects; a person’s ability to withstand various kinds of life difficulties without loss of psychological adaptation;

2) respectful, tolerant attitude of people towards dissent;

3) tolerance for other people's lifestyle, behavior, customs, feelings, beliefs, views.

Totalitarianism(from lat. totalis - whole, whole, complete; lat. totalitas - integrity, completeness) - a political system that strives for complete (total) state control over all aspects of society.

Traditional economics- an economic system in which decisions about the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods are made based on traditions and customs.

Transcendent- “going beyond”, i.e. going beyond the boundaries of human experience and reflection, connecting the natural and the supernatural.

Trust(from the English trust) is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, in which participants lose production, commercial, and sometimes even legal independence. Real power in a trust is concentrated in the hands of the board or the parent company. They were most widespread at the end of the 19th and beginning. XX centuries.

Third World- countries that are not among the industrialized countries and do not belong to the socialist countries.

Work- expedient human activity aimed at transforming the substance of nature in order to satisfy human needs.

Labor resources- part of the population of working age.

Inference- reasoning, during which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments, new knowledge is obtained.

Urbanization- increasing the share of the urban population and spreading the urban lifestyle.

Unemployment rate- the share of the number of unemployed in the economically active population.

Utopian socialism- the doctrine of an ideal society based on the equality of its members, collective property and compulsory work for all.

Fact- a fragment of reality that has already taken place.

Falsification- a method of scientific knowledge developed by the 20th century German philosopher K. Popper, declaring that scientific truth can claim high validity if it can be refuted and revised, as opposed to the dogmatization of scientific knowledge.

Fatalism- a direction that is characterized by the idea of the world as a certain mechanism, the work of which is subject to objective, i.e., independent of human consciousness, laws, which act as a necessity.

Fascism- 1) nationalist, republican, anti-church and anti-capitalist movement that arose in 1919 in Italy around Mussolini; 2) political movements characterized by aggressive nationalism and racism, denial of liberal values, democracy and market economics, hostility to social democracy and communism, commitment to violent methods of struggle; 3) one of the types of totalitarianism (in Italy and Germany).

Federation- a form of government in which state entities have a certain independence, their own administrative-territorial division, dual citizenship, legislation, a two-channel tax system, etc. There are two levels of government education in the federation: federal and republican. Republics can have their own constitutions, but they must not contradict the federal constitution. Subjects of the federation have significant powers. Federations are divided into national and territorial, symmetric and asymmetric.

Feudalism- a formation based on feudal ownership of land and the labor of peasants who are dependent on the owner of the land - the feudal lord, conducting small individual farming on the feudal lord's land, performing various duties in favor of the feudal lord, the main of which are corvée and quitrent.

Philosophy- the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking.

Stock market– a market in which transactions with securities are carried out.

Form of government- a method of organizing the supreme state power, on the position of whose bodies the difference between its two main forms depends: monarchy and republic. It is also customary to include in the concept of form of government the system of relationships between the highest bodies of state power, the procedure for its formation, and interaction with civil society.

Form of territorial government- administrative-territorial organization, method of relationships, scope of powers of central and regional authorities. According to this criterion, states are divided into unitary, federal and confederal.

Futurology- 1) general concept of the future of the Earth and humanity; 2) an area of scientific knowledge covering the perspectives of social processes.

Character- a set of relatively stable mental characteristics of a person that determine the typical way of behavior and activity for a given person, his attitude towards the world and himself.

Charisma- 1) in religion - a mystical property bestowed from above and distinguishing its owner from the mass of believers; 2) in politics - the possession of special charismatic (personal) qualities by a politician.

Choreography- the art of dance.

Junta- 1) the name of socio-political organizations and associations in Spanish-speaking countries; 2) a military group that seized power in the country.

Target- a subjective image of the desired result, “that for the sake of which” (Aristotle) certain actions are taken.

Price- the cost of a product expressed in money.

Values- social definitions of objects in the surrounding world, reflecting their positive or negative meanings for humans and society.

Church- 1) a specific social institution, type of religious organization; 2) a Christian religious building where services are held.

Cycles- periodic fluctuations in economic activity.

Chauvinism- an ideology that preaches hostility, and often hatred, towards other peoples.

Evolution- the process of gradual changes in various spheres of public life.

Selfishness- a moral quality inherent in a person who in his behavior is guided only by his own interests, regardless of the interests of society and others.

Egocentrism- a view that places the individual “I” of a person at the center of the entire universe, an extreme form of individualism and egoism.

Economic practice- a method of economic activity embodied in economic theory, the result of the theory.

Economic system- a way of interaction between economic entities, according to which the problem of distribution of limited resources is solved in society.

Economic theory- the science of human behavior in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods, services and information in conditions of limited resources and multivariate use.

Economic laws- established on the basis of practical experience, identified through scientific research, the most significant, stable, constantly recurring cause-and-effect relationships and interdependencies in economic processes and phenomena.

The economic growth- an increase in the volume of goods and services created over a certain period of time.

Economic saving (accumulation)- financial investments (investments in shares, securities) or investments of money by the population (households) in banks in the form of deposits, i.e. transferring them to financial intermediaries, who will use the accumulated funds for economic development.

Export quota- the main indicator characterizing a country’s involvement in international trade, showing the ratio of the value of exports to the value of gross domestic product.

Expropriation– forced separation of the direct producer from the means of production.

Extremism- commitment in politics and ideas to extreme views and actions.

Political extremism- orientation in the implementation of policy towards radical goals, ideas and means, the achievement of which is carried out by force, as well as illegitimate and anti-legal methods.

Electorate– the totality of citizens who have the right to participate in elections.

Elite- the highest, privileged layer of society, performing the functions of management, development of science and culture.

Emission- release of money and securities into circulation.

Empiricism- knowledge of the surrounding world through sensory experience.

Aesthetics- 1) the science of the laws of man’s aesthetic exploration of the world, of the essence and forms of creativity according to the laws of beauty; 2) a science that studies the sphere of aesthetics as a specific manifestation of the value relationship between man and the world, and the field of artistic activity of people.

Eschatology- religious teaching about the ultimate destinies of the world and humanity, about the end of the world and the Last Judgment.

Ethnos- a community of people distinguished by specific cultural traits that have developed over many centuries and are transmitted from generation to generation.

Efficiency- a criterion for the feasibility of economic activity, suggesting a ratio of costs and results.

Legal liability- a measure of state coercion, which is embodied in the obligation of the guilty person to undergo certain deprivations of a state-imperious nature provided for by law for an offense committed.

Self-concept- a person’s system of ideas about himself. Within the framework of a single self-concept, its various components are distinguished:

1. I-physical as a diagram of one’s own body;

2. I-social, correlated with the spheres of social integration: gender, ethnicity, civil, role;

3. I-existential as an assessment of oneself in the aspect of life and death.