Modern research of Antarctica. Exploring Antarctica: from the discovery of the continent to modern research The benefits of Antarctic icebergs

Argentina, South Africa and others signed the Antarctic Treaty. The treaty proclaimed freedom of scientific research and the use of this region only for peaceful purposes. Antarctica became the first continent in the world where all military activity is prohibited; it is called the continent of peace and international cooperation.

Currently, about 50 states have signed the Antarctic Treaty.

2008 marked 50 years of active research in Antarctica. Many states have created scientific stations on the mainland (Argentina, Germany, China, Russia, USA, Chile, etc.). The USSR built several stations at different times, for example Vostok, Mirny, Komsomolskaya, Novolazarevskaya, Pionerskaya, Molodezhnaya. At the geographic South Pole, the southernmost Antarctic station, Amundsen-Scott (USA), is constantly operating. During this time, several targeted international studies of the polar regions were carried out (International Polar Years). This was the 2007/2008 polar year, the purpose of which was to study global climate changes on Earth.

In the coming years, the Belarusian Antarctic station “Mount Vechernyaya” will be created 18 km from the Russian Molodezhnaya station.

Scientific research is supported by the International Environmental Fund. Meteorological, oceanographic, biological, space, astronomical, and medical research are the main areas of scientific research in Antarctica. Antarctica is a natural laboratory for complex geographical and other studies. The main goal of modern research is to determine current and assess future climate changes, the state of the environment and the consequences of these changes for Antarctica, and to develop proposals for nature conservation in a changing climate.

Changes in the Antarctic environment may affect development. According to certain scenarios, as a result of climate change, the ice sheet of Antarctica may melt, which will lead to the flooding of many developed areas of the Earth. Various countries are studying the problem, atmospheric processes and their influence on the formation of the Earth's climate. A valuable natural resource is the fresh water of the ice sheet. Given the intense pollution of land surface waters, the ice of Antarctica may become the only source of clean drinking water on Earth.

Subglacial Lake Vostok has been isolated from the rest of the world for about a million years and is the object of study by scientists. Studies of ice samples from various depths of Antarctica at the Vostok station, obtained through deep drilling, make it possible to study the history of the last hundreds of thousands of years.

Over half a century of research, more than 100 Belarusian polar explorers have visited Antarctica. They participated in all allied expeditions to the South Pole. In November 2006, researchers as part of the 52nd Russian Antarctic Expedition organized a field scientific base in the area of ​​Vechernyaya to support the research of Belarusian scientists. Here, every year, near the Russian Molodezhnaya station, Belarusian scientists conduct research on the mainland under a special program.

Antarctic Nature Conservancy

The nature of Antarctica is very susceptible to even minor human impacts. The poor species composition of the fauna and flora of the coast, the close natural connections between individual species in harsh conditions require a careful attitude towards nature on the part of humans. In the coastal part of the continent, permanent and seasonal scientific stations arose, to serve which air and land transport routes were developed, and air and sea ports were organized. Every year, sea vessels with provisions and scientific equipment, fuels and lubricants, and aircraft with replacement expedition crews arrive on the continent.

Active economic activity can greatly affect the nature of Antarctica and cause significant changes in the Earth's climate. Some large states have decided to create international tourist routes. In some years, up to 5 thousand tourists visit Antarctica during cruises.

The most significant problems are air pollution, as well as contamination of the station territory with solid waste, recycling and removal of this waste.

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activities, nuclear testing and waste disposal.

There is an international ban on the extraction of minerals from the depths of Antarctica. Novaya proposed to establish an Antarctic natural park with an area of ​​about 12 million km2.

The problem of ozone layer destruction is one of the pressing problems of modern research by Belarusian polar explorers. The ozone layer absorbs part of solar radiation and protects all life on the earth's surface from the dangerous effects of ultraviolet radiation. The destruction of the ozone layer is manifested in the appearance of areas in the ozone layer with low ozone content - “ozone holes”, which are associated with changes in the Earth. These fluctuations are especially noticeable in Antarctica. This cannot but worry humanity. Since 1988, research has been carried out on the ozone layer above. The International Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer has been adopted.

Intensive krill fishing creates the problem of optimizing the catch and preserving the food supply for the animal world in Antarctica, its reproduction and maintaining an equilibrium ecosystem in the coastal zone of Antarctica. Despite Antarctica's remoteness from major routes, there is a problem of pollution of Antarctic waters and coastal pollution. At large research stations, waste processing and disposal facilities are being created.

Antarctica is a natural laboratory for studying global climate change on Earth. The processes taking place in Antarctica inevitably affect the nature of the entire planet.

The most remote, cold and mysterious of all the continents of our planet, keeping many secrets, is Antarctica. Who is the discoverer? What is the flora and fauna on the continent? All this and more will be discussed in the article.

general description

Antarctica is a large desert, a deserted continent that does not belong to any of the existing states. In 1959, an agreement was signed according to which citizens of any state have the right of access to the mainland to study any point of it and only for peaceful purposes. In connection with this, more than 16 scientific stations were built in Antarctica to study the continent. Moreover, the information obtained there becomes the property of all humanity.

Antarctica is the fifth largest continent, with a total area of ​​more than 14 million square kilometers. It is characterized by low temperatures. The lowest recorded was 89.2 degrees below zero. The weather on the mainland is changeable and unevenly distributed. On the outskirts it is one, but in the center it is completely different.

Climatic features of the mainland

A distinctive feature of the continent's climate is not only low temperatures, but also dryness. Here you can find dry valleys that form in the upper ten-centimeter layer of falling snow. The continent has not seen precipitation in the form of rain for more than 2 million years. On the continent, the combination of cold and dryness reaches its peak. Despite this, the continent contains more than 70% of its fresh water, but only in the form of ice. The climate is similar to the climate on the planet Mars. In Antarctica, strong and prolonged winds are concentrated, reaching up to 90 meters per second, and powerful solar radiation.

Flora of the continent

Features of the climate zone of Antarctica affect the scarcity of plant and animal diversity. The mainland is practically devoid of vegetation, but some types of mosses and lichens can still be found along the edge of the mainland and on areas of land thawed from snow and ice, the so-called oasis islands. These representatives of the plant species often form peat bogs. Lichens are represented in a wide variety of more than three hundred species. In the lakes formed due to the melting of the earth, lower algae can be found. In the summer, Antarctica is beautiful and in some places is represented by colorful patches of red, green and yellow, where lawns can be seen. This is the result of the accumulation of protozoan algae.

Flowering plants are rare and not found everywhere, there are more than two hundred of them, among them Kerguelen cabbage stands out, which is not only a nutritious vegetable, but also a good remedy to prevent the occurrence of scurvy, due to its high content of vitamins. It is found on the Kerguelen Islands, where it got its name, and South Georgia. Due to the absence of insects, pollination of flowering plants occurs by the wind, which causes the absence of pigment in the leaves of herbaceous plants; they are colorless. Scientists note that Antarctica was once the center of flora formation, but changing conditions on the continent led to changes in both its flora and fauna.

Fauna of Antarctica

The fauna in Antarctica is sparse, especially terrestrial species. Some species of worms, lower crustaceans and insects are found. Of the latter, you can find flies, but they are all wingless, and in general, there are no winged insects on the continent due to constant strong winds. But in addition to wingless flies, wingless butterflies, some species of beetles, spiders and freshwater mollusks are also found in Antarctica.

In contrast to the scarce terrestrial fauna, the Antarctic continent is rich in marine and semi-terrestrial animals, which are represented by numerous pinnipeds and cetaceans. These are fur seals, whales, and seals, whose favorite place is floating ice. The most famous marine animals of Antarctica are penguins - birds that swim and dive well, but cannot fly due to their short, flipper-like wings. The main food ingredients for penguins are fish, but they do not hesitate to feast on mollusks and crustaceans.

Significance of Antarctica Exploration

Navigation on the seas was stopped for a long time after the voyage of the navigator Cook. For half a century, not a single ship managed to do what the sailors of England did. The history of exploration of Antarctica began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was the Russian navigators who managed to do what Cook failed, and the door to Antarctica that he once closed opened. This was accomplished during the period of intensive construction of capitalism in Russia, during a period of special attention to geographical discoveries, since the formation of capitalism required development in industry and trade, which, in turn, required the development of scientific activity, the study of natural resources and the establishment of trade routes. It all started with the development of Siberia, its vast expanse, then the shores of the Pacific Ocean and, finally, North America. The interests of politics and seafarers diverged. The purpose of travel was the discovery of unknown continents, the discovery of something new. For politicians, the importance of exploring Antarctica came down to expanding the market in the international arena, strengthening colonial influence and raising the level of prestige of their state.

History of the discovery of Antarctica

In 1803-1806, Russian travelers I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky made the first trip around the world, which was equipped by two companies - Russian and American. Already in 1807-1809, V. M. Golovin was next sent on a military boat.

The defeat of Napoleon in 1812 inspired many naval officers to undertake long voyages and exploration voyages. This coincided with the tsar’s desire to annex and secure certain lands for Russia. Research during the sea voyage led to the identification of the boundaries of all continents, in addition, the boundaries of three oceans were studied - the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific, but the spaces at the Earth's poles had not yet been explored.

Who are the discoverers of Antarctica?

F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev became the first explorers of Antarctica, representatives of the Russian expedition led by I. F. Kruzenshtern. The expedition consisted mainly of young military men who wanted to go to the continent. The team of 205 people was located on two boats, “Vostok” and “Mirny”. The expedition leadership received the following instructions:

• Strict adherence to assigned tasks.
• Full compliance with navigation rules and full crew supplies.
• Comprehensive observation and constant travel log keeping.

Bellingshausen and Lazarev were inspired by the belief in the existence of new lands. The discovery of new lands is the new main goal of inspired sailors. The presence of such in the region of the south pole could be found in the works of M.V. Lomonosov and Johann Forster, who believed that icebergs formed in the ocean are of continental origin. During the expedition, Bellingshausen and Lazarev made clarifications in Cook's notes. They were able to give a description of the coast in the direction of Sandwich Land, which Cook was never able to do.

Discovery of the continent

During the expedition, approaching the south pole, famous Antarctic researchers first encountered one large iceberg, and then a group of mountainous islands made of snow and ice. Moving between the snowy peaks, Russian sailors approached the Antarctic continent for the first time. A snowy coastline opened before the travelers' eyes, but the mountains and rocks were not covered in snow. It seemed to them that the coast was endless, however, having decided to make sure that this was the southern continent, they drove around it along the coast. It turned out that this is an island. The result of the expedition, which lasted 751 days, was the discovery of a new continent - Antarctica. The navigators managed to map the islands, bays, capes, etc. they encountered along the way. During the expedition, several species of animals, plants, and rock samples were obtained.

Damage to fauna

The discovery of Antarctica brought great damage to the fauna of this continent; some species of marine animals were completely exterminated. In the 19th century, when Antarctica became a whaling center, many species of marine fauna suffered significantly. The fauna of the continent is currently under the protection of the international association.

Scientific research

Scientific research in Antarctica boiled down to the fact that researchers from different countries, in addition to catching whales and other representatives of the animal world, discovered new territories and studied climate features. They also measured the depth of the sea.

Already in 1901, the modern explorer of Antarctica Robert Scott traveled to the shores of the southern continent, where he made many important discoveries and collected a lot of information about both the flora and fauna, and minerals. Since the 1930s, not only the water and land parts of Antarctica, but also its air spaces have been fully explored, and since the 1950s, oceanic and geological work has been carried out.

Russian researchers in Antarctica

Our compatriots have done a lot to study these lands. Russian researchers opened a scientific station in Antarctica and founded the village of Mirny. Today people know much more about the continent than a hundred years ago. There is information about the weather conditions of the continent, its flora and fauna, geological features, but the ice itself has not been fully studied, the study of which continues today. Today, scientists are concerned about the movement of Antarctic ice, its density, speed and composition.

Our days

One of the main meanings of the exploration of Antarctica is the search for minerals in the depths of the endless snowy desert. It has been established that the continent contains coal, iron ore, non-ferrous metals, as well as precious metals and stones. An important focus in modern research is recreating a complete picture of the ancient period of ice melting. It is already known that Antarctic ice formed before the ice sheets of the Northern Hemisphere. The researchers came to the conclusion that the geostructure of Antarctica is similar to South Africa. The once uninhabited spaces are the source of research for polar explorers, who today are the only inhabitants of Antarctica. They include biologists, geologists and other scientists from different countries. They are the modern explorers of Antarctica.

The impact of human intervention on the integrity of the continent

Modern opportunities and technologies also allow wealthy tourists to visit Antarctica. Each new visit to the continent negatively affects the environmental background as a whole. The biggest danger appears to be global warming, which affects the entire planet. This could lead to the melting of ice, to changes not only in the ecosystem of the continent, but also in the entire World Ocean. That is why any scientific research on the continent is under the control of the global scientific community. A reasonable and careful approach to the development of the continent is important in order to preserve it in its original form.

Activities of modern polar explorers on the mainland

Scientists are increasingly interested in the question of the survival of microorganisms in extreme environmental conditions, for which a proposal has been made to bring certain types of microbial communities to the mainland. This is necessary to breed the species that is most resistant to cold, low humidity and solar radiation for its further use in the pharmaceutical industry. Scientists are trying to study data on the progress of modification of living organisms and the influence on them of a prolonged lack of contact with the atmosphere.

Living on a cold continent is not easy; the climatic conditions are considered difficult for humans, even though the expedition members spend most of their time indoors, where comfortable conditions have been created. During preparation, polar explorers are subjected to special testing by medical workers in order to select those who are psychologically stable from among the applicants. The modern life of polar explorers is determined by the presence of fully equipped stations. There is a satellite dish, electronic communications, and instruments that measure the temperature of air, water, snow and ice.

Antarctica (Greek ἀνταρκτικός - the opposite of the Arctic) is a continent located in the very south of the Earth, the center of Antarctica approximately coincides with the southern geographic pole. Antarctica is washed by the waters of the Southern Ocean.

The area of ​​the continent is about 14,107,000 km² (of which ice shelves - 930,000 km², islands - 75,500 km²).

Antarctica is also called the part of the world consisting of the mainland of Antarctica and adjacent islands.

Discovery of the continent of Antarctica

Antarctica was discovered on January 16 (28), 1820 by a Russian expedition led by Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, who approached it at the point 69°21′ S on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny”. w. 2°14′ W d. (G) (O) (region of the modern Bellingshausen ice shelf). Previously, the existence of the southern continent (lat. Terra Australis) was stated hypothetically; it was often combined with South America (for example, on the map compiled by Piri Reis in 1513) and Australia. However, it was the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev in the south polar seas, circumnavigating the Antarctic ice around the world, that confirmed the existence of a sixth continent.

The first to enter the continent were probably the crew of the American ship Cecilia on February 7, 1821. The exact location of the landing is unknown, but it is believed to have occurred at Hughes Bay (64°13′S 61°20′W (G)(O)). This statement of landing on the continent is one of the earliest. The most accurate is the statement about the landing on the mainland (Davis Coast) from the Norwegian businessman Henrik Johann Bull, dating back to 1895.

Geographical division

The territory of Antarctica is divided into geographical areas and regions discovered years earlier by various travelers. The area being explored and named after the discoverer (or others) is called "land".

Official list of lands of Antarctica:

• Queen Maud Land
• Wilkes Land
• Victoria Land
• Mary Byrd Land
• Ellsworth Land
• Kotsa Land
• Enderby Land

The northernmost point of the continent is Prime Head.

Antarctica is the highest continent on Earth; the average height of the continent's surface above sea level is more than 2000 m, and in the center of the continent it reaches 4000 meters. Most of this height is made up of the permanent ice cover of the continent, under which the continental relief is hidden and only 0.3% (about 40 thousand km²) of its area is free from ice - mainly in West Antarctica and the Transantarctic Mountains: islands, sections of the coast, etc. n. “dry valleys” and individual ridges and mountain peaks (nunataks) rising above the icy surface. The Transantarctic Mountains, crossing almost the entire continent, divide Antarctica into two parts - West Antarctica and East Antarctica, which have different origins and geological structures. In the east there is a high (highest elevation of the ice surface ~4100 m above sea level) ice-covered plateau. The western part consists of a group of mountainous islands connected by ice. On the Pacific coast are the Antarctic Andes, whose altitude exceeds 4000 m; the highest point on the continent is 5140 m above sea level - the Vinson Massif in the Ellsworth Mountains. In West Antarctica there is also the deepest depression of the continent - the Bentley Trench, probably of rift origin. The depth of the ice-filled Bentley Trench reaches 2555 m below sea level.

Research using modern methods has made it possible to learn more about the subglacial topography of the southern continent. As a result of research, it turned out that about a third of the continent lies below the level of the world ocean; research also showed the presence of mountain ranges and massifs.

The western part of the continent has complex terrain and large elevation changes. Here are the highest mountain (Vinson Mountain 5140 m) and the deepest depression (Bentley Trough −2555 m) in Antarctica. The Antarctic Peninsula is a continuation of the South American Andes, which stretch towards the south pole, slightly deviating from it to the western sector.

The eastern part of the continent has a predominantly smooth topography, with individual plateaus and mountain ranges up to 3-4 km high. In contrast to the western part, which is composed of young Cenozoic rocks, the eastern part is a protrusion of the crystalline foundation of a platform that was previously part of Gondwana.

The continent has relatively low volcanic activity. The largest volcano is Mount Erebus on Ross Island in the sea of ​​the same name.

Subglacial studies conducted by NASA have discovered a crater of asteroid origin in Antarctica. The diameter of the crater is 482 km. The crater was formed when an asteroid with a diameter of about 48 kilometers (larger than Eros) fell to Earth, approximately 250 million years ago, during the Permian-Triassic time. The dust raised during the fall and explosion of the asteroid led to centuries-long cooling and the death of most of the flora and fauna of that era. This crater is currently considered the largest on Earth.

If the glaciers completely melt, the area of ​​Antarctica will be reduced by a third: Western Antarctica will turn into an archipelago, and eastern Antarctica will remain a continent. According to other sources, the whole of Antarctica will turn into an archipelago.

The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest on our planet and is approximately 10 times larger in area than the nearest largest, the Greenland Ice Sheet. It contains ~30 million km³ of ice, that is, 90% of all land ice. Due to the severity of the ice, as studies by geophysicists show, the continent subsided by an average of 0.5 km, as indicated by its relatively deep shelf. The ice sheet in Antarctica contains about 80% of all fresh water on the planet; if it melted completely, sea levels would rise by almost 60 meters (for comparison, if the Greenland ice sheet were to melt, sea levels would rise by only 8 meters).

The ice sheet has a dome shape with increasing surface steepness towards the coast, where it is framed in many places by ice shelves. The average thickness of the ice layer is 2500-2800 m, reaching a maximum value in some areas of East Antarctica - 4800 m. The accumulation of ice on the ice sheet leads, as in the case of other glaciers, to the flow of ice into the ablation (destruction) zone, which acts as coast of the continent; the ice breaks off in the form of icebergs. The annual volume of ablation is estimated at 2500 km³.

A special feature of Antarctica is the large area of ​​ice shelves (low (blue) areas of West Antarctica), which accounts for ~10% of the area above sea level; these glaciers are the source of icebergs of record sizes, significantly exceeding the size of the icebergs of the outlet glaciers of Greenland; for example, in 2000, the largest currently known iceberg (2005), B-15, with an area of ​​over 10 thousand km², broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf. In winter (summer in the Northern Hemisphere), the area of ​​sea ice around Antarctica increases to 18 million km², and in summer it decreases to 3-4 million km².

The age of the ice sheet at the top can be determined from annual layers consisting of winter and summer deposits, as well as from marker horizons that carry information about global events (for example, volcanic eruptions). But at great depths, to determine the age, numerical modeling of ice spreading is used, which is based on knowledge of the relief, temperature, rate of snow accumulation, etc.

According to Academician Vladimir Mikhailovich Kotlyakov, the continental ice sheet formed no later than 5 million years ago, but, more likely, 30-35 million years ago. This was apparently facilitated by the rupture of the bridge connecting South America and the Antarctic Peninsula, which led, in turn, to the formation of the Antarctic circumpolar current (Western Wind Current) and the isolation of the Antarctic waters from the World Ocean - these waters make up the so-called Southern Ocean.

Geological structure

Geological structure of East Antarctica

East Antarctica is an ancient Precambrian continental platform (craton) similar to those of India, Brazil, Africa and Australia. All these cratons were formed during the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. The age of the crystalline basement rocks is 2.5-2.8 billion years, the oldest rocks of Enderby Land are more than 3 billion years old.

The foundation is covered by a younger sedimentary cover, formed 350-190 million years ago, mainly of marine origin. In layers with an age of 320-280 million years, there are glacial deposits, but younger ones contain fossil remains of plants and animals, including ichthyosaurs, which indicates a strong difference in the climate of that time from the modern one. Findings of heat-loving reptiles and fern flora were made by the first explorers of Antarctica and served as one of the strongest evidence of large-scale horizontal plate movements, confirming the concept of plate tectonics.

Seismic activity. Volcanism

Antarctica is a tectonically calm continent with little seismic activity; manifestations of volcanism are concentrated in West Antarctica and are associated with the Antarctic Peninsula, which arose during the Andean period of mountain building. Some of the volcanoes, especially island volcanoes, have erupted in the last 200 years. The most active volcano in Antarctica is Erebus. It is called “the volcano guarding the path to the South Pole.”

Climate

Antarctica has an extremely harsh cold climate. In East Antarctica, at the Soviet Antarctic station Vostok, on July 21, 1983, the lowest air temperature on Earth in the entire history of meteorological measurements was recorded: 89.2 degrees below zero. The area is considered the Earth's pole of cold. Average temperatures in the winter months (June, July, August) are from −60 to −75 °C, in the summer months (December, January, February) from −30 to −50 °C; on the coast in winter from −8 to −35 °C, in summer 0-5 °C.

Another feature of the meteorology of East Antarctica is the katabatic winds caused by its dome-shaped topography. These stable southerly winds arise on fairly steep slopes of the ice sheet due to the cooling of the air layer near the ice surface, the density of the near-surface layer increases, and it flows down the slope under the influence of gravity. The thickness of the air flow layer is usually 200-300 m; Due to the large amount of ice dust carried by the wind, horizontal visibility in such winds is very low. The strength of the katabatic wind is proportional to the steepness of the slope and reaches its greatest values ​​in coastal areas with a high slope towards the sea. The katabatic winds reach their maximum strength in the Antarctic winter - from April to November they blow almost continuously around the clock, from November to March - at night or when the Sun is low above the horizon. In summer, during the daytime, due to the heating of the surface layer of air by the sun, katabatic winds along the coast cease.

Data on temperature changes from 1981 to 2007 show that the temperature background in Antarctica changed unevenly. For West Antarctica as a whole, an increase in temperature has been observed, while for East Antarctica no warming has been detected, and even some decline has been noted. It is unlikely that the melting of Antarctica's glaciers will increase significantly in the 21st century. On the contrary, as temperatures rise, the amount of snow falling on the Antarctic ice sheet is expected to increase. However, due to warming, more intense destruction of ice shelves and acceleration of the movement of Antarctica's outlet glaciers, throwing ice into the World Ocean, is possible.

Due to the fact that not only the average annual temperature, but also in most areas even summer temperatures in Antarctica do not exceed zero degrees, precipitation there falls only in the form of snow (rain is an extremely rare occurrence). It forms an ice sheet (snow is compressed under its own weight) more than 1,700 m thick, in some places reaching 4,300 m. About 80% of all fresh water on Earth is concentrated in Antarctic ice. However, there are lakes in Antarctica, and in the summer, rivers. The rivers are fed by glaciers. Thanks to intense solar radiation, due to the exceptional transparency of the air, the melting of glaciers occurs even at slightly negative air temperatures. On the surface of the glacier, often at a considerable distance from the coast, streams of melt water form. The most intense melting occurs near oases, next to rocky soil heated in the sun. Since all streams are fed by the melting of the glacier, their water and level regimes are completely determined by the course of air temperature and solar radiation. The highest flows in them are observed during the hours of the highest air temperatures, that is, in the afternoon, and the lowest - at night, and often at this time the riverbeds dry out completely. As a rule, glacier streams and rivers have very winding channels and connect numerous glacier lakes. Open channels usually end before reaching the sea or lake, and the watercourse makes its way further under the ice or in the thickness of the glacier, like underground rivers in karst areas.

With the onset of autumn frosts, the flow stops, and deep channels with steep banks are covered with snow or blocked by snow bridges. Sometimes almost constant snow drifts and frequent snowstorms block the beds of streams even before the flow stops, and then the streams flow in ice tunnels, completely invisible from the surface. Like cracks in glaciers, they are dangerous, as heavy vehicles can fall into them. If the snow bridge is not strong enough, it may collapse under the weight of a person. The rivers of Antarctic oases, flowing through the ground, usually do not exceed a length of several kilometers. The largest is the river. Onyx, more than 20 km long. Rivers exist only in summer.

Antarctic lakes are no less unique. Sometimes they are classified as a special, Antarctic type. They are located in oases or dry valleys and are almost always covered with a thick layer of ice. However, in the summer, a strip of open water several tens of meters wide forms along the banks and at the mouths of temporary watercourses. Often, lakes are stratified. At the bottom there is a layer of water with increased temperature and salinity, as, for example, in Lake Vanda (English) Russian. In some small closed lakes, the concentration of salt is significantly increased and they can be completely free of ice. For example, lake Don Juan, with a high concentration of calcium chloride in its waters, freezes only at very low temperatures. Antarctic lakes are small, only some of them are larger than 10 km² (Lake Vanda, Lake Figurnoe). The largest of the Antarctic lakes is Lake Figurnoye in the Banger oasis. Curiously meandering among the hills, it stretches for 20 kilometers. Its area is 14.7 km², and its depth exceeds 130 meters. The deepest is Lake Radok, its depth reaches 362 m.

There are lakes on the coast of Antarctica that were formed as a result of the backwater of snowfields or small glaciers. Water in such lakes sometimes accumulates for several years until its level rises to the upper edge of the natural dam. Then excess water begins to flow out of the lake. A channel is formed, which quickly deepens, and the water flow increases. As the channel deepens, the water level in the lake drops and it shrinks in size. In winter, the dry riverbed is covered with snow, which gradually becomes compacted, and the natural dam is restored. In the next summer season, the lake begins to fill with meltwater again. Several years pass until the lake is filled and its waters again break into the sea.

Comparing Antarctica with other continents, it can be noted that there are absolutely no wetlands on the South Polar Continent. However, in the coastal strip there are peculiar glacial “swamps”. They form in summer in depressions filled with snow and firn. Melt water flowing into these depressions moistens the snow and firn, resulting in a snow-water porridge, viscous, like ordinary swamps. The depth of such “swamps” is most often insignificant - no more than a meter. On top they are covered with a thin ice crust. Like real swamps, they are sometimes impassable even for tracked vehicles: a tractor or all-terrain vehicle that gets stuck in such a place, stuck in a snow-water slurry, will not get out without outside help.

In the 1990s, Russian scientists discovered the subglacial non-freezing Lake Vostok - the largest of the Antarctic lakes, having a length of 250 km and a width of 50 km; the lake holds about 5,400 thousand km³ of water.

In January 2006, geophysicists Robin Bell and Michael Studinger from the American Lamont-Doherty Geophysical Observatory discovered the second and third largest subglacial lakes, with an area of ​​2000 km² and 1600 km² respectively, located at a depth of about 3 km from the surface of the continent. They reported that this could have been done earlier if the data from the 1958-1959 Soviet expedition had been analyzed more thoroughly. In addition to these data, satellite data, radar readings and measurements of the force of gravity on the surface of the continent were used.

In total, as of 2007, more than 140 subglacial lakes were discovered in Antarctica.

As a result of global warming, tundra began to actively form on the Antarctic Peninsula. Scientists predict that in 100 years the first trees may appear in Antarctica.

The oasis on the Antarctic Peninsula covers an area of ​​400 km², the total area of ​​oases is 10 thousand km², and the area of ​​non-ice areas (including snow-free rocks) is 30-40 thousand km².

The biosphere in Antarctica is represented in four “arenas of life”: coastal islands and ice, coastal oases on the mainland (for example, the “Banger Oasis”), the nunataks arena (Mount Amundsen near Mirny, Mount Nansen on Victoria Land, etc.) and the ice sheet arena .

Plants include flowering plants, ferns (on the Antarctic Peninsula), lichens, fungi, bacteria, and algae (in oases). Seals and penguins live on the coast.

Plants and animals are most common in the coastal zone. Terrestrial vegetation in ice-free areas exists mainly in the form of various types of mosses and lichens and does not form a continuous cover (Antarctic moss-lichen deserts).

Antarctic animals are completely dependent on the coastal ecosystem of the Southern Ocean: due to the paucity of vegetation, all food chains of any significance in coastal ecosystems begin in the waters surrounding Antarctica. Antarctic waters are particularly rich in zooplankton, primarily krill. Krill directly or indirectly form the basis of the food chain of many species of fish, cetaceans, squid, seals, penguins and other animals; There are no completely land mammals in Antarctica; invertebrates are represented by approximately 70 species of arthropods (insects and arachnids) and nematodes living in soils.

Terrestrial animals include seals (Weddell, crabeater seals, leopard seals, Ross seals, elephant seals) and birds (several species of petrels (Antarctic, snowy), two species of skuas, Arctic tern, Adélie penguins and emperor penguins).

In the freshwater lakes of continental coastal oases - “dry valleys” - there are oligotrophic ecosystems inhabited by blue-green algae, roundworms, copepods (cyclops) and daphnia, while birds (petrels and skuas) fly here occasionally.

Nunataks are characterized only by bacteria, algae, lichens and severely suppressed mosses; only skuas, following people, occasionally fly onto the ice sheet.

There is an assumption about the presence in subglacial lakes of Antarctica, such as Lake Vostok, of extremely oligotrophic ecosystems, practically isolated from the outside world.

In 1994, scientists reported a rapid increase in the number of plants in Antarctica, which seems to confirm the hypothesis of global warming of the planet.

The Antarctic Peninsula and its adjacent islands have the most favorable climatic conditions on the mainland. It is here that two species of flowering plants found in the region grow - Antarctic meadowsweet and Quito colobanthus.

Man and Antarctica

In preparation for the International Geophysical Year, about 60 bases and stations belonging to 11 states were founded on the coast, ice sheet and islands (including Soviet - Mirny Observatory, Oasis, Pionerskaya, Vostok-1, Komsomolskaya and Vostok stations, American - Amudsen -Scott at the South Pole, Baird, Hulett, Wilkes and McMurdo).

Since the late 1950s. Oceanological work is being carried out in the seas washing the continent, and regular geophysical research is being carried out at stationary continental stations; Expeditions into the continent are also being undertaken. Soviet scientists carried out a sleigh-and-tractor trip to the Geomagnetic Pole (1957), the Pole of Relative Inaccessibility (1958), and the South Pole (1959). American researchers traveled on all-terrain vehicles from Little America station to Baird station and further to Sentinel station (1957), in 1958-1959 from Ellsworth station through the Dufeka massif to Baird station; English and New Zealand scientists on tractors in 1957-1958 crossed Antarctica through the South Pole from the Wedell Sea to the Ross Sea. Australian, Belgian and French scientists also worked in the interior of Antarctica. In 1959, an international treaty on Antarctica was concluded, which contributed to the development of cooperation in the study of the ice continent.

History of the study of the continent

The first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle belonged to the Dutch; it was commanded by Dirk Geeritz, who sailed in the squadron of Jacob Magyu. In 1559, in the Strait of Magellan, Geeritz's ship lost sight of the squadron after a storm and went south. When it dropped to 64° S. sh., high ground was discovered there. In 1675 La Roche discovered South Georgia; Bouvet Island was discovered in 1739; In 1772, in the Indian Ocean, Yves-Joseph Kerglen, a French naval officer, discovered an island named after him.

Almost simultaneously with Kerglen’s voyage, James Cook set off from England on his first voyage to the Southern Hemisphere, and already in January 1773, his ships “Adventure” and “Resolution” crossed the Antarctic Circle at the meridian 37°33′E. d. After a difficult struggle with ice, he reached 67°15′ S. sh., where he was forced to turn north. In December 1773, Cook again set off for the southern ocean, crossing it on December 8 and at parallel 67°5′ S. w. was covered in ice. Having freed himself, Cook went further south and at the end of January 1774 reached 71°15′ S. sh., southwest of Tierra del Fuego. Here an impenetrable wall of ice prevented him from going further. Cook was one of the first to reach the south polar seas and, having encountered solid ice in several places, declared that it could not be penetrated further. They believed him and did not undertake polar expeditions for 45 years.

The first geographical discovery of land south of 60° S. (modern "political Antarctica", governed by the Antarctic Treaty system) was accomplished by the English merchant William Smith, who stumbled upon Livingston Island, South Shetland Islands, on February 19, 1819.

In 1819, Russian sailors F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev, on the sloops of war "Vostok" and "Mirny", visited South Georgia and tried to penetrate into the depths of the Arctic Ocean. For the first time, on January 28, 1820, almost on the Greenwich meridian, they reached 69°21′ S. w. and discovered modern Antarctica itself; then, leaving the Arctic Circle, Bellingshausen walked along it east to 19° east. d., where he crossed it again and reached in February 1820 again almost the same latitude (69°6′). Further east, he rose only to the 62° parallel and continued his path along the outskirts of the floating ice. Then, on the meridian of the Balleny Islands, Bellingshausen reached 64°55′, and in December 1820 reached 161°w. d., passed the Antarctic Circle and reached 67°15′ S. latitude, and in January 1821 reached 69°53′ S. w. Almost at the 81° meridian, he discovered the high coast of the island of Peter I, and having gone further east, inside the Antarctic Circle, the coast of Alexander I Land. Thus, Bellingshausen was the first to complete a complete voyage around Antarctica at latitudes from 60° to 70°.

In 1838-1842, the American Charles Wilkes explored a part of Antarctica, named after him Wilkes Land. In 1839-1840, the Frenchman Jules Dumont-D'Urville discovered Adélie Land, and in 1841-1842 the Englishman James Ross discovered the Ross Sea and Victoria Land. The first landing on the shores of Antarctica and the first wintering was made by the Norwegian expedition of Karsten Borchgrevink in 1895.

After this, the study of the coast of the continent and its interior began. Numerous studies were carried out by English expeditions led by Ernest Shackleton (he wrote the book “In the Heart of Antarctica” about them). In 1911-1912, a real race to conquer the South Pole began between the expedition of the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and the expedition of the Englishman Robert Scott. The first to reach the South Pole were Amundsen, Olaf Bjaland, Oscar Wisting, Helmer Hansen and Sverre Hassel; a month after him, Scott's party arrived at the cherished point, but died on the way back.

From the middle of the 20th century, the study of Antarctica began on an industrial basis. On the continent, various countries are creating numerous permanent bases that conduct meteorological, glaciological and geological research all year round. On December 14, 1958, the third Soviet Antarctic expedition, led by Evgeniy Tolstikov, reached the South Pole of Inaccessibility and founded a temporary station there, the Pole of Inaccessibility.

In the 19th century, several whaling bases existed on the Antarctic Peninsula and surrounding islands. Subsequently, they were all abandoned.

The harsh climate of Antarctica prevents its settlement. Currently, there is no permanent population in Antarctica; there are several dozen scientific stations where, depending on the season, there live from 4,000 people (150 Russian citizens) in the summer and about 1,000 in the winter (about 100 Russian citizens).

In 1978, the first man of Antarctica, Emilio Marcos Palma, was born at the Argentine station Esperanza.

Antarctica has been assigned the top-level Internet domain .aq and the telephone prefix +672.

Status of Antarctica

In accordance with the Antarctic Convention, signed on December 1, 1959 and entered into force on June 23, 1961, Antarctica does not belong to any state. Only scientific activities are permitted.

The deployment of military facilities, as well as the entry of warships and armed vessels south of 60 degrees south latitude are prohibited.

In the 1980s, Antarctica was also declared a nuclear-free zone, which excluded the appearance of nuclear-powered ships in its waters, and nuclear power units on the mainland.

Currently, 28 states (with voting rights) and dozens of observer countries are parties to the treaty.

Territorial claims

However, the existence of a treaty does not mean that the states that joined it renounced their territorial claims to the continent and the surrounding area. On the contrary, the territorial claims of some countries are enormous. For example, Norway claims territory that is ten times larger than its own (including the island of Peter I, discovered by the Bellingshausen-Lazarev expedition). Great Britain declared huge territories as its own. The British intend to extract ore and hydrocarbon resources on the Antarctic shelf. Australia considers almost half of Antarctica its own, into which, however, the “French” Adélie Land is wedged. New Zealand also made territorial claims. Great Britain, Chile and Argentina claim almost the same territory, including the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. No country has officially made territorial claims to Mary Byrd's land. However, hints about US rights to this territory are contained in unofficial American sources.

The United States and Russia took a special position, declaring that, in principle, they can put forward their territorial claims in Antarctica, although they have not yet done so. Moreover, both states do not recognize the claims of other countries.

The continent of Antarctica today is the only uninhabited and undeveloped continent on Earth. Antarctica has long attracted European powers and the United States, but it began to attract global interest at the end of the 20th century. Antarctica is the last resource reserve for humanity on Earth. After the exhaustion of raw materials on the five inhabited continents, people will develop their resources. However, since Antarctica will remain the only source of resources for countries, the struggle for its resources has already begun, which could result in a fierce military conflict. Geologists have found that the depths of Antarctica contain a significant amount of minerals - iron ore, coal; Traces of ores of copper, nickel, lead, zinc, molybdenum, rock crystal, mica, and graphite were found. In addition, Antarctica contains about 80% of the world's fresh water, a shortage of which is already felt in many countries.

Currently, observations are being made of climatic and meteorological processes on the continent, which, like the Gulf Stream in the Northern Hemisphere, is a climate-forming factor for the entire Earth. In Antarctica, the effects of space and the processes occurring in the earth's crust are also studied.

The study of the ice sheet brings serious scientific results, informing us about the climate of the Earth hundreds, thousands, hundreds of thousands of years ago. The Antarctic ice sheet contains data on the climate and composition of the atmosphere over the past hundred thousand years. The chemical composition of different layers of ice determines the level of solar activity over the past several centuries.

Microorganisms have been discovered in Antarctica that may be of scientific value and will allow for better study of these life forms.

Many Antarctic bases, especially Russian ones, located around the continent's perimeter, provide ideal opportunities for monitoring seismological activity throughout the planet. Antarctic bases are also testing technologies and equipment that are planned to be used in the future for the exploration, development and colonization of other planets in the solar system.

Russia in Antarctica

In total, there are about 45 year-round scientific stations in Antarctica. Currently, Russia has seven operating stations and one field base in Antarctica.

Permanently active:

• Bellingshausen
• Peaceful
• Novolazarevskaya
• East
• Progress
• Marine squad
• Leningradskaya (Reopened in 2008)
• Russian (Reactivated in 2008)

Canned:

• Youth
• Druzhnaya-4

No longer existing:

• Pionerskaya
• Komsomolskaya
• Soviet
• Vostok-1
• Lazarev
• Pole of inaccessibility
• Oasis (transferred to Poland in 1959)

Orthodox Church

The first Orthodox church in Antarctica was built on Waterloo Island (South Shetland Islands) near the Russian Bellingshausen station with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II. They collected it in Altai, and then transported it to the icy continent on the scientific vessel Akademik Vavilov. The fifteen-meter high temple was built from cedar and larch. It can accommodate up to 30 people.

The temple was consecrated in the name of the Holy Trinity on February 15, 2004 by the abbot of the Holy Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, Bishop Feognost of Sergiev Posad, in the presence of numerous clergy, pilgrims and sponsors, who arrived on a special flight from the nearest city, Chilean Punta Arenas. Now the temple is the Patriarchal Metochion of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

The Church of the Holy Trinity is considered the southernmost Orthodox church in the world. To the south there is only the chapel of St. John of Rila at the Bulgarian station St. Kliment Ohridski and the chapel of St. Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir at the Ukrainian station Academician Vernadski.

On January 29, 2007, the first wedding in Antarctica took place in this temple (the daughter of a polar explorer, Russian Angelina Zhuldybina and Chilean Eduardo Aliaga Ilabac, working at the Chilean Antarctic base).

Interesting Facts

• The average surface elevation of Antarctica is the highest of any continent.
• In addition to the pole of cold, Antarctica contains points of the lowest relative air humidity, the strongest and longest winds, and the most intense solar radiation.
• Although Antarctica is not the territory of any state, enthusiasts from the United States issue the unofficial currency of the continent - the “Antarctic dollar”.

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In the first half of the 20th century. exploration of Antarctica was sporadic and limited to individual expeditions. But from the second half of the 50s. Regular studies of the continent began at polar stations (Fig. 126) who conduct a variety of scientific observations. The result of their work was the first atlas of Antarctica, published in 1966-1969.

Among polar scientists there are meteorologists, physicists, biologists, hydrologists, glaciologists, etc. Over the past decades, many studies have been carried out that have enriched the sciences about the nature of the Earth.

To avoid duplication of research, the world community formed the International Committee for the Coordination of Antarctic Research. The committee includes several divisions that coordinate the work of permanent and seasonal stations in the following areas: marine research, biological resources, upper atmosphere, ice cover, climate, etc.

Antarctica does not belong to any state. Mining, hunting of animals, testing of weapons, etc. are prohibited here. In recent years, Antarctica has become a place often visited by tourists, but no tourist facilities (hotels, stations) are being built on the mainland. All tourists live on tourist ships that approach the shores of Antarctica.

Ukrainian station "Akademik Vernadsky". Ukrainian scientists had previously, as part of Soviet expeditions, participated in research in Antarctica at stations that now belong to Russia.

With independence, Ukraine faced the question of conducting its own research, which could play a big role in the development of national science. Ukraine's desire to conduct research was supported by Great Britain, whose government transferred an English station to our country in 1995 "Faraday." Now the station is called " Academician Vernadsky» (Fig. 127).Material from the site

The Antarctic station "Akademik Vernadsky" is located on one of the islands near the Antarctic Peninsula on the Pacific coast of Antarctica. Ukrainian scientists study the upper layers of the atmosphere, the spread of energy from the surface of the Earth upward, terrestrial magnetism, continental ice, conduct meteorological and biological research, monitor the ozone layer of the planet, changes associated with environmental pollution. Researchers exchange research results with scientists from other Antarctic stations, in particular Great Britain, and transfer them to the International Committee for the Coordination of Antarctic Research.

Ever since explorers first set foot in Antarctica in the early 1800s, people have always wanted to know more about the mysterious frozen continent at the edge of the world. For more than two centuries, questions such as “what is under the ice”, “how can living creatures exist in a place with such an extreme climate”, etc. have been haunting us. Beginning in the late 1950s, scientists began to explore the mysteries of Antarctica more closely, and since then they have made many important discoveries.

1. Dinosaurs once lived in Antarctica

In the mid-1980s and early 1990s, scientists discovered several fossilized remains of reptiles that once ruled the planet. Thanks to this discovery, it was established that dinosaurs lived on the southern continent 200 - 70 million years ago. Scientists speculate that living creatures could survive there because the temperature on the planet in those days was 50 degrees higher, and also because the Antarctic land was then located in a different place, approximately in the southwest of the modern Pacific Ocean.

2. Mysterious ancient meteorite found in Antarctica

Thanks to its vast, largely pristine expanses, Antarctica is a great place to search for meteorites. In 1996, scientists from NASA and Stanford University determined that a potato-sized meteorite that came from Mars and landed in Antarctica 13,000 years ago contained fossilized samples of ancient microbes from the Red Planet.

3. Antarctica is the best place for seismic observations

In 2003, seismometers were installed at the Antarctic Amundsen-Scott Station at the South Pole, which were placed in holes in the ice that went to a depth of 300 meters. Scientists have said that this is the best place on Earth (since there is no external interference) to detect vibrations that pass through the earth's crust and are caused by earthquakes.

4. Underwater volcano off the coast of Antarctica

In 2004, a research vessel set out to investigate the partial collapse of the Larsen B Ice Shelf. In doing so, an unforeseen discovery was made. Near the Antarctic Peninsula, the northernmost point of the continent, scientists have discovered a previously unknown volcano 700 meters high rising from the seabed. The top of the volcano is separated from the surface by 270 meters of water. Temperature sensors showed that the volcano had been active recently.

5. Antarctica + America = ?

In a paper published in Science in 2008, researchers outlined a theory that a lone granite boulder discovered on top of an Antarctic glacier is evidence that parts of Antarctica were connected to North America as part of an ancient supercontinent dubbed Rodinia. Rodinia was formed between 1 and 1.2 billion years ago and existed for more than 250 million years. Chemical and isotope tests on the boulder showed that its composition was very similar to an igneous rock previously found only in North America.

6. The benefits of Antarctic icebergs

In a study published in the journal Science in 2007, scientists showed that icebergs that break off Antarctic ice sheets contain substances captured from the soil, which they gradually release into the ocean waters. As a result, icebergs create a “halo” of nutrients around themselves, which supports the life of a variety of aquatic flora and fauna.

7. Antarctica - an ancient refuge

In 2009, scientists identified fossils discovered in Antarctica as belonging to the species Kombuisia, an egg-laying cat-sized animal that is distantly related to modern mammals that lived about 250 million years ago. What's particularly interesting about this ancient species is that it appears to have survived the mass extinction event, which may have been a result of global warming, by migrating from southern Africa to cooler Antarctica. Antarctica was then part of another supercontinent called Pangea, which formed between 272 and 299 million years ago and broke apart about 200 million years ago.

8. Antarctic glaciers and climate change

In 2014, scientists analyzed 40 years of data from six glaciers in Antarctica's Amundsen Gulf. They concluded that glaciers are being eroded by warm ocean water, which is corroding their edges, and that this process is intensifying. One such glacier, Thwaites, could disappear completely in 200 to 500 years.

9. Record depth of the gorge in Antarctica

Scientists who used radar to explore the ice of West Antarctica made an amazing discovery. In a paper published in 2014, they described this huge gorge, 300 kilometers long, 5 meters wide and 3.5 kilometers deep. Thus, under the ice of West Antarctica there is a gorge deeper than the Grand Canyon

10. There is life under kilometers of ice in Antarctica

Researchers have drilled a 730-meter-deep hole in Antarctica's Ross Ice Shelf and sent a robotic probe down to explore an area that never sees sunlight. They expected the water to be devoid of life, except perhaps for a few microbes with slow metabolic rates. Instead, they made a startling discovery - tiny fish and other aquatic creatures lived under the thick layer of ice.