Target lectures: show structural and semantic features of a complex syntactic whole, means and types of interphrase connections.

4. Structural-semantic types of complex syntactic wholes: static (description), dynamic (narration), mixed.

5. Reasoning as a special type of complex syntactic whole (independently).

6. Paragraph as a compositional and stylistic unit of text. Motives for dividing the text into paragraphs. Functions of beginning and ending paragraphs. The difference between a paragraph and a complex syntactic whole (independently).

1. A complex syntactic whole as a structural-semantic unit of text. Structural and semantic features of a complex syntactic whole.

The study of grammar goes from word to phrase and then to sentence.

Traditional grammar usually ends with a sentence. Meanwhile, in speech we are constantly faced with syntactic combinations of a number of independent sentences into a kind of structural-semantic unity. The study of such speech segments is of great importance, as it helps schoolchildren learn coherent speech.

The largest unit of syntax, larger than a sentence, is usually called a complex syntactic whole. A complex syntactic whole is found in a connected text.

A complex syntactic whole, or super-phrase unity, is a combination of several sentences in the text, characterized by the relative completeness of the topic (micro-theme), semantic and syntactic cohesion of the components (N.S. Valgina).

A complex syntactic whole differs from a complex sentence in the less close connection between its parts and their formal syntactic independence. However, these qualities do not prevent the components of a complex syntactic whole from being combined into a semantic and structural unity.

A complex syntactic whole can include all structural types of sentences.

L.I. Velichko described typical mistakes of students in the formation of a complex syntactic whole:

1. Incorrect selection of paragraphs. Students highlight sentences arbitrarily taken from the text from the red line, or omit paragraphs completely.

2. The absence of complex syntactic wholes in students’ essays. Often an essay cannot be divided into logically and compositionally complete parts that represent syntactic unities.

3. The presence of an extra sentence and violation of the order of sentences in a complex syntactic whole.

4. Violation of a single time plan in the system of a complex syntactic whole.

5. Errors in the use of lexical repetitions, conjunctions, etc.

2. History of the issue. Controversial issues in the theory of a complex syntactic whole.

In the 19th century, the syntactic system ended with a sentence. But already in the 19th century it was said that a sentence in a language system cannot be a self-sufficient unit.

N. S. Pospelov drew attention to the fact that, in addition to individual sentences, there is a community of sentences in the syntactic system. N. S. Pospelov’s students (G. Ya. Solganik, L. M. Losev) began to analyze this phenomenon. I.A. Figurovsky, based on an analysis of student works, showed that syntactic errors and lapses of students in written speech are associated with the inability to organize connections between sentences.

The doctrine of a complex syntactic whole was formed under the great influence of the doctrine of a complex sentence.

Controversial issues in the theory of a complex syntactic whole:

1. A number of issues have not been fully resolved:

1). Is a complex syntactic whole a unit of language or speech?

As is known, language units are reproducible, countable and are in hierarchical relationships with each other. What is there in a complex syntactic whole that native speakers reproduce in the same way, that can be counted and systematized? These are types of interphrase communication. A complex syntactic whole has neither its own grammatical meaning nor a clearly expressed grammatical form. It is definitely impossible to establish the boundaries of a complex syntactic whole in a text - there are no reliable criteria and differential features for isolating complex syntactic wholes from the text. Therefore, for some it is a unit of language (N.S. Valgina, G.Ya. Solganik), for others it is a unit of speech or text (R.N. Popov).

2). There is no single term for this syntactic unit in the literature. It's called:

– a complex syntactic whole (I.A. Pospelov, N.S. Valgina);

– prose stanza (D.E. Rosenthal, G.Ya. Solganik);

– semantic unity (V.V. Odintsov);

– superphrasal unity (L.A. Bulakhovsky).

– a unit of text, a text (E.S. Skoblikova, school).

2. Today, new directions have emerged in the study of a complex syntactic whole, not only of a grammatical nature.

1). O.A. Loseva’s approach is lexical-syntactic. An analysis of pronominal-lexical repetition is carried out.

2). An analysis of the compositional essence of a complex syntactic whole is carried out. For example, the doctrine of soft and hard beginnings (N. D. Zarubina), the doctrine of autosemanticity and synsemanticity of sentences in a complex syntactic whole. (B.S. Lunev). The first sentences are usually autosemantic; the subsequent ones, as a rule, are synsemantic, that is, they contain elements of dependence, signals of synsemantics (shifters). Autosessentiality is a solid beginning (O.I. Moskalskaya).

3). A stylistic approach to a complex syntactic whole. In a complex syntactic whole, stylistic figures are actively represented: anaphora, epiphora, repetitions, parallelism, non-union, gradation (ascending, descending), polyunion, ellipsis and others. The need to study syntactic units consisting of two or more sentences is obvious. Through their study we learn the mechanism of coherent speech.

3. Ways of connecting sentences in a complex syntactic whole. Chain and parallel connections, their varieties.

In a complex syntactic whole, there are two main types of connection between independent sentences:

1. Chain (serial) connection.

2. Parallel communication.

With a chain connection we have a complex syntactic whole of heterogeneous composition, with a parallel connection we have a homogeneous one. With a chain connection, independent sentences are synsemantic, with a parallel connection, they are autosemantic. The analysis shows that the chain connection is more frequent.

Characteristics of types of interphrase connections in a complex syntactic whole.

1. Chain connection in a complex syntactic whole.

In a chain connection, instead of one of the independent words of the previous sentence, either a pronoun or a synonym is used in the subsequent sentence, or this word is repeated. The structural feature of a chain connection of sentences in a complex syntactic whole is the beginning.

The main types of beginning in a complex syntactic whole with a chain connection:

1. Dynamic beginning (for example, Everything is mixed up in the Oblonskys’ house).

2. Nominative themes (eg, Moscow...How much has merged in this sound for the Russian heart).

3. Beginnings with the initial verb are (eg, There are women in Russian villages...).

4. Temporary beginnings (for example, Years passed, a rebellious impulse of thought dispelled previous dreams).

The chain connection itself is represented by three varieties (this connection is similar to sequential subordination in a complex sentence with several subordinate clauses).

Varieties of chain connection in a complex syntactic whole:

1. The most widespread is the pronominal chain connection. (Pronouns are special substitute words, “ambulance of the Russian language,” according to L.Ya. Malovitsky).

For example, the next day at the appointed time I was already standing behind the stacks, waiting for the enemy. Soon he appeared.

2. Chain synonymous connection. To connect sentences in a complex syntactic whole, text synonyms and functional equivalents are used.

For example, Pushkin is the sun of our literature. He is the creator of the Russian literary language. The great poet left us a legacy of wonderful examples of artistic speech (text synonyms).

3. Communication based on lexical repetition.

For example, leaving the Kalitins, Lavretsky met with Panshin; they bowed coldly to each other. Lavretsky went to his apartment and locked himself in.

Thus, with a chain connection, sentences of heterogeneous composition are combined, synsemantic, that is, closely welded sentences, which, being isolated, are deprived of the ability to be used independently, since they have lexico-grammatical indicators of connection with previous sentences.

2. Parallel connection in a complex syntactic whole.

This type of communication is less common. Sentences with this type of connection in a complex syntactic whole of homogeneous composition are autosemantic, that is, more structurally and semantically independent.

For example, a book is a repository of knowledge. The book is a repository of all the great experiences of mankind. A book is an inexhaustible source of high aesthetic pleasure.

As we see, with a parallel connection, sentences are not linked to one another, but are compared or contrasted. Depending on the nature of parallelism, certain types of complex syntactic integers with parallel connections are distinguished:

1. Actually parallel type.

All sentences as part of a complex syntactic whole are constructed in parallel, that is, according to the same structural scheme (example above).

2. Anaphoric complex syntactic wholes (same beginning - semantic, sound, syntactic).

3. Epiphoric complex syntactic wholes (parallelism is expressed in epiphora - ending).

4. Ring complex syntactic wholes (parallelism in the same beginning and ending).

Parallel communication is more complex than chain communication and is more difficult to detect in the text. It is also stylistically more significant, since it is based on stylistic figures of speech: anaphora, epiphora, parallelism, etc. Widely used in journalism.

There is no sharply defined boundary between parallel and chain connections. They both can be presented in combination.

In some literature, a paragraph is attributed the same properties as a complex syntactic whole. The difference is this: unity of theme, content, and semantic completeness are not characteristic of a paragraph. A paragraph can consist of one sentence, but a complex syntactic whole cannot. These are units of different levels.

A complex syntactic whole is a structural and semantic unit, and a paragraph is a stylistic and compositional device, a kind of punctuation mark. A paragraph is a more subjective author’s beginning, since the author’s attitude to what is being presented is expressed through the paragraph.

“A paragraph is a red line, an indent at the beginning of the line and a segment of written speech from one red line to another” (R. N. Popov).

Literature

1. Solganik G.Ya. On the syntactic structure of the text // RYASH. –1984. – No. 5.

2. Modern Russian language // Edited by L.L. Dibrova. At 2 p.m. Part 2. Morphology. Syntax. – M., 2001.

3. Velichko L.I. Working on text in Russian language lessons. – M., 1983.

4. Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E. Modern Russian language. – M., 2001.

5. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Modern Russian language. – M., 2001.

6. Babaytseva V.V., Maksimov L.Yu. Modern Russian language. At 3 p.m. Part 3. – M., 1987.

7. Popov R.N. Modern Russian language. – M., 1978.

8. Valgina N.S. Syntax of modern Russian language. – M., 1991.

Control questions

1. What construction is called a complex syntactic whole?

2. How does a complex syntactic whole differ from a sentence?

3. A complex syntactic whole is a unit of language or speech (who understands and how)?

4. The difference between a complex syntactic whole and a complex sentence.

5. What other terms have been and are encountered for a complex syntactic whole in specialized literature (authors)?

6. History of the study of a complex syntactic whole:

– the origins of the doctrine of a complex syntactic whole;

– who was the first to clearly identify the problem of a complex syntactic whole and give a definition to this syntactic unit;

1. A complex syntactic whole, its semantic, grammatical, structural and intonation features.

Ideally, a complex syntactic whole consists of a beginning, a middle part and an ending and is separated into a paragraph. But in non-strict styles and genres (that is, not in official or scientific-academic) various kinds of transformations of the complex can be used to express the author's modality syntactic whole. It may be missing one or even two of its structural components. For example: ... The badger squealed and with a desperate cry rushed back into the grass. He ran and howled throughout the forest, broke bushes and spat in indignation and pain.

There was confusion on the lake and in the forest. Without time, the frightened frogs screamed, the birds became alarmed, and right at the shore, like a cannon shot, a pound pike hit.

In the morning the boy woke me up and told me that he himself had just seen a badger treating its burnt nose. I didn't believe it. (K. Paustovsky).

The incompleteness of the first two prose stanzas is clearly felt. In the first (about the badger) this is conveyed by verbs of the imperfect form of unlimited action (ran, screamed, spat), and in the second (about the confusion) in the forest, it is conveyed by verbs with an initial meaning (they screamed, they were alarmed), which require the development of action. Such open prose stanzas allow the reader to “complete” events and fill the text with “hidden” content.

In other cases, in order to immediately immerse the reader in the situation, the beginning is omitted. For example: And he had good times (V. Shukshin) - the absolute beginning of the story.

Other transformations in the structure of a complex syntactic whole are also possible: omission of the middle part, blurring of boundaries, wedging of foreign components, etc. 2.

The relationship between a prose stanza and a paragraph can be as follows: 1) a complex syntactic whole is equal to a paragraph; 2) the paragraph includes several complex syntactic wholes; 3) a complex syntactic whole is divided into paragraphs.

The first type of relationship is typical for informative texts. It is especially necessary for poorly prepared readers (textbooks for primary schoolchildren). In artistic and journalistic prose, it gives the text lightness, clarity, transparency, and in some cases, dynamism.

The second type of relationship speaks of the need to perceive information not separately, but as a whole. This is typical for reasoning about complex, multidimensional connections between people, phenomena, events, or about inseparable phenomena and events. In literary texts, “a story within a story,” dreams, memories, etc. are usually given in one paragraph in order to highlight their inserted nature.

Dividing a complex syntactic whole into paragraphs (the third type of relationship), tearing off a sentence from it leads to the fact that the torn off part of a prose stanza acquires special significance. See, for example, the end of A. P. Chekhov’s story “The Bishop”:

A month later, a new vicar bishop was appointed, but no one remembered about His Eminence Peter. And then they completely forgot. And only the old woman, the mother of the deceased, who is now an octet for her son-in-law-deacon in a remote provincial town, when she went out in the evening to meet her cow and met other women in the pasture, began to talk about children, about grandchildren, about what she had a son who was a bishop, and at the same time she spoke timidly, fearing that they would not believe her...

And in fact, not everyone believed her.

The last sentence is very closely related to the previous one; Moreover, it might not even be an independent sentence, but part of a previous complex one. But in Chekhov it is not only separated, torn off from the syntactically and semantically related previous sentence, but is also the only sentence of the new paragraph. Isolation and autonomy in the text greatly increase the semantic volume of this sentence compared to what it would have as part of a paragraph equal to a complex syntactic whole.

Dividing the text into paragraphs determines both the general tone of the narrative and the specific semantic and expressive content of its individual parts. Compare, for example, the different divisions into paragraphs of an excerpt from Mark Twain’s story “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” in the interpretation of different translators:

And then Becky, walking past the teacher’s desk, which stood not far from the door, noticed that a key was sticking out in the lock! Was it possible to miss such a rare event? She looked around - not a soul around. A minute later she was already holding the book in her hands. The title “Anatomy,” an essay by Professor So-and-so, did not explain anything to her, and she began to leaf through the book. On the very first page she came across a beautifully drawn and colored figure

naked man At that moment, someone’s shadow fell on the page: Tom Sawyer appeared at the door and glanced at the picture out of the corner of his eye. Bekkn hurriedly slammed the book shut, but in doing so accidentally tore the picture halfway through. She put the book in the drawer, turned the key and burst into tears of shame and frustration (translated by K. Chukovsky).

And so, passing by the pulpit, which stood near the doors, Becky noticed that the key was sticking out in the drawer. It was a pity to miss such a moment. She looked around and saw that there was no one around, and the next moment the book was already in her hands. The title on the first page—“Anatomy” by Professor So-and-so—told her absolutely nothing, and she began to leaf through the book. She immediately came across a very beautiful picture, all in colors: a completely naked man.

At that moment, someone's shadow fell on the page; Tom Sawyer stood on the threshold, looking into the book over her shoulder. In her haste to slam the book shut, Becky pulled it towards her and was so unsuccessful that she tore the page halfway. She threw the book into the box and burst into tears of shame and frustration (translated by N. Daruzes, 1953)

Due to different divisions into paragraphs, the emphasis in translations shifts significantly. In the first excerpt there is one heroine - Becky, and Tom is given in her perception; in the second there are two characters. Tom is presented as an independent hero: he becomes the culprit of what happened. The highlighting of the second paragraph and, as a consequence, the appearance of the second active hero dramatize the action.

The lecture discusses syntactic means of expressiveness, as well as features of the syntax of various parts of speech.

Syntactic stylistics

The lecture discusses syntactic means of expressiveness, as well as features of the syntax of various parts of speech.

Lecture outline

96.1. Stylistic figures of speech.

96.2. Syntax of different speech styles

96.1. Stylistic figures of speech

SYNTACTIC MEANS OF EXPRESSION, or stylistic figures , - these are unusual figures of speech, a special syntactic structure, which the author resorts to to enhance expressiveness. Syntactic means include inversion, syntactic parallelism, gradation, rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, ellipsis, silence, various types of repetitions, non-union, polyunion, question-answer form of presentation, etc.

INVERSION (from lat. inversio - “rearrangement”) - a stylistic device that consists in violating the usual word order: the subject - after the predicate, the definition - after the word being defined, the separation of the epithet from the word being defined, etc.

For example: Here the king frownedblack eyebrows, and directed his keen eyes on him, as if a hawk looked from the heights of heaven at a young blue-winged dove (M. Lermontov).

PARALLELISM - the same or similar syntactic structure of neighboring sentences or segments of speech. For example: … Faraday's discovery is anti-legendary. The apple did not fall, the teapot lid did not jump. Chance did not come to the rescue(D. Granin). A teacher is a sufferer: in his soul, his stories and lives are not only happy, and if you do not sympathize, do not help, but only testify, you are already a bad teacher.The teacher is the soul of students and parents; Without spiritual intimacy, without a heartfelt understanding, and not a formal one, there is no true trust(A. Likhanov).

GRADATION (from lat. gradatio - “gradual strengthening”) is an arrangement of words and phrases in which each subsequent one strengthens (less often weakens) the meaning of the previous one.

For example: EyesSofia Semyonovna's eyes were not little eyes: if I had not been afraid to fall into a prosaic tone, I would have called Sofia Semyonovna's eyes not little eyes - little eyesblue - dark blue (let's call them eyes) (A. Bely) - ascending gradation is based on the use of synonyms.

...It was nothing at all, not even silveryouth: it was copper, poor youth who were educated on their labor pennies(Andrey Bely) - descending gradation.

PARCELLATION(from lat. particula - “particle”) - a special division of a statement in which incomplete sentences appear following the main one: As soon as the idea of ​​the “Bronze Horseman” was not defined. Various eras and different scientists offered all sorts of interpretations. And all interpretations were correct. Interesting. Deep. Reasoned. And different (D. Granin ) - components of incomplete sentences (parcels) can be included in the sentence preceding them as homogeneous predicates.

Self-control task

Answer: 1 - G, 2 - B, 3 - A, 4 - B.

RHETORICAL QUESTION - a sentence that is interrogative in form but affirmative in meaning (a question that does not require an answer). For example: Doesn't The Overcoat predate modern realism?(S. Zalygin). Who should teach boys who, from the age of seven, have been in love with slingshots, homemade pistols and new double-barreled shotguns? Who should teach them to protect and love nature? Who should teach them to rejoice at the arrival of cranes and take care of the grove that darkens like an island in the field?(V. Peskov) - a chain of rhetorical questions combined with anaphora.

RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION - an exclamatory sentence that contains special expression and increases the tension of speech. For example: Ice formed at zero degrees is even lighter and therefore does not sink.Truly a fabulous property!(V. Chivilikhin).

RHETORICAL ADDRESS - an appeal to an inanimate object, an abstract concept or an absent person.

For example: Rus, where are you going?You? Give an answer(N. Gogol).

QUESTION AND ANSWER FORM OF PRESENTATION - construction of a speech that imitates a dialogue: the author first poses a question and then answers it: Does this mean that a person should live like an ascetic, not caring about himself, not acquiring anything and not enjoying promotion? Not at all!(D. Likhachev).

Self-control task

Identify means of expression

Answer: 1 - B, 2 - A, 3 - D, 4 - C.

After completing the task, move on to the next block.

REPEAT - a stylistic figure consisting of repetition of the same words or expressions. Various types of repetitions are often used in combination with the parallel syntactic structure of the text: Hewas handsomehis attitude towards people, his manner of behavior, but he washandsomeand their scientific views, their scientific worldview(D. Likhachev). The following types of repetition are known: anaphora, epiphora, pickup.

ANAPHOR ( Greek anaphora - “moving up”), or UNITY - repetition of words or expressions at the beginning of adjacent sections of text: Onlythe wind and the ringing foam, onlyseagulls alarming flight, onlythe blood that filled the veins sings with a boiling roar(E. Bagritsky),

EPIPHORA(from Greek epiphora from epi - “after” and phoros - “carrying”) , or ENDING- repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent sections of text.

For example: Why destroy the independent development of a child by raping his nature, killing his faith in himself and forcing him to do what he wants? I want, and only as I want, and only because I want (N. Dobrolyubov).

PICKUP, or JOINT - repetition at the beginning of the next construction of words that appear at the end of the previous construction, thereby enhancing the meaning of the repeated word: ABOUT springwithout end and without edge - Without end and without edgedream!(A. Blok).

ELLIPSIS (from Greek ellipsis - “dropout”) is a stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate omission of any member of the sentence, which is implied from the context.

For example: Instead of letters they came up with telegrams and telephones, instead of theaters - televisions, instead of a quill - a fountain pen.(D. Granin) - ellipsis (predicate missing) combined with syntactic parallelism.

SILENCE is a turn of phrase consisting in the fact that the thought remains not fully expressed, but the reader guesses what is unspoken. For example: Back on the farm, the sheep hated being sheared. But it was completely different there. They fed her, gave her water, cut her hair at home and did not ask anything for it.And here…If the sheep had money, it would definitely come in for a haircut!(F. Krivin).

96.2. Syntax of different speech styles

Various types of simple and complex, one-part and two-part sentences are selectively used in different styles of speech.

For example, in the scientific style, two-part personal sentences predominate (88% of all simple sentences), and among one-part ones, generalized and indefinite personal sentences predominate (6%). This is due to the specifics of the scientific style of speech: its accuracy, emphasized logic, abstract and generalized nature.

Let's consider the features of use one-part sentences in various speech styles.

Definitely personal suggestions:

• impart laconicism and dynamism to the texts of the artistic style: I love you, Petra's creation!(A. Pushkin); I stand alone in the naked plain(S. Yesenin);
• used in scientific style: Let's draw a straight line and mark a point on it;
• used in newspaper headlines: Let's protect children from mistakes; I want to work!

Vaguely personal sentences:

• used mainly in colloquial speech: They say that the Ivanovs are doing renovations;
• in a journalistic style they add dynamism to speech: They report from Kyiv... They report from Washington...;
• in a scientific style are used when describing experiments: The mixture is shaken and heated;
• in official business style they are used along with impersonal, infinitive: They ask you to remain quiet. We don't smoke.

Generalized personal proposals:

• have the highest expression: You won't be nice by force. If you respect your father and mother, you will receive honor from your son;
• in poetic speech they acquire a folk-poetic overtone: Will you look into yourself? - there is no trace of the past...(M. Lermontov).
• mainly used in conversational, artistic and journalistic styles.

Impersonal offers:

• used in colloquial speech: Can't sleep. No forces. I'm hungry;
• used in clerical speech: It is prohibited to use electric heating devices;
• The scientific style is characterized by the frequent use of impersonal sentences expressing various shades of duty and necessity: You should pay attention to...You can also notice the following pattern.

Nominative (nominative) sentences:

• widely used in artistic style to depict pictures of nature, the state of the hero, etc.: Black evening, white snow(A. Blok); Whispers, timid breathing, trills of a nightingale, silver and the swaying of a sleepy stream(A. Fet) - let us recall that the entire poem “Whisper, timid breathing...” is written in nominative sentences alone;
• used in a journalistic style to create laconic and figurative descriptions: Taiga. Slender pine trees. Moss and lichen on trunks.

Task for securing material

Determine the type of one-part sentence and its belonging to the style of speech:

Answer: 1 - D, 2 - B, 3 - D, 4 - A, 5 - B.

Stylistic figures- special figures of speech, fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of an utterance. Stylistic figures of speech usually stand completely separate from other artistic and expressive means of literary language. They are considered separately. They are used to enhance imagery and expressiveness of speech. Figures of speech are used very widely in poetry.

ALLUSION The stylistic figure is an allusion (“The Glory of Herostratus”).

ALOGISM A deliberate violation of logical connections in speech for the purpose of stylistic effect (“I will never forget whether it happened or not, this evening”).

AMPLIFIATION A stylistic figure consisting of stringing together synonymous definitions and comparisons in order to enhance the expressiveness of the statement (“He takes it like a bomb, takes it like a hedgehog, like a double-edged razor”).

ANADIPLOSIS Repeating the final consonance, word or phrase at the beginning of the next phrase or poetic line (“Oh, spring, endlessly and endlessly, endlessly and endlessly a dream!”).

ANACOLUTHON Syntactic inconsistency of parts of a sentence as an unconscious violation of a language norm or as a conscious stylistic device (“And the animals from the forests come running to see how the ocean will be and how hot it is to burn,” “I am ashamed, like an honest officer”).

ANAPHORA Repetition of the initial parts of adjacent sections of speech (“The city is lush, the city is poor...”, “I swear by the odds and the odds, I swear by the sword and the right battle”).

ANTITHESIS Comparison or opposition of contrasting concepts, positions, images (“I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am god!”, “A rich man fell in love with a poor woman, a scientist fell in love with a stupid woman, a ruddy woman fell in love with a pale woman, a good man fell in love with a harmful woman”) .

ANTONOMASIA The use of one’s own name to designate a person endowed with the properties of a famous bearer of this name (“Don Juan” meaning “seeker of love adventures”, “I eluded the aesculapian (i.e., the doctor) Thin, shaved, but alive”).

ASYNDETON(asyndeton) construction of a sentence in which homogeneous members or parts of a complex sentence are connected without the help of conjunctions (“I came, I saw, I conquered”).

HYPERBATON A stylistic figure consisting of changing the natural order of words and separating them from each other with inserted words (“Only the languid Muses are delighted”).

HYPERBOLA A type of trope based on exaggeration (“sea of ​​vodka”).

GRADATION Consistent intensification or, conversely, weakening of the power of homogeneous expressive means of artistic speech (“I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry...”).

ISOKOLON A stylistic figure consisting in complete syntactic parallelism of neighboring sentences (“He listens to the whistle with his accustomed ear, He stains the sheet with one spirit”).

INVERSION Changing the usual order of words and phrases that make up a sentence (see hyperbaton and chiasmus.

IRONY A stylistic device of contrast between the visible and hidden meaning of a statement, creating the effect of ridicule.

CATACHRESIS A semantically unjustified combination of words, erroneous or intentional, (“hot broom” as a combination of two expressions: “hot iron” and “new broom”).

LITOTES The opposite trope of hyperbole; deliberate understatement (“little man”).

METAPHOR The transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another on the basis of a characteristic that is common or similar for both compared members (“talk of waves”, “bronze of muscles”).

METONYMY Replacing one word with another based on the connection of their meanings by contiguity (“the theater applauded” instead of “the audience applauded,” or “eat a plate” instead of “eat the contents of the plate”).

MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) Such a construction of a sentence when all (or almost all) homogeneous members are connected to each other by the same conjunction (“and the sling, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger”).

OXYMORON(oxymoron) A combination of words with opposite meanings (“living corpse”, “heat of cold numbers”).

PARALLELISM Identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, which, when correlated, create a single poetic image. (“The waves splash in the blue sea. The stars sparkle in the blue sky”).

PARONOMASIA(paronomasia) A stylistic figure based on the use of paronyms (“Forests are bald, Forests are deforested, Forests are deforested,” “he is not deaf, but stupid”).

PARCELLATION Syntactic device of written literary language: a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences (“And again. Gulliver. Stands. Slouching”).

PLEONASM A stylistic device that enhances the meaning of what was said (“sadness-longing”, “bitter grief”, “But without fear, without fear, Shingebis went out to battle”

SIMPLOCA Figure of repetition: initial and final words in adjacent verses or phrases with different middles or middles with different beginnings and ends (“In the field there was a birch tree, In the field there was a curly one,” “And I sit, full of sadness, I sit alone on the shore”).

SYNECDOCHE A type of metonymy, the name of a part (smaller) instead of the whole (larger) or vice versa (“my little head is missing” instead of “I’m missing”, “hearth” instead of “house”, “tool” - to designate a specific axe, hammer, etc. ).

SOLECISM Incorrect language usage that does not violate the meaning of the statement (“What time is it?”).

CHIASM Type of parallelism: arrangement of parts of two parallel members in reverse order (“We eat to live, and do not live to eat”).

ECLECTICISM Mechanical combination of dissimilar, often opposing stylistic elements (“Well said, nothing to add”).

ELLIPSE Omission of a structurally necessary element of an utterance, usually easily restored in a given context or situation (“Not so [it was]. The sea doesn’t burn”).

EPITHET Decoration, a figurative definition that gives an additional artistic characteristic of an object (phenomenon) in the form of a hidden comparison (“open field”, “lonely sail”).

EPIPHORA The opposite of anaphora: repetition of the final parts of adjacent segments of speech. The type of epiphora is a rhyme (“Dear friend, even in this quiet house the fever hits me. I can’t find a place in a quiet house Near a peaceful fire!”).

EUPHEMISM Softening (words like “damn” instead of “damn”).

1. Ideally, a complex syntactic whole consists of a beginning, a middle part and an ending and highlighted in a paragraph. But in non-strict styles and genres (that is, not official or scientific-academic), various types of transformations of a complex syntactic whole can be used to express the author’s modality. It may be missing one or even two of its structural components. For example: ...The badger squealed and with a desperate cry rushed back into the grass. He ran and shouted throughout the forest, broke bushes and spat from indignation and pain.

There was confusion on the lake and in the forest. Without time they screamed scared frogs, alarmed birds, and right at the shore, like a cannon shot, a pound pike hit.
In the morning the boy woke me up and told me that he himself had just seen a badger treating its burnt nose. I didn't believe it.(K. Paustovsky).
The incompleteness of the first two prose stanzas is clearly felt. In the first (about the badger) this is conveyed by imperfective verbs of unlimited action ( ran, shouted, spat ), and in the second (about confusion) in the forest - with verbs with an initial meaning ( screamed, got alarmed ), which require the development of action. Such open prose stanzas allow the reader to “complete” events and fill the text with “hidden” content.

In other cases, in order to immediately immerse the reader in the situation, the beginning is omitted. For example: And he had good times (V. Shukshin) - the absolute beginning of the story.
Other transformations in the structure of a complex syntactic whole are also possible: omission of the middle part, blurring of boundaries, wedging of foreign components, etc.

2. The relationship between a prose stanza and a paragraph can be as follows: 1) a complex syntactic whole is equal to a paragraph; 2) Athe paragraph includes several complex syntactic wholes; 3) a complex syntactic whole is divided into paragraphs.

First type relationships are typical for informative texts. It is especially necessary for poorly prepared readers (textbooks for primary schoolchildren). In artistic and journalistic prose, it gives the text lightness, clarity, transparency, and in some cases, dynamism.

Second type relationships speaks of the need to perceive information not separately, but as a whole. This is typical for reasoning about complex, multidimensional connections between people, phenomena, events, or about inseparable phenomena and events. In literary texts, “a story within a story,” dreams, memories, etc. are usually given in one paragraph in order to highlight their inserted nature.

Dividing a complex syntactic whole into paragraphs ( third type relations), tearing off any sentence from it leads to the fact that the torn off part of the prose stanza acquires special significance. See, for example, the end of A. P. Chekhov’s story “The Bishop”:
A month later, a new suffragan bishop was appointed, but no one remembered the Right Reverend Peter. And then they completely forgot. And only the old woman, the mother of the deceased, who now lives with her deacon-in-law in a remote provincial town, when she went out in the evening to meet her cow and met other women in the pasture, began to talk about children, about grandchildren, about what she had a son who was a bishop, and at the same time she spoke timidly, fearing that they would not believe her...
And in fact, not everyone believed her.

The last sentence is very closely related to the previous one; Moreover, it might not even be an independent sentence, but part of a previous complex one. But in Chekhov it is not only separated, torn off from the syntactically and semantically related previous sentence, but is also the only sentence of the new paragraph. Isolation and autonomy in the text greatly increase the semantic volume of this sentence compared to what it would have as part of a paragraph equal to a complex syntactic whole.

Dividing the text into paragraphs determines both the general tone of the narrative and the specific semantic and expressive content of its individual parts. Compare, for example, the different divisions into paragraphs of an excerpt from Mark Twain’s story “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” in the interpretation of different translators:
...And then Becky, walking past the teacher’s desk, which stood not far from the door, noticed that a key was sticking out in the lock! Was it possible to miss such a rare event? She looked around - not a soul around. A minute later she was already holding the book in her hands. The title “Anatomy,” an essay by Professor So-and-so, did not explain anything to her, and she began to leaf through the book. On the very first page she came across a beautifully drawn and painted figure of a naked man. At that moment, someone’s shadow fell on the page: Tom Sawyer appeared at the door and glanced at the picture out of the corner of his eye. Becky hurriedly slammed the book shut, but in doing so accidentally tore the picture halfway through. She put the book in the drawer, turned the key and burst into tears of shame and frustration.(translated by K. Chukovsky).
...And so, passing by the pulpit, which stood near the doors, Becky noticed that the key was sticking out in the drawer. It was a pity to miss such a moment. She looked around and saw that there was no one around, and the next moment the book was already in her hands. The title on the first page - "Anatomy" by Professor So-and-So - meant absolutely nothing to her, and she began to leaf through the book. She immediately came across a very beautiful picture, all in colors: a completely naked man.
At that moment, someone's shadow fell on the page - Tom Sawyer stood on the threshold, looking into the book over her shoulder. In her haste to slam the book shut, Becky pulled it towards her and was so unsuccessful that she tore the page halfway. She threw the book into the drawer and burst into tears of shame and frustration.(translated by N. Daruzes, 1953)
Due to different divisions into paragraphs, the emphasis in translations shifts significantly. In the first excerpt, one heroine is Becky, and Tom is given in her perception; in the second, there are two characters. Tom is presented as an independent hero; he becomes the culprit of what happened. The highlighting of the second paragraph and, as a consequence, the appearance of the second active hero dramatize the action.