Atomic structure, isotopes, distribution of hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen in the earth’s crust. The core of planet Earth. (Description of the processes of nuclear decay and fusion in the core of the planet) Areas of application of hydrogen

For geochemistry, it is important to clarify the principle of distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust. Why are some of them often found in nature, others much less common, and others even considered “museum rarities”?

A powerful tool for explaining many geochemical phenomena is the Periodic Law of D.I. Mendeleev. In particular, with its help the question of the prevalence of chemical elements in the earth’s crust can be investigated.

For the first time, the connection between the geochemical properties of elements and their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements was shown by D.I. Mendeleev, V.I. Vernadsky and A.E. Fersman.

Rules (laws) of geochemistry

Mendeleev's rule

In 1869, while working on the periodic law, D.I. Mendeleev formulated the rule: “ Elements with low atomic weights are generally more abundant than elements with higher atomic weights"(see Appendix 1, Periodic Table of Chemical Elements). Later, with the discovery of the structure of the atom, it was shown that for chemical elements with low atomic mass the number of protons is approximately equal to the number of neutrons in the nuclei of their atoms, that is, the ratio of these two quantities is equal to or close to unity: for oxygen = 1.0; for aluminum

For less common elements, neutrons predominate in the nuclei of atoms and the ratio of their number to the number of protons is significantly greater than unity: for radium; for uranium = 1.59.

The “Mendeleev’s rule” was further developed in the works of the Danish physicist Niels Bohr and the Russian chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences Viktor Ivanovich Spitsyn.

Viktor Ivanovich Spitsyn (1902-1988)

Oddo's Rule

In 1914, the Italian chemist Giuseppe Oddo formulated a different rule: “ The atomic weights of the most common elements are expressed in numbers that are multiples of four, or deviate slightly from such numbers" Later, this rule received some interpretation in the light of new data on the structure of atoms: a nuclear structure consisting of two protons and two neutrons is particularly strong.

Garkins' rule

In 1917, the American physical chemist William Draper Garkins (Harkins) drew attention to the fact that chemical elements with even atomic (ordinal) numbers are distributed in nature several times more than their neighboring elements with odd numbers. Calculations confirmed the observation: of the first 28 elements of the periodic table, 14 even ones make up 86%, and odd ones only 13.6% of the mass of the earth's crust.

In this case, the explanation may be the fact that chemical elements with odd atomic numbers contain particles that are not bound into helions and are therefore less stable.

There are many exceptions to the Harkins rule: for example, even noble gases are extremely poorly distributed, and odd aluminum Al is more widespread than even magnesium Mg. However, there are suggestions that this rule applies not so much to the earth’s crust as to the entire globe. Although there is no reliable data on the composition of the deep layers of the globe yet, some information suggests that the amount of magnesium in the entire globe is twice as much as aluminum. The amount of helium He in outer space is many times greater than its terrestrial reserves. This is perhaps the most common chemical element in the Universe.

Fersman's rule

A.E. Fersman clearly showed the dependence of the abundance of chemical elements in the earth’s crust on their atomic (ordinal) number. This dependence becomes especially obvious if you plot a graph in coordinates: atomic number - logarithm of the atomic clarke. The graph shows a clear trend: atomic clarks decrease with increasing atomic numbers of chemical elements.

Rice. . The prevalence of chemical elements in the earth's crust

Rice. 5. The abundance of chemical elements in the Universe

(log C – logarithms of atomic clarkes according to Fersman)

(data on the number of atoms are referred to 10 6 silicon atoms)

Solid curve – even Z values,

dotted – odd Z values

However, there are some deviations from this rule: some chemical elements significantly exceed the expected abundance values ​​(oxygen O, silicon Si, calcium Ca, iron Fe, barium Ba), while others (lithium Li, beryllium Be, boron B) are much less common, than would be expected based on Fersman's rule. Such chemical elements are called respectively redundant And scarce.

The formulation of the basic law of geochemistry is given on p.

The chemical composition of the earth's crust was determined based on the results of the analysis of numerous samples of rocks and minerals that came to the surface of the earth during mountain-forming processes, as well as taken from mine workings and deep boreholes.

Currently, the earth's crust has been studied to a depth of 15-20 km. It consists of chemical elements that are part of rocks.

The most common elements in the earth's crust are 46, of which 8 make up 97.2-98.8% of its mass, 2 (oxygen and silicon) - 75% of the Earth's mass.

The first 13 elements (with the exception of titanium), most often found in the earth's crust, are part of the organic matter of plants, participate in all vital processes and play an important role in soil fertility. A large number of elements participating in chemical reactions in the bowels of the Earth lead to the formation of a wide variety of compounds. The chemical elements that are most abundant in the lithosphere are found in many minerals (mostly different rocks are made up of them).

Individual chemical elements are distributed in geospheres as follows: oxygen and hydrogen fill the hydrosphere; oxygen, hydrogen and carbon form the basis of the biosphere; oxygen, hydrogen, silicon and aluminum are the main components of clays and sands or weathering products (they mainly make up the upper part of the Earth's crust).

Chemical elements in nature are found in a variety of compounds called minerals. These are homogeneous chemical substances of the earth's crust that were formed as a result of complex physicochemical or biochemical processes, for example rock salt (NaCl), gypsum (CaS04*2H20), orthoclase (K2Al2Si6016).

In nature, chemical elements take an unequal part in the formation of different minerals. For example, silicon (Si) is a component of more than 600 minerals and is also very common in the form of oxides. Sulfur forms up to 600 compounds, calcium - 300, magnesium -200, manganese - 150, boron - 80, potassium - up to 75, only 10 lithium compounds are known, and even fewer iodine compounds.

Among the best known minerals in the earth's crust, a large group of feldspars with three main elements predominates - K, Na and Ca. In soil-forming rocks and their weathering products, feldspars occupy a major position. Feldspars gradually weather (disintegrate) and enrich the soil with K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe and other ash substances, as well as microelements.

Clark number- numbers expressing the average content of chemical elements in the earth’s crust, hydrosphere, Earth, cosmic bodies, geochemical or cosmochemical systems, etc., in relation to the total mass of this system. Expressed in % or g/kg.

Types of clarks

There are weight (%, g/t or g/g) and atomic (% of the number of atoms) clarks. A generalization of data on the chemical composition of various rocks that make up the earth's crust, taking into account their distribution to depths of 16 km, was first made by the American scientist F. W. Clark (1889). The numbers he obtained for the percentage of chemical elements in the composition of the earth's crust, subsequently somewhat refined by A.E. Fersman, at the latter's suggestion, were called Clark numbers or Clarks.

Molecule structure. Electrical, optical, magnetic and other properties of molecules are related to the wave functions and energies of various states of the molecules. Molecular spectra provide information about the states of molecules and the probability of transition between them.

The vibration frequencies in the spectra are determined by the masses of atoms, their location and the dynamics of interatomic interactions. The frequencies in the spectra depend on the moments of inertia of the molecules, the determination of which from spectroscopic data allows one to obtain accurate values ​​of interatomic distances in the molecule. The total number of lines and bands in the vibrational spectrum of a molecule depends on its symmetry.

Electronic transitions in molecules characterize the structure of their electronic shells and the state of chemical bonds. The spectra of molecules that have a greater number of bonds are characterized by long-wave absorption bands falling in the visible region. Substances that are built from such molecules are characterized by color; These substances include all organic dyes.

Ions. As a result of electron transitions, ions are formed - atoms or groups of atoms in which the number of electrons is not equal to the number of protons. If an ion contains more negatively charged particles than positively charged ones, then such an ion is called negative. Otherwise, the ion is called positive. Ions are very common in substances; for example, they are found in all metals without exception. The reason is that one or more electrons from each metal atom are separated and move within the metal, forming what is called an electron gas. It is due to the loss of electrons, that is, negative particles, that metal atoms become positive ions. This is true for metals in any state - solid, liquid or gas.

The crystal lattice models the arrangement of positive ions inside a crystal of a homogeneous metallic substance.

It is known that in the solid state all metals are crystals. The ions of all metals are arranged in an orderly manner, forming a crystal lattice. In molten and evaporated (gaseous) metals, there is no ordered arrangement of ions, but electron gas still remains between the ions.

Isotopes- varieties of atoms (and nuclei) of a chemical element that have the same atomic (ordinal) number, but at the same time different mass numbers. The name is due to the fact that all isotopes of one atom are placed in the same place (in one cell) of the periodic table. The chemical properties of an atom depend on the structure of the electron shell, which, in turn, is determined mainly by the charge of the nucleus Z (that is, the number of protons in it), and almost do not depend on its mass number A (that is, the total number of protons Z and neutrons N) . All isotopes of the same element have the same nuclear charge, differing only in the number of neutrons. Typically, an isotope is designated by the symbol of the chemical element to which it belongs, with the addition of an upper left suffix indicating the mass number. You can also write the name of the element followed by a hyphenated mass number. Some isotopes have traditional proper names (for example, deuterium, actinon).

In the center of planet Earth there is a core, it is separated from the surface by layers of crust, magma, and a rather thin layer of half gaseous substance, half liquid. This layer acts as a lubricant and allows the planet's core to rotate almost independently of its main mass.
The top layer of the core consists of a very dense shell. Perhaps this substance is close in its properties to metals, very strong and ductile, and possibly has magnetic properties.
The surface of the planet's core - its hard shell - is very hot to significant temperatures; upon contact with it, the magma passes almost into a gaseous state.
Under the solid shell, the internal substance of the nucleus is in a state of compressed plasma, which mainly consists of elementary atoms (hydrogen) and nuclear fission products - protons, electrons, neutrons and other elementary particles that are formed as a result of reactions of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay.

Zones of nuclear fusion and decay reactions.
In the core of planet Earth, reactions of nuclear fusion and decay take place, which causes the constant release of large amounts of heat and other types of energy (electromagnetic pulses, various radiations), and also maintains the internal substance of the core constantly in a plasma state.

Earth's core zone - nuclear decay reactions.
Nuclear decay reactions occur in the very center of the planet's core.
It occurs as follows - heavy and super-heavy elements (which are formed in the nuclear fusion zone), since they have greater mass than all steel elements, seem to drown in liquid plasma, and gradually sink into the very center of the planet’s core, where they gain critical mass and enter into a nuclear decay reaction releasing large amounts of energy and nuclear decay products. In this zone, heavy elements act to the state of elementary atoms - the hydrogen atom, neutrons, protons, electrons and other elementary particles.
These elementary atoms and particles, due to the release of high energy at high speeds, fly away from the center of the nucleus to its periphery, where they enter into a nuclear fusion reaction.

Earth's core zone - nuclear fusion reactions.
Elementary hydrogen atoms and elementary particles, which are formed as a result of the nuclear decay reaction in the center of the Earth's core, reach the outer solid shell of the core, where nuclear fusion reactions occur in the immediate vicinity of it, in a layer located under the hard shell.
Protons, electrons and elementary atoms, accelerated to high speeds by the nuclear decay reaction in the center of the planet's core, meet with various atoms that are located on the periphery. It is worth noting that many elementary particles enter into nuclear fusion reactions on their way to the surface of the nucleus.
Gradually, in the nuclear fusion zone, more and more heavier elements are formed, almost the entire periodic table, some of them have the heaviest mass.
In this zone, there is a peculiar division of atoms of substances according to their weight due to the properties of the hydrogen plasma itself, compressed by enormous pressure, which has enormous density, due to the centrifugal force of rotation of the core, and due to the centripetal force of gravity.
As a result of the addition of all these forces, the heaviest metals sink into the plasma of the nucleus and fall into its center to further maintain the continuous process of nuclear fission in the center of the nucleus, and lighter elements tend to either leave the nucleus or settle on its inner part - the hard shell of the nucleus.
As a result, atoms from the entire periodic table gradually enter the magma, which then enter into chemical reactions above the surface of the core, forming complex chemical elements.

Magnetic field of the planet's core.
The magnetic field of the nucleus is formed due to the reaction of nuclear decay in the center of the nucleus due to the fact that the elementary products of nuclear decay, escaping from the central zone of the nucleus, carry along plasma flows in the nucleus, forming powerful vortex flows that twist around the main lines of force of the magnetic field. Since these plasma streams contain elements with a certain charge, a strong electric current arises, which creates its own electromagnetic field.
The main eddy current (plasma flow) is located in the zone of thermonuclear fusion of the core; all internal matter in this zone moves towards the rotation of the planet in a circle (along the equator of the planet’s core), creating a powerful electromagnetic field.

Rotation of the planet's core.
The rotation of the planet's core does not coincide with the plane of rotation of the planet itself; the axis of rotation of the core is located between the axis of rotation of the planet and the axis connecting the magnetic pluses.

The angular velocity of rotation of the planet's core is greater than the angular velocity of rotation of the planet itself, and is ahead of it.

Balance of nuclear decay and fusion processes in the planet's core.
The processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay on the planet are in principle balanced. But according to our observations, this balance can be disturbed in one direction or another.
In the zone of nuclear fusion of the planet's core, an excess of heavy metals can gradually accumulate, which then, falling into the center of the planet in greater quantities than usual, can cause an intensification of the nuclear decay reaction, as a result of which significantly more energy is released than usual, which will affect seismic activity in earthquake-prone areas, as well as volcanic activity on the Earth's surface.
According to our observations, from time to time a micro-rupture of the solid squirrel of the Earth’s core occurs, which leads to the entry of core plasma into the magma of the planet, and this leads to a sharp increase in its temperature in this place. Above these places, a sharp increase in seismic activity and volcanic activity on the surface of the planet is possible.
Perhaps periods of global warming and global cooling are associated with the balance of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay processes within the planet. Changes in geological epochs are also associated with these processes.

In our historical period.
According to our observations, there is now an increase in the activity of the planet’s core, an increase in its temperature, and as a result, a heating of the magma that surrounds the planet’s core, as well as an increase in the global temperature of its atmosphere.
This indirectly confirms the acceleration of the drift of the magnetic poles, which indicates that the processes inside the core have changed and moved into a different phase.
The decrease in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field is associated with the accumulation in the planet's magma of substances that screen the Earth's magnetic field, which, naturally, will also affect changes in the regimes of nuclear reactions in the planet's core.

Considering our planet and all the processes on it, we usually operate in our research and forecasts either with physical or energetic concepts, but in some cases, making a connection between one and the other side will give a better understanding of the topics described.
In particular, in the context of the described future evolutionary processes on Earth, as well as the period of serious cataclysms throughout the planet, its core, the processes in it and in the magma layer, as well as the relationship with the surface, biosphere and atmosphere were considered. These processes were considered both at the level of physics and at the level of energy relationships.
The structure of the Earth's core turned out to be quite simple and logical from the point of view of physics; it is generally a closed system with two predominant thermonuclear processes in its different parts, which harmoniously complement each other.
First of all, it must be said that the core is in continuous and very fast motion, this rotation also supports the processes in it.
The very center of the core of our planet is an extremely heavy and compressed complex structure of particles, which, due to centrifugal force, the collision of these particles and constant compression, at a certain moment are divided into lighter and more elementary individual elements. This is the process of thermonuclear decay - in the very middle of the planet's core.
The released particles are carried to the periphery, where the general rapid movement within the core continues. In this part, the particles lag further behind each other in space; colliding at high speeds, they re-form heavier and more complex particles, which are pulled back into the middle of the core by centrifugal force. This is the process of thermonuclear fusion - on the periphery of the Earth's core.
The enormous speeds of movement of particles and the occurrence of the processes described give rise to constant and colossal temperatures.
Here it is worth clarifying some points - firstly, the movement of particles occurs around the axis of rotation of the Earth and along its movement - in the same direction, this is a complementary rotation - of the planet itself with its entire mass and the particles in its core. Secondly, it should be noted that the speed of movement of particles in the core is simply enormous, it is many times higher than the speed of rotation of the planet itself around its axis.
To maintain this system on a permanent basis for as long as desired, you don’t need much; it is enough for any cosmic bodies to hit the Earth from time to time, constantly increasing the mass of our planet in general and the core in particular, while part of its mass leaves with thermal energy and gases through thin sections of the atmosphere into outer space.
In general, the system is quite stable, the question arises - what processes can lead to serious geological, tectonic, seismological, climatic and other disasters on the surface?
Considering the physical component of these processes, the following picture emerges: from time to time, from the peripheral part of the core into the magma, some streams of accelerated particles participating in thermonuclear fusion “shoot” at enormous speed; the huge layer of magma into which they fall, as if extinguishes these “shots” themselves, their density, viscosity, lower temperature - they do not rise to the surface of the planet, but those areas of magma where such emissions occur sharply heat up, begin to move, expand, put more pressure on the earth’s crust, which leads to sharp movements of geological plates, crustal faults, temperature fluctuations, not to mention earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This can also lead to the sinking of continental plates into the oceans and the rise of new continents and islands to the surface.
The reasons for such minor emissions from the core into the magma may be excessive temperatures and pressure in the general system of the planet’s core, but when it comes to evolutionarily determined catastrophic events everywhere on the planet, about the cleansing of the living conscious Earth from human aggression and garbage, then we are talking about a conscious intentional act living conscious being.
From the point of view of energy and esotericism, the planet gives intentional impulses from the center-awareness-core to the body-magma-lower layer of the Guardians, that is, conditionally, the Titans, to carry out actions to clean up the territories to the surface. Here it is worth mentioning a certain layer between the core and the mantle, just at the level of physics it is a layer of cooling substance, on the one hand corresponding to the characteristics of the core, on the other - magma, which allows for energy information flows in both directions. From an energetic point of view, this is something like a primary “nervous conductive field”, it looks like the crown of the Sun during a total eclipse, it is the connection of the planet’s consciousness with the first and deepest and largest layer of the Earth Guardians, which transmit the impulse further - to smaller and mobile zonal Guardians who implement these processes on the surface. True, during the period of severe cataclysms, the rise of new continents and the redrawing of current continents, partial participation of the Titans themselves is assumed.
Here it is also worth noting another important physical phenomenon related to the structure of the core of our planet and the processes occurring in it. This is the formation of the Earth's magnetic field.
The magnetic field is formed as a result of the high speed of movement of particles in orbit inside the Earth's core, and we can say that the Earth's external magnetic field is a kind of hologram that clearly shows the thermonuclear processes occurring inside the planet's core.
The further the magnetic field extends from the center of the planet, the more rarefied it is; inside the planet, near the core, it is orders of magnitude stronger, but inside the core itself it is a monolithic magnetic field.

Hydrogen (H) is a very light chemical element, with a content of 0.9% by weight in the Earth's crust and 11.19% in water.

Characteristics of hydrogen

It is the first among gases in lightness. Under normal conditions, it is tasteless, colorless, and absolutely odorless. When it enters the thermosphere, it flies off into space due to its low weight.

In the entire universe, it is the most numerous chemical element (75% of the total mass of substances). So much so that many stars in outer space are made entirely of it. For example, the Sun. Its main component is hydrogen. And heat and light are the result of the release of energy when the nuclei of a material merge. Also in space there are entire clouds of its molecules of various sizes, densities and temperatures.

Physical properties

High temperature and pressure significantly change its qualities, but under normal conditions it:

It has high thermal conductivity when compared with other gases,

Non-toxic and poorly soluble in water,

With a density of 0.0899 g/l at 0°C and 1 atm.,

Turns into liquid at a temperature of -252.8°C

Becomes hard at -259.1°C.,

Specific heat of combustion 120.9.106 J/kg.

It requires high pressure and very low temperatures to turn into a liquid or solid. In a liquefied state, it is fluid and light.

Chemical properties

Under pressure and upon cooling (-252.87 degrees C), hydrogen acquires a liquid state, which is lighter in weight than any analogue. It takes up less space in it than in gaseous form.

It is a typical non-metal. In laboratories, it is produced by reacting metals (such as zinc or iron) with dilute acids. Under normal conditions it is inactive and reacts only with active non-metals. Hydrogen can separate oxygen from oxides, and reduce metals from compounds. It and its mixtures form hydrogen bonds with certain elements.

The gas is highly soluble in ethanol and in many metals, especially palladium. Silver does not dissolve it. Hydrogen can be oxidized during combustion in oxygen or air, and when interacting with halogens.

When it combines with oxygen, water is formed. If the temperature is normal, then the reaction proceeds slowly; if it is above 550°C, it explodes (it turns into detonating gas).

Finding hydrogen in nature

Although there is a lot of hydrogen on our planet, it is not easy to find in its pure form. A little can be found during volcanic eruptions, during oil production and where organic matter decomposes.

More than half of the total amount is in the composition with water. It is also included in the structure of oil, various clays, flammable gases, animals and plants (presence in every living cell is 50% by the number of atoms).

Hydrogen cycle in nature

Every year, a colossal amount (billions of tons) of plant residues decomposes in water bodies and soil, and this decomposition releases a huge mass of hydrogen into the atmosphere. It is also released during any fermentation caused by bacteria, combustion and, along with oxygen, participates in the water cycle.

Hydrogen Applications

The element is actively used by humanity in its activities, so we have learned to obtain it on an industrial scale for:

Meteorology, chemical production;

Margarine production;

As rocket fuel (liquid hydrogen);

Electric power industry for cooling electric generators;

Welding and cutting of metals.

A lot of hydrogen is used in the production of synthetic gasoline (to improve the quality of low-quality fuel), ammonia, hydrogen chloride, alcohols, and other materials. Nuclear energy actively uses its isotopes.

The drug “hydrogen peroxide” is widely used in metallurgy, the electronics industry, pulp and paper production, for bleaching linen and cotton fabrics, for the production of hair dyes and cosmetics, polymers and in medicine for the treatment of wounds.

The "explosive" nature of this gas can become a lethal weapon - a hydrogen bomb. Its explosion is accompanied by the release of a huge amount of radioactive substances and is destructive for all living things.

Contact of liquid hydrogen and skin can cause severe and painful frostbite.

Until now, speaking about atomic theory, about how from several types of atoms connected to each other in different orders, completely different substances are obtained, we have never asked the “childish” question - where did the atoms themselves come from? Why are there a lot of atoms of some elements, and very few of others, and they are distributed very unevenly? For example, just one element (oxygen) makes up half of the earth's crust. Three elements (oxygen, silicon and aluminum) in total already make up 85%, and if we add iron, potassium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and titanium to them, we already get 99.5% of the earth’s crust. The share of several dozen other elements accounts for only 0.5%. The rarest metal on Earth is rhenium, and there are not so many gold and platinum, which is why they are so expensive. Here's another example: there are about a thousand times more iron atoms in the earth's crust than copper atoms, a thousand times more copper atoms than silver atoms, and a hundred times more silver than rhenium.
The distribution of elements on the Sun is completely different: there is the most hydrogen (70%) and helium (28%), and all other elements - only 2%. If you take the entire visible Universe, then there is even more hydrogen in it. Why is that? In ancient times and the Middle Ages, questions about the origin of atoms were not asked, because they believed that they always existed in an unchanged form and quantity (and according to the biblical tradition, they were created by God on one day of creation). And even when the atomic theory won and chemistry began to develop rapidly, and D.I. Mendeleev created his famous system of elements, the question of the origin of atoms continued to be considered frivolous. Of course, occasionally one of the scientists plucked up courage and proposed his theory. As already said. in 1815, William Prout proposed that all elements originated from atoms of the lightest element, hydrogen. As Prout wrote, hydrogen is the very “prime matter” of ancient Greek philosophers. which through “condensation” gave all the other elements.
In the 20th century, through the efforts of astronomers and theoretical physicists, a scientific theory of the origin of atoms was created, which in general answered the question of the origin of chemical elements. In a very simplified way, this theory looks like this. At first, all matter was concentrated at one point with an incredibly high density (K)*"g/cm") and temperature (1027 K). These numbers are so large that there are no names for them. About 10 billion years ago, as a result of the so-called Big Bang, this super-dense and super-hot spot began to expand rapidly. Physicists have a pretty good idea of ​​how events unfolded 0.01 seconds after the explosion. The theory of what happened before was developed much less well, since in the clot of matter that existed at that time, the now known physical laws were poorly fulfilled (and the earlier, the worse). Moreover, the question of what happened before the Big Bang was essentially never considered, since time itself did not exist then! After all, if there is no material world, i.e., no events, then where does time come from? Who or what will count it down? So, the matter began to rapidly fly apart and cool. The lower the temperature, the greater the opportunity for the formation of various structures (for example, at room temperature millions of different organic compounds can exist, at +500 ° C - only a few, and above +1000 ° C, probably no organic substances can exist - All of them split into their component parts at high temperatures). According to scientists, 3 minutes after the explosion, when the temperature dropped to a billion degrees, the process of nucleosynthesis began (this word comes from the Latin nucleus - “core” and the Greek “synthesis” - “compound, combination”), i.e. the process of connection protons and neutrons into the nuclei of various elements. In addition to protons - hydrogen nuclei, helium nuclei also appeared; these nuclei could not yet attach electrons and form agoms because the temperature was too high. The primordial Universe consisted of hydrogen (approximately 75%) and helium, with a small amount of the next most abundant element, lithium (it has three protons in its nucleus). This composition has not changed for approximately 500 thousand years. The universe continued to expand, cool, and become increasingly rarefied. When the temperature dropped to +3000 °C, electrons were able to combine with nuclei, which led to the formation of stable hydrogen and helium atoms.
It would seem that the Universe, consisting of hydrogen and helium, would continue to expand and cool to infinity. But then there would be not only other elements, but also galaxies, stars, and also you and me. The infinite expansion of the Universe was counteracted by the forces of universal gravity (gravity). The gravitational compression of matter in different parts of the rarefied Universe was accompanied by repeated strong heating - the stage of mass star formation began, which lasted about 100 million years. In those regions of space consisting of gas and dust where the temperature reached 10 million degrees, the process of thermonuclear fusion of helium began by fusions of hydrogen nuclei. These nuclear reactions were accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy, which was radiated into the surrounding space: this is how a new star lit up. As long as there was enough hydrogen in it, the compression of the star under the influence of gravity was counteracted by radiation that “pressed from within.” Our Sun also shines due to the "burning" of hydrogen. This process proceeds very slowly, since the approach of two positively charged protons is prevented by the force of Cooley repulsion. So our luminary will still have many years of life.
When the supply of hydrogen fuel comes to an end, the synthesis of helium gradually stops, and along with it the powerful radiation fades. Gravitational forces again compress the star, the temperature rises and it becomes possible for helium nuclei to merge with each other to form carbon nuclei (6 protons) and oxygen (8 protons in the nucleus). These nuclear processes are also accompanied by the release of energy. But sooner or later, helium supplies will run out. And then the third stage of compression of the star by gravitational forces begins. And then everything depends on the mass of the star at this stage. If the mass is not very large (like our Sun), then the effect of increasing temperature as the star contracts will not be sufficient to allow carbon and oxygen to enter into further nuclear fusion reactions; such a star becomes a so-called white dwarf. Heavier elements are "fabricated" in stars that astronomers call red giants - their mass is several times that of the Sun. In these stars, reactions of synthesis of heavier elements from carbon and oxygen take place. As astronomers figuratively put it, stars are nuclear fires, the ash of which is heavy chemical elements.
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The energy released at this stage of the star’s life greatly “inflates” the outer layers of the red giant; if our Sun became such a star. The Earth would end up inside this giant ball - not a very pleasant prospect for everything on earth. Stellar wind.
“breathing” from the surface of red giants, carries into outer space the chemical elements synthesized by these giants, which form nebulae (many of them are visible through a telescope). Red giants live relatively short lives - hundreds of times less than the Sun. If the mass of such a star exceeds the mass of the Sun by 10 times, then conditions arise (temperature of the order of a billion degrees) for the synthesis of elements up to iron. Yalro iron is the most stable of all cores. This means that the synthesis reactions of elements that are lighter than iron release energy, while the synthesis of heavier elements requires energy. With the expenditure of energy, the reactions of iron decomposition into lighter elements also occur. Therefore, in stars that have reached the “iron” stage of development, dramatic processes occur: instead of releasing energy, it is absorbed, which is accompanied by a rapid decrease in temperature and compression to a very small volume; astronomers call this process gravitational collapse (from the Latin word collapsus - “weakened, fallen”; it is not without reason that doctors call this a sudden drop in blood pressure, which is very dangerous for humans). During gravitational collapse, a huge number of neutrons are formed, which, due to the lack of charge, easily penetrate into the nuclei of all existing elements. Nuclei supersaturated with neutrons undergo a special transformation (it is called beta decay), during which a proton is formed from a neutron; as a result, from the nucleus of a given element the next element is obtained, in the nucleus of which there is already one more proton. Scientists have learned to reproduce such processes in terrestrial conditions; a well-known example is the synthesis of the plutonium-239 isotope, when, when natural uranium (92 protons, 146 neutrons) is irradiated with neutrons, its nucleus captures one neutron and the artificial element neptunium is formed (93 protons, 146 neutrons), and from it that very deadly plutonium ( 94 protons, 145 neutrons), which is used in atomic bombs. In stars that undergo gravitational collapse, as a result of neutron capture and subsequent beta decays, hundreds of different nuclei of all possible isotopes of chemical elements are formed. The collapse of a star ends with a grandiose explosion, accompanied by the ejection of a huge mass of matter into outer space - a supernova is formed. The ejected substance, containing all the elements from the periodic table (and our body contains those same atoms!), scatters around at a speed of up to 10,000 km/s. and a small remnant of matter from the dead star is compressed (collapses) to form a super-dense neutron star or even a black hole. Occasionally, such stars flare up in our sky, and if the flare occurs not too far away, the supernova outshines all other stars in brightness. And it’s not surprising: the brightness of a supernova can exceed the brightness of an entire galaxy consisting of a billion stars! One of these “ new" stars, according to Chinese chronicles, flared up in 1054. Now in this place there is the famous Crab Nebula in the constellation Taurus, and in its center there is a rapidly rotating (30 revolutions per second!) neutron star. Fortunately (for us , and not for the synthesis of new elements), such stars have so far flared up only in distant galaxies...
As a result of the “burning” of stars and the explosion of supernovae, many known chemical elements were found in outer space. Remnants of supernovae in the form of expanding nebulae, “warmed up” by radioactive transformations, collide with each other, condense into dense formations, from which stars of a new generation arise under the influence of gravitational forces. These stars (including our Sun) contain an admixture of heavy elements from the very beginning of their existence; the same elements are contained in the gas and dust clouds surrounding these stars, from which planets are formed. So the elements that make up all the things around us, including our body, were born as a result of grandiose cosmic processes...
Why were a lot of some elements formed, and few others? It turns out that in the process of nucleosynthesis, nuclei consisting of a small even number of neutrons and neutrons are most likely to be formed. Heavy nuclei, “overflowing” with protons and neutrons, are less stable and there are fewer of them in the Universe. There is a general rule: the greater the charge of a nucleus, the heavier it is, the fewer such nuclei in the Universe. However, this rule is not always followed. For example, in the earth's crust there are few light nuclei of lithium (3 protons, 3 neutrons), boron (5 protons and 5 or b neutrons). It is assumed that these nuclei, for a number of reasons, cannot form in the depths of stars, and under the influence of cosmic rays they “split off” from heavier nuclei accumulated in interstellar space. Thus, the ratio of various elements on Earth is an echo of the turbulent processes in space that occurred billions of years ago, at later stages of the development of the Universe.