The structure of Spain in the Middle Ages. History of Spain. History of ancient Spain

Anyone who thinks about Medieval Spain probably imagines it as a Muslim country with gardens, fountains, luxurious palaces, famous poets, and mosques. For others, medieval Spain is embodied in the heroic figure of Rodrigo Cid, who reconquered Valencia. For some, it is a country of the era of coexistence of three religions, when monarchs bore the titles of “kings of three religions.” Some may add to this image the idea of the Reconquista (reconquest), persecution and the Inquisition. For some, the image of Medieval Spain will be expressed in the Cathedral of St. James in Compostela (Santiago de Compostela), especially revered among Catholics. However, despite this mosaic of images, the Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages remained a unique terra incognita.

Historians love to solve riddles and create categories, isolating individual elements that seem easiest to describe and analyze: chronological divisions, time-based geographical divisions, often meeting political criteria - Andalusia, that is, Spain of the Muslim Caliphate, Aragon, Castile, Granada and Navarre Kingdoms, Portugal. Sometimes historians limit their research to a single region. For example, Catalonia or Galicia are studied without any connection with neighboring provinces, and Andalusia through the prism of a mythologized Muslim past.

Map of Medieval Spain

Added to this is the division along religious lines, now identified with culture. While in the Middle Ages religion was the equivalent of law (people lived according to the laws of Muhammad, according to Jewish or Christian laws), it only became a cultural phenomenon in the 20th century. The coexistence of Christians, Jews and Muslims on the peninsula is not interpreted as political or social factor, but as a clash of radically different cultures. It has become fashionable among historians to talk about a “Spain of three cultures” and choose one of them as an object of study: some extol Muslim Spain, which became a victim of Christian barbarism, others - the Spain of the eternally persecuted Jews, others - consider Christian Spain, conquered and subjugated by Muslims, defending the values of Western Christianity of those times and tolerating the presence of Jewish and Muslim communities for many centuries. Although whether we are talking about Christian Spain, the “island of al-Andalus” that Muhammad dreamed of, or the biblical country of Sepharad with which Spain was identified by the Jews, those who inhabited this country from the 7th to the 15th centuries were connected with each other and had a fruitful dialogue. The purpose of this book is to show that, despite cultural, political, linguistic and religious differences, it is possible to talk about a single civilization that existed on the Iberian Peninsula. Heirs of Mediterranean traditions, including the knowledge of Greek philosophers, the Bible and Roman law, irrigation and olive cultivation, those who lived in Medieval Spain proceeded from a common vision of the world, from a common interest in science and philosophy, respect for law, passion for trade, admiring gold, silk and oriental decoration, they accepted the same rules, surrounded their homes with walls, followed standards of hygiene and often tried to convince each other of the validity of their differences. And they were not wrong about that. The Christians of Spain, whom foreigners called "Hispani" regardless of whether they were Castilians, Portuguese or Aragonese, were, in the opinion of Erasmus of Rotterdam, insufficiently Catholic even in the 16th century. Muslim travelers, in turn, doubted the inhabitants of al-Andalus, which they saw as the “clothing market of Islam,” where wine and taverns were allowed. And the Jews of Spain brought the word “Spaniards” or “Sephardi” into their diasporas along with the local language.

The purpose of this short book is to reveal to the reader this civilization, whose originality comes from its diversity, where unity is based on differences. There was no lost paradise, no hell of intolerance in Spain. The peninsula during these nine centuries has known periods of violence, and periods of mutual interest, periods of exchanges and periods of fanaticism, but all this testifies to the vitality of the ties that united in one territory three “wise men”, almost three brothers, to whom the “amiable” Raymond Lull I contacted him to understand which religion is better and to gain wisdom. “In all regions of Andalusia, Portugal and the Algarve, buildings and people are similar to each other, and the difference between the Saracens and Christians is visible only when it comes to religion,” stated the Polish traveler Nikolai Poplavsky in 1484.

I.
STORY

The medieval history of the Iberian Peninsula could begin in 409, that is, in the year of the first invasion of the Germanic tribes. But it will be more understandable if we start with the arrangement of the territory by the Visigoth kings Leovigild (569-586) and Recared (586-601). It was at this time that the development of the very concept of Spain, its idea, one of the authors of which was Isidore of Seville, was added to the political organization of the territory. Empire in microcosm, a depiction of the biblical paradise defined in orthodox Catholicism, of which kings were the guarantors. Spain offered its residents certainty of security.

In 711, however, a small army of adherents of the Muslim religion landed in the south of the peninsula and destroyed this weak political structure. Starting from this date, Muslim governors and rulers began to dominate more or less large areas of the territory, which as a whole began to be called al-Andalus; and this continued for eight centuries, with Christians dominating the remaining space. On January 2, 1492, Christians solemnly entered the capital of the last territory under Muslim rule. With the capture of Granada they were able to once again restore the Spain of Isidore of Seville, a Spain united both politically and religiously, Catholic kingdom ensuring the safety of its residents. The matter was over.

This "work", completed in 1492, was, of course, the work of Christians. Quick to identify the arrival of the Muslims in 711 as punishment from God for their sins and the sins of their kings, the Christians continued to demand the return of the territory they said belonged to them. The "return" or "reconquest" of Spain (the term "reconquista" was never used in the Middle Ages) thus became the goal of the Spaniards, their repentance and submission to the will of God. Any failure was explained by the severity of sins, any victory - by God's grace. The rulers, following the Roman imperial tradition, were God's viceroys in their kingdoms, the only persons responsible to Him for the material and spiritual security of their possessions. Law, both religious and civil, guaranteed the rights and duties of every subject within the territory, the boundaries of which, fixed in the 7th century, were to be “restored.” The history of Spain, when viewed from a Christian point of view, is very simple, and its purpose was predetermined.

What about Muslims? In fact, numerous sources suggest that Muslims never considered Spain to be part of Dar al-Islam, that is, the land that God set aside for them. The Umayyads introduced the concept of exile into history. Expelled from the East as punishment for their sins, they atoned for their mistakes in the West, which tested the purity of their faith. Leaving the peninsula, whether in order to finally return to the East, or under pressure from the “pagans” (that is, Christians), was part of the mentality of Muslims in Spain in the Middle Ages.

Jews, starting from the 10th century, identified Spain with the country of Sepharad, mentioned by the prophet Obadiah in the Bible (Obd. 1, 20-21). The Jews of the peninsula were thus refugees from Jerusalem in 587 BC; that is, they escaped captivity in Babylon and (this argument was used in disputes with Christians) did not take part in the crucifixion of Christ. Having settled on the peninsula, the Jews undoubtedly retained in their minds the dream of one day “crossing the mountains of Zion.”

Christians were thus the only ones who could lay claim to Spain.

This chapter suggests short review history of the peninsula in the Middle Ages, followed by a main chronology covering ten centuries. Biographical information about major historical figures is located at the end of the book.

Visigoths (VI-VII CENTURIES)

Coming from Scandinavia, who invaded the Roman Empire in the 4th century and settled in Toulouse in the early 5th century, the Visigoths created a kingdom in Spain in the second half of the 6th century, which was considered the heir to the Roman Empire. Having long ago lost their language and their customs, they mixed with a population that was much larger than them.

Ruled by energetic and often well-educated kings who chose Toledo as their capital, they retained the name Goths to distinguish themselves from the Romans. Peace in the country was often disrupted by raids by the Vasconians, Byzantines, and Franks. They all ended in failure. Codes of laws developed during assemblies of rulers and bishops regulated social and political relations.

Visigothic kings. From a 17th century painting.

Visigothic coin. VII century

After the adoption of Catholic Christianity in 587, Spain became a country of strict religiosity and even began to show disobedience to Rome, with which it maintained only very cold relations. Spanish bishops and kings launched a hunt for heretics and began to convert Jews to Christianity. Convinced that “ignorance is the mother of all mistakes,” they gave a primary role to education and organized an extensive training system.

The rapid disappearance of the Visigothic kingdom in 711-715 under the attacks of invaders who came from North Africa became one of the great traditions of the history of this period. Medieval historians explain this catastrophe as God's punishment for the sins of the kings. The legend, born in al-Andalus, and then picked up by chroniclers from the north, says that, wanting to take revenge on the last Visigoth king Rodrigo for the dishonor of his daughter Doña Cava, Count Don Julian, who was the governor of Ceuta in Africa, opened the gates of Spain to the Muslim invaders.

The kingdom did experience several crises (the war in the province of Narbonne, plagues, famine, court rivalries, impoverishment of the population), and the kings seemed to have lost the support of the Church.

THE FLOWING OF THE MIDDLE AGES (VIII-XI CENTURIES)

The arrival of Muslims in Spain at the beginning of the 8th century seriously disorganized it. The invaders took cities by force of arms or threats, which were no worse than weapons. Afterwards, the Muslims organized their own government, and numerous Christians fled to the north. But within the Muslim troops, infighting soon began between the Arabs, Syrians and North Africans, which in the middle of the 8th century seriously complicated the further conquest of the peninsula. In the second half of the 8th century, the Franks came to the aid of the Spaniards who fled north to the Pyrenees. They marched across the mountains, occupied Narbonne and Aquitaine, unsuccessfully attempted to take Zaragoza in 778, and took Girona, Vic and finally Barcelona in 801.

In the 9th century, Muslims, united in 756 into an independent emirate by the last of the Damascus Umayyads, Abd al-Rahman I (756-788), controlled most of the territory. Ignoring former capital betic Spain, Seville, they chose as administrative center his kingdom of Cordoba. In the north, Christians gathered around their new capital Oviedo in Asturias and restored the Visigothic state system in the surrounding areas. In the northeast, the territories conquered by Charlemagne were transformed in 826-827 into border counties of the Frankish empire.

Al-Andalus or Spain, dominated by Muslims, entered, beginning with the kingdom of Emir Abd al-Rahman II (822-852), into a period of external and inner world; An effective administration was created in the kingdom, taxes made it possible to maintain an army of mercenaries and a navy, as well as to conduct a decent policy. The rulers used the Eastern ceremonial, then fashionable in Baghdad, attracted poets and singers, followed Eastern fashion in clothing and food, and surrounded themselves with jurists. Study trips and pilgrimages to Mecca led to an even greater "Orientalization" of customs, and Arabic became the most widely spoken language.

In the northwest of the peninsula, Christians who chose Oviedo as their capital restored the “Gothic order” there. The discovery of the relics of the Apostle James in Galicia around 820-830 gave the kingdom unquestionable legitimacy both from the families that could lay claim to the throne and from the pope and the Frankish emperor. The kings managed to prevent the Muslims from entering their kingdom and even organized victorious expeditions into al-Andalus. In the northeast, in 878, Count Guifre the Hairy managed to unite most of the territories under his rule. Ruling from Barcelona, which he chose as his capital, Guifre built castles and monasteries, led various military campaigns against the Muslims entrenched in Zaragoza, and managed to ensure a certain independence for the territory under his control.

The accession of Abd al-Rahman III to the throne in 913 marked the apogee of Muslim Spain. Victorious against external and internal enemies, Abd al-Rahman in 929 proclaimed himself caliph, that is, the supreme ruler who united religious and secular power. He expanded the large mosque in his capital and began to build a luxurious palace in the north of the city. Cordoba then became famous throughout the West. In the north, Christian kings dominated the territory that reached the Duero River. They moved the capital of the kingdom from Oviedo to Leon and decorated and improved the city, wanting to attract more pilgrims to Compostela. The Kingdom of Leone reached its peak. On the eastern border, the rulers of Pamplona transformed their possession into a kingdom at the beginning of the 10th century and annexed Aragon in 921-922. For their part, the descendants of Guifre the Hairy ruled in Barcelona and maintained good relations with the caliphs of Cordoba.

At the end of the 10th century, palace intrigues allowed the ambitious vizier Almansur to seize power. But his victories over the Christians in the north and over the Berber peoples from northern Africa were not enough to calm the dissatisfied: in 100.8 a civil war began, which ended in 1031 with the disappearance of the Cordoba Caliphate and the fragmentation of al-Andalus into many small emirates warring with each other . In the north, Christian possessions quickly rose from ruins; The Kingdom of Leonese, which became the Kingdom of Castile and Leonese in 1037 after the marriage of the heir to the Leonese throne with the heir to the Castile throne, led domestic policy towards restoring public order, and foreign policy- in the direction of weakening neighboring emirates through military campaigns, conquests and the imposition of heavy taxes called “parias”. The advance of Christians and the capture of the Emirate of Toledo by the King of Castile in 1085 prompted several emirs to turn to North Africa for support from the Almoravids, a tribe of hardline Muslims who had just chosen Marrakech as their capital. In 1086, the Almoravids landed in Spain, defeated the Christian army and took the Andalusian emirates under their rule.

Over the course of three centuries of history, Christians and Muslims divided the territory of the peninsula between themselves into almost equal parts. Al-Andalus was seriously threatened by Christian expansion, but at the same time found itself in the hands of harsh warriors who arrived from northern Africa and brought with them strict religious rules. Christian Spain, for its part, was subject to active pressure from the papacy, which wanted its return to the bosom of the Roman Church, despite the fact that its open spaces attracted numerous inhabitants from other regions of Europe.

END OF THE MIDDLE AGES (XII-XV CENTURIES).
SPAIN IS DIVIDED INTO FIVE PARTS

During the four centuries that are traditionally considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, the advance of Christians against Muslims was not as significant as might have been expected after the successes that took place in the 11th century. The Almoravids quickly lost their aggressiveness and were replaced in the south of the peninsula by another tribe that came from northern Africa, the Almohads, who settled there starting in 1146 and pursued a harsh policy against Christian kings and princes. In the second half of the 13th century, the king of Granada, the last bastion of al-Andalus, again turned to the North African Merinians and Genoese for help. The Kingdom of Granada flourished in the second half of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century. But the rivalry between the noble families of the kingdom and the numerous descendants of the emirs led to the weakening of Granada, which, after a long siege, surrendered to the Catholic kings on January 2, 1492.

Castile and León, united in 1037, endured a period of disunity that lasted nearly seventy years, from 1157 to 1230, before regaining a unification that gave them supremacy over the other kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. After the victory at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, Kings Ferdinand III and Alfonso X annexed most of Andalusia to their kingdom. In 1369, the death of King Pedro I, nicknamed the Cruel, at the hands of his brother brought the new Trastámara dynasty to the Castilian throne. By making generous concessions to the loyal nobility, the monarchs of the new dynasty protected their absolute power. They continued the lawmaking of their predecessors and imposed a heavy tax burden on the emirs of Granada. Using the support of the kingdom's cities and an elaborate tax collection system that filled the state coffers, the kings of Castile fought victoriously in the mid-15th century against the nobility who claimed control of the Royal Council. The alliance with France against England shows that Castile dominated the sea, and its merchants extended their influence to all major European ports. In 1492, a few months after the surrender of Granada, a Genoese merchant gave America to Castile. The following year, Pope Alexander VI Borgia gave the Catholic kings possession of all open lands west of the demarcation line, which ran a hundred leagues from the Azores and Cape Verde Islands.

In 1139, after defeating the Muslims, Count Alphonse of Portugal assumed the title of king and transformed his county into an independent kingdom. From then on, the history of Portugal became the history of a kingdom whose development has always been parallel to that of its Castilian neighbor, but which has asserted itself more and more definitely. The Treaty of Alcanyises, signed in 1297, finally established the border between the two kingdoms. However, in the next century, the accession to the throne in 1385 of the Infante João marked the beginning of Portuguese expansion. The conquest of the rich city of Ceuta (1415), Madera (1418), then the Azores Islands (1427-1431), followed by expeditions along the western coast of Africa, reaching Cape Verde in 1444 - all this made the Portuguese sailors great navigators and provided the kingdom with gold, ivory, sugar and black slaves. In 1487-1488, the sailor Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and opened the road to India. By the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494 with the Spaniards, the Portuguese secured their route to Africa and moved the line of demarcation from one hundred to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands.

Created in 1035, the small Kingdom of Aragon, located in the Pyrenees, annexed the Kingdom of Pamplona between 1063 and 1134, and expanded south by capturing the Emirate of Zaragoza in 1118. In 1162, a union was concluded between Aragon and the County of Barcelona, which became Catalonia, but each participant in this union retained its own customs and privileges. In the 13th century, when King Jaime I of Aragon conquered the Balearic Emirates (1229) and then Valencia (1238), they became autonomous kingdoms with their own laws. Aragon extended its influence to Sicily (1282), Sardinia (1324), the Duchy of Athens (1311-1388) and finally the Kingdom of Naples (1433).

* * *

The history of the Aragonese crown is marked by rivalries between its components, each kingdom or county established strict control over the collection of taxes and set up customs posts on its borders. Severely devastated by the plague in 1348, Catalonia was engulfed in civil wars in the next century, leading to the decline of the great port of Barcelona. As a result, the port of Valencia began to grow richer and expand, which was the beginning of prosperity for the city. Aragon, for a long time used by Catalan traders as a supplier of grain and a market for their products, closed its borders and “rested” in defending its rights. The death of the childless king Martin I brought his nephew, the Castilian infanta Ferdinand de Trastámara (1412-1416), to the throne. His grandson Ferdinand united two branches of the family and two crowns by marrying the heiress to the Castilian crown, Isabella, in 1469.

Having become independent again in 1134 under the name of the Kingdom of Navarre, the former Kingdom of Pamplona passed a century later under the rule of the Count of Champagne, then in 1274 under the rule of the French crown, thanks to the marriage of Juana of Navarre and Philip the Fair. In 1328, after a century of subjugation to France, Navarre regained its independence, but the marriage, another century later, of Blanche of Navarre with Juan of Aragon linked the fate of the kingdom with its Iberian neighbor. After unsuccessful attempts to maintain some kind of independence, the kingdom was conquered in 1512 by the Catholic king Ferdinand of Aragon and finally annexed to the Castilian crown.

Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile

After the death of Ferdinand of Aragon, his possessions passed to the eldest of his grandsons - Charles, the son of Juana of Castile and Philip the Fair from the Habsburg dynasty. In addition to external conquests (the Kingdom of Naples and America), Charles inherited in 1516 four of the five existing kingdoms: Castile, Aragon, Granada and Navarre. In addition to political changes, this also entailed a number of general issues. For residents of other states, the subjects of these four kingdoms became simply “Spaniards,” and Mexico, which Hernán Cortés conquered in 1521, became known as “New Spain.”

During the reign of the Catholic kings, such a new factor appeared as the obligation to be baptized, approved by law in 1492 for Jews, and in 1502 for Muslims. A special Court of the Inquisition was created to monitor compliance with all regulations. catholic church. Medieval Spain gave way to Modern Spain.

The history of Spain should begin with decoding the name of the country. It has Phoenician roots and means “shore of the hyraxes,” that is, the habitat of the grassy mammals that inhabited the Iberian Peninsula.

These lands were hardly ever empty. People have inhabited them since time immemorial. This is due to a favorable climate, access to the sea, and a wealth of resources.

First tribes

The history of Spain is connected with many ancient peoples. They occupied various parts of the future state. It is known that the Iberians settled in the southern territories, and the Celts were interested in the northern lands.

The central part of the peninsula was inhabited by mixed tribes. In ancient sources they were called Celtiberians. Greeks and Phoenicians settled on the coasts. The Carthaginians conquered the lands with particular activity. But as a result of several wars they were ousted by the Romans.

From Roman to Arab rule

The colonization of lands by the Romans began in the 3rd century BC. It was possible to completely conquer all the tribes only in 72 BC. From this moment the history of Roman Spain began. It dragged on for almost five centuries. During this time, many ancient structures were built. Some amphitheaters and triumphal arches have survived to this day.

It was during this period that the culture of Spain was especially enriched. The famous Roman philosopher Seneca and Emperor Trajan were born on these lands. Christianity came here in the 3rd century.

At the end of the 4th century, Roman Spain ceased to exist. Having captured Rome, the Visigoths came here. In 418 they organized their own state on these lands. The successor of the Roman Empire, Justinian, was able to regain the southern lands. This is how Byzantine Spain existed in the 6th-7th century.

Endless internal strife among the Visigoths led to the decline of their state. One of the contenders for the throne decided to ask the Arabs for help. So in the 8th century, a new people arrived on the peninsula.

The Arabs quickly seized power. They did not plan to introduce local population radical changes. The inhabitants of the peninsula have preserved their religion, culture, and traditions. But they still adopted some elements of the East, for example, the love of luxury. The architectural structures of that era are reminiscent of the rule of the Arabs.

Reconquista

The inhabitants of the peninsula could not accept the fact that they were ruled by the Moors. They waged a constant struggle to reclaim their lands. In history, this long period was called the Reconquista. It began in the 8th century, when the Arabs were defeated for the first time at the Battle of Covadonga.

During this time, such state associations as the Spanish Mark (modern Catalonia), Navarre, and Aragon were created.

The Arabs managed to conquer significant territories and firmly gain a foothold on the peninsula at the end of the 10th century, when the vizier Almanzor came to power. With his death, the Moorish state lost its unity.

The Reconquista achieved its greatest success in the 13th century. The Christians united against the Arabs and were able to defeat them in several decisive battles. Subsequently, the Moors had to flee to the mountains. Their last refuge was fortified Granada. It was conquered in 1492.

After the defeat of the Arabs, the Golden Age of Spain begins.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Isabella and Ferdinand are considered the most significant personalities of Spain. She inherited the throne of Castile from her brother and married the heir of Aragon. A dynastic marriage united the two largest kingdoms.

In 1492, the Spaniards not only finally got rid of the Moors, but also discovered New world. It was at this time that Columbus carried out an expedition and founded the Spanish colonies. The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries began, in which the state played an important role. It was Isabella who agreed to sponsor Columbus's expedition. For this she pawned her jewelry.

The rulers of Spain decided to invest in a risky venture that elevated the state on the world stage. Those countries that were afraid to take risks regretted their mistake for a long time, and Spain reaped the benefits from the formed colonies.

Habsburg Spain (beginning)

The grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand was born in 1500. He is known as Charles the First as King of the Spanish lands, and as Charles the Fifth became Holy Roman Emperor.

The king was distinguished by the fact that he preferred to independently resolve all issues of the state. He arrived in Castile from Burgundy. From there he brought his yard. This initially outraged the locals, but over time Charles became a true representative of Castile.

The history of Spain at that time is associated with numerous wars against Protestantism, which developed in Germany and France. In 1555, the emperor's troops were defeated by German Protestants. According to the peace treaty, a new Christian church was legalized in Germany. Charles could not accept such a shame and three weeks after signing the document, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son Philip II. He himself retired to a monastery.

Last Habsburgs

Philip II continued the history of the country. Spain during his reign was able to stop the Turkish invasion. She was victorious at the naval Battle of Lepanto in 1571. The battle went down in history not only due to the victory of the combined Spanish-Venetian fleet, but also due to the last use of rowing ships. It was in this battle that the future writer Cervantes lost his arm.

Philip did everything to strengthen the monarchy in the state. But he failed to keep the Netherlands under his control. In 1598, the northern lands gained independence through a revolution.

However, a little earlier, Philip managed to annex Portugal. This happened in 1581. Portugal was under the Spanish crown until the mid-17th century. The country constantly tried to secede from Spain, using any methods to do so.

Under the next rulers, the political influence of the state on the world stage gradually fell, and the state's possessions were reduced. The next step down was the Thirty Years' War. The Habsburgs of Spain and Austria, as well as the German princes, joined forces to fight the Protestant coalition. It included England, Russia, Sweden and other countries. The myth of the invincibility of the Spanish army was destroyed by the Battle of Rocroi. In 1648, the parties concluded the Peace of Westphalia. It had dire consequences for Spain.

The last representative of the Habsburgs died in 1700. Charles II had no heir, so the throne went to the Bourbons from France.

War of the Spanish Succession

Spain's participation in wars continued into the 18th century. Philippe of Bourbon, who was the grandson of Louis the Fourteenth, King of France, ascended the throne. This did not suit Great Britain, Austria, and Holland. They feared that the future Spanish-French state would become a strong enemy. The war has begun. According to the peace treaties of 1713-1714, Philip renounced the French throne, retaining the Spanish throne. Thus, France and Spain would not be able to unite. In addition, Spain was deprived of its possessions in Italy, the Netherlands, Minorca and Gibraltar.

The next king was Charles the Fourth. He was greatly influenced by the favorite Godoy. It was he who persuaded the king to move closer to France. In 1808, Napoleon kept Charles IV and his son Ferdinand in France by force so that Joseph Bonaparte could rule in Spain. There were uprisings in the country, and a guerrilla war was waged against Napoleon's troops. When European countries overthrew the emperor, power in Spain passed to Ferdinand the Seventh. After his death, civil wars resumed in the country, contradictions appeared and intensified between the peoples of the state on the basis of culture and language. This was Spain during the Enlightenment. At this time, modernization reforms were carried out government controlled. The rulers were distinguished by their despotic methods and desire for enlightenment.

In the 19th century, the country experienced five major revolutions. As a result, the state became a constitutional monarchy. During the same period, it lost almost all of its colonies in America. This had a negative impact on the economic situation, since the largest sales market disappeared and the amount of taxes received was reduced.

Francoist Spain

At the beginning of the 20th century, the power of the king was significantly weakened. In 1923, as a result of a military coup, General de Rivera seized power in the country for seven years. After the elections of 1931, King Alphonse XIII had to abdicate the throne and go to Paris. A republic appeared on the world map.

From that time on, a fierce struggle began between the Republicans, who were supported by Soviet Union, and the fascists, who fed forces from Italy and Germany. The Republicans lost the fight, and from 1939 the Franco dictatorship was established in the country.

Francoist Spain adhered to neutrality in World War II. But this was only formal. In fact, the country supported Germany. That is why in the post-war period it was in international isolation. By 1953, she was able to achieve the lifting of sanctions. Reforms were carried out in the country, thanks to which foreign investment poured in. The development of industry and tourism began in Spain. This period is usually called an economic miracle. It continued until 1973.

But supporters of leftist views continued to be persecuted in the country. They were accused of separatism. Hundreds of thousands of people disappeared without a trace.

Recent history

After his death, Franco bequeathed to transfer power into the hands of Juan Carlos, who was the grandson of Alfonso the Thirteenth. The history of Spain changed in 1975.

Liberal reforms were carried out in the country. The 1978 Constitution allowed for greater autonomy for some regions of the state. In 1986, the country joined NATO and the EU. The activities of the separatist organization ETA of a terrorist nature remain a serious unresolved problem.

A radical group was created in 1959. Its activities are aimed at gaining independence for the Basque Country. The Arana brothers, who lived in the 19th and 20th centuries, became ideologists. They claimed that Spain had turned their lands into its colony. Nationalist parties began to form. When Franco came to power, the autonomy of the Basque Country was abolished, and their native language was banned. In the sixties of the last century, the Basques were able to regain schools teaching in their own language.

Representatives of ETA advocate the creation of a separate state of Euskadi. During the history of its existence, its representatives made attempts on the lives of gendarmes and officials. The most famous crime is the planned murder of Luis Blanco, who was Franco's successor. Explosives were placed over the place where his car was passing, and an explosion occurred on December 20, 1973. The politician died on the spot. In the seventies and eighties, negotiations were held between the government and ETA, which briefly led to a truce. Today the organization has officially abandoned the armed struggle and entered politics. Its former members run for office and gain positions in government.

Modern role of the monarch

King Juan Carlos I has great authority on the world stage. Although his powers in the country were very limited, he participated in various important political processes. Thanks to his authority, today Spain remains a stable state with a developed economy.

He was born in 1938 in Italy. His early years were spent in Italy and Portugal. He was able to receive his education in his homeland. Franco appointed him as his successor back in 1956. Juan's father, the Count of Barcelona, opposed this.

In 2014, the king decided to abdicate the throne in favor of his son Felipe. He stated that he was ready to rule, he was young and capable of carrying out the necessary transformations in the country. Despite his abdication, he still holds the title of king.

Since 2014, Philip VI has been considered the monarch of Spain. Little is known about his activities yet. He has to resolve the issue with Catalonia, which held an illegal referendum on secession from the state in 2017.

Culture

If we talk about the culture of Spain, it is worth noting that the entire country is historical museum, which is washed by seas on three sides.

From many architectural monuments It is worth highlighting the following buildings in Madrid:

Bishop's Chapel - the temple is located in Madrid, made in the Gothic style.
Monastery of Descalzas Reales - built in the 16th century, famous for its collection of works of art.
The Royal Palace is an example of palace architecture from the 17th century. It is surrounded by parks and gardens. It preserves the utensils of past centuries, which were used by the monarchs of the state.
The fountain of the goddess Cibeles is the symbol of Madrid.

Thirty kilometers from Madrid is Alcala de Henares, the city in which Cervantes was born. The house where the writer lived has been preserved there. In addition to churches and monasteries, the city also has a university from the 15th century.

Barcelona is worth mentioning separately. The historic center, designed in Gothic style, has remained virtually untouched from the time when the city was the capital of Catalonia.

The executive power of the people is exercised by the president (presidente) of the government (Gobierno), elected for a term of 4 years and heading the Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministers). Legislative power is exercised by the Cortes, consisting of two chambers, the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) and the Senate (Senado).

The national flag of Spain is formed by three horizontal stripes: red, yellow and another red, with the yellow stripe being equal in width to two red stripes.

Spain became an independent state in the city after the expulsion of the Moors and the unification of the country. National holiday– October 12 – Day of the Spanish Nation (date of the discovery of America by H. Columbus).

The administrative division of Spain includes 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities - Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa, divided into 50 provinces. Territorially, Spain is divided into autonomous communities (Comunidades Autonomas): Andalusia (with Ceuta and Melilla in Africa), Aragon, Asturias (Principality of Asturias), Baleares (Balearic Islands), Canarias (Canary Islands), Cantabria, Castile León, Castile La Mancha, Catalunya (Catalonia), Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, Basque Country (Euskadi) (Pais vasco), La Rioja, Valencia Community.

The division of the national territory into historical regions, of which there are 15, and which practically coincide with the recently formed autonomies, is also preserved.

Political parties

The most influential political parties: Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), People's Party (PP), Communist Party Spain (RFE), Democratic and Socialist Center, People's Alliance (AP).

The Basque Nationalist Party was founded in 1894–1895. brothers Sabino and Luis Arana and is one of the oldest political parties countries.

ETA (“Euskadi ta Askatasuna” (Basque) – “Basque Country and Freedom”) was formed in the city. It is waging an armed struggle for the independence of the Basque Country (Euskadi).

Population

The population of Spain as of January 1 of the year was 43.97 million people, including 3.69 million (8.4%) foreigners.

Such data was published by Spanish media with reference to State Institute statistics. As the media note, if previously Spain was one of the European countries where few foreigners lived, now in terms of this indicator it is second only to Germany and Austria, where the percentage of foreigners is 9% and 8.7%, respectively. Spain is already ahead of France (8%) and all other European countries.

The number of foreigners living in Spain has increased especially in last years, which is due to a sharp influx of immigrants into the country. Thus, in Spain in 1996 there were only 542.3 thousand people, which is seven times less than at present.

The majority of foreigners in Spain are (in descending order) Moroccans, Ecuadorians, Romanians and Colombians.

The population of Spain for quite a long time was about 40 million people, which was due, in particular, to the lowest birth rate in Europe. As experts note, the growth of the country's population is caused, first of all, by the influx of immigrants - they come to Spain in search of work, since the country has a labor shortage.

According to experts, the influx of immigrants allows Spain to maintain its growing pace economic growth and a system of social guarantees.

In Spain, where an increase in the share of the foreign population has been noted since the year, the number of immigrants from third countries increased in the period from 1 to January 1 of the year from 1.1 million to 3.7 million people (8.4% total number population).

The largest foreign residents in Spain are Moroccans, Ecuadorians, Romanians and Colombians.

When calling the inhabitants of Spain Spaniards, they mean the entire people, the entire population of this country. However, on the territory of Spain there are historical areas inhabited by other ethnic groups. The population of Spain is 43.97 million; about 3/4 are Spaniards, other ethnic groups are Catalans (about 6 million people), Galicians (about 3 million people) and Basques (about 800 thousand people).

About 200,000 Moroccans live in Spain. In terms of total population, Spain ranks fifth among European countries. Urban population – 76.7% (1996). The average population density is about 78 people per square meter. km.

Language

The official language of the Spanish state is Spanish (Castilian, castellano). Spanish, formed on the basis of the Castilian dialect, is state language countries. But there are also other official languages spoken in national autonomies. In the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, as well as in the Balearic Islands, they speak the Catalan language and its dialects, in Galicia - the Galician language, in the Basque Country and Navarre - the Basque language. Spanish, Catalan and Galician languages belong to the Romance group (which also includes Italian, French, Portuguese, Romanian). The Basque language is unlike any other language in the world, which gives rise to various versions of the origin of this people (in particular, the widespread version is that the Basques are immigrants from the Caucasus and relatives of Georgians).

Religion

The country's constitution guarantees freedom of religion. Spain is a Catholic country. The vast majority of the country's population consider themselves practicing Catholics. Roman Catholicism is professed by 98%, other faiths are Protestantism, Judaism, Islam.

Madrid. Cathedral of Equal Apostles Mary Magdalene
Palma de Mallorca. Christmas arrival. Puerta Pintada No 9 (Calle San Miguel esquina Olmos) 07001 Palma de Mallorca. Archimandrite Macarius (Rosello). Dean. Tel.: +34 6 78 45 38 23; Hegumen Seraphim (Pavlov)
Barcelona. Parish in honor of the Annunciation Holy Mother of God. Archpriest Vladimir Abrosimov Tel.: +34 93 422 39 65; +34 6 87 210 629
Tenerife. Parish in honor of the Presentation of the Lord on the island of Tenerife
Altea. Parish in the name of the Archangel Michael, 163rd km of the N-332 road - Altea (Alicante). Archpriest Nikolai Soldatenkov provides care. Contact: Deacon Vladimir Zhukov. Tel.: +34 6 46 342 852. Website: http://arkhangelmikhail-spain.com/
Alicante. The parish of Simeon the New Theologian and St. Innocent of Moscow (Ss Simeon y Inocencio). C/ Tucumán, 7. (Antiguo Colegio Salesiano) 54 03001- Alicante. Liturgy schedule: every Sunday at 10:30. Priest Hosios Ferrer. Tel: +34 966 350 752; +34 649 630 999. Blog: http://iglesiaortodoxaenalicante.blogspot.com/ Parish bulletin: http://boletinsanserafindesarov1.blogspot.com/
Malaga(Benalmadena). The arrival of the Ascension of the Lord. Priest Andrei Kordochkin provides care. Responsible layperson: Boris Baklanov. Urb. Cascada de Camojan residencial, Las Merinas, casa Marvik, 29600, MALAGA
Oviedo. Community. Provided by priest Andrei Kordochkin
Las Palmas- Gran Canaria. Community of the Canary Islands. In the temple of Ermita Espiritu Santo, in the city center on the street of the same name, near the cathedral, Las Palmas - GRAND CANARIA Tel.: +34 665 564 565. http://ortodoxcanarias.livejournal.com/

Geographical position

Spain is a state in the extreme southwest of Europe, occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic and Pitius Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.

Schematically, it has a shape reminiscent of a stretched bull skin. Spain is a bridge between two continents, Europe and Africa, and a barrier separating two seas: the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Spain borders in the west with Portugal (border length 1214 km), in the north with France (623 km) and Andorra (65 km), in the south with Gibraltar (1.2 km). Spain is washed in the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea, in the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and in the north by the Bay of Biscay (Cantabrian Sea). A distance of only 14 km, the width of the Strait of Gibraltar, separates Spain from Africa.

Spain owns the Balearic and Canary Islands, as well as 5 sovereign zones in Northern Africa on the coast of Morocco, in the territory of the former Spanish Morocco with the cities of Ceuta and Melilla. Spain has a long-standing territorial dispute with Britain over the issue of Gibraltar.

The total length of the border is 1903.2 km, the length of the coastline is 4964 km. The total area of Spain is 504,782 square meters. km (land area – 499,400 km²). It is the fourth largest European country after Russia, Ukraine and France.

The name Spain (Hispania), which the Romans gave to the country, comes from Hispalis (Seville). Another theory is that the name Spain is of Celtic origin and means "entrance" or "key".

History of Spain

Ancient Spain

In ancient times, Spain was inhabited by Iberians, in the 5th – 3rd centuries. BC. The Celts settled here. The Celts invading from the north mixed with the Iberians, forming the Celtiberian population.

5000 BC The beginning of agriculture on the Iberian Peninsula.

2500 BC The inhabitants of the Los Millares settlement process metal; they believe in afterlife. This Neolithic settlement may have housed 2,000 people.

1800 – 1100 BC In the southeast of Spain, the developed agricultural culture of El Argar flourishes.

1200 BC The inhabitants of Menorca (Talaiot culture) create three types of stone buildings: taulas, talayots and navetas.

By the 12th century. BC. The Phoenicians landed on these lands, they were replaced by the Greeks, and then the Carthaginians. In the 2nd millennium BC. The Phoenicians and Greeks founded their colonies on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, while the central part of the territory was inhabited by Iberian and Celtic tribes.

Around 1100 BC The Phoenicians found Gadir (now Cadiz).

The Bronze Age treasure, found in 1963 in Villena, near Alicante, includes 66 objects made of gold and silver - bowls, vessels and jewelry. It dates back to 1000 BC.

775 BC The Phoenicians establish colonies on the coast near Malaga.

700 BC The rise of the semi-legendary kingdom of Tartessos. Phoenician deities were also worshiped in ancient Spain. The fertility goddess Ishtar was especially revered. A bronze image of the goddess from the 8th century was found. BC. from a Phoenician colony.

Around 600 BC The Greeks founded colonies on the northeast coast of Spain. Greek colonists brought with them new technologies, such as the potter's wheel. Their wonderful ceramics were a role model. A black-figure amphora from the 6th century was found. BC. depicting the labors of Hercules. In the early Iron Age, iron was used only in everyday life; later weapons made from this metal also appeared. Dagger from Burgos, 6th century. BC.

300 BC "The Lady from Elche" This stone bust of a woman from the 4th century. BC. - an excellent example of Iberian art. Its mysterious beauty bears traces of Greek influence.

Early Middle Ages

The Reconquista began almost immediately. The first independent kingdom in Spain was the Kingdom of Asturias, and to this day every eldest son of a Spanish king receives the hereditary title of Prince of Asturias.

Middle Ages

Christian Spain unites under the rule of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile.

Castile and Aragon united into one kingdom and completed the liberation of the country from the Moors. Since the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon, Spain has been a single state. The struggle for freedom ended only in the year when Catholic Kings Ferdinand and Isabella received the keys to Granada from the hands of the last Arab emir in Spain.

Since then Spain has become a single state. She also began to build her empire based on the discoveries of Christopher Columbus.

Golden age

In the 16th century absolutism took hold. At the beginning of the 16th century. The Spanish colonial empire emerged (based on colonial conquests in America). The Spanish Empire reached its peak in the 16th century. with the expansion of colonies in South and Central America and the capture of Portugal in the city, Charles of the House of Habsburg, who inherited the Spanish throne, becomes, under the name of Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, on which “the sun never sets.”

From the middle of the 16th century. Spain's economic decline began. Charles V's son Philip II moves the capital from Toledo to Madrid. Death

Spanish historiography has developed a unique idea of the Spanish Middle Ages. Since the time of the Italian humanists of the Renaissance, a tradition has been established to consider the barbarian invasions and the fall of Rome in 410 AD. the starting point of the transition from the ancient era to the Middle Ages, and the Middle Ages itself were seen as a gradual approach to the Renaissance (15–16 centuries), when interest in culture reawakened ancient world. When studying the history of Spain, particular importance was attached not only to the crusades against Muslims (Reconquista), which lasted several centuries, but also to the very fact of the long coexistence of Christianity, Islam and Judaism on the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, the Middle Ages in this region begin with the Muslim invasion in 711 and end with the Christian capture of the last stronghold of Islam, the Emirate of Granada, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 (when all these events took place).

Visigothic period.

After the Visigoths invaded Italy in 410, the Romans used them to restore order in Spain. In 468, their king Eurich settled his followers in northern Spain. In 475 he even promulgated the earliest written code of laws (the Eurich Code) in the states formed by the Germanic tribes. In 477, the Roman Emperor Zeno officially recognized the transition of all of Spain to the rule of Eurich. The Visigoths adopted Arianism, which was condemned as a heresy at the Council of Nicaea in 325, and created a caste of aristocrats. Their cruel treatment of the local population, mainly Catholics in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, caused the intervention of the Byzantine troops of the Eastern Roman Empire, which remained in the southeastern regions of Spain until the 7th century.

King Atanagild (r. 554–567) made Toledo his capital and recaptured Seville from the Byzantines. His successor, Leovigild (568–586), occupied Cordoba in 572, reformed the laws in favor of the Catholics of the south and tried to replace the elective Visigothic monarchy with a hereditary one. King Recared (586–601) announced his renunciation of Arianism and his conversion to Catholicism and convened a council at which he persuaded the Arian bishops to follow his example and recognize Catholicism as the state religion. After his death, an Arian reaction set in, but with the accession of Sisebutus (612–621) to the throne, Catholicism regained the status of the state religion.

Svintila (621–631), the first Visigothic king to rule over all of Spain, was enthroned by Bishop Isidore of Seville. Under him, the city of Toledo became the seat of the Catholic Church. Reccesvintus (653–672) promulgated the famous code of laws Liber Judiciorum around 654. This outstanding document of the Visigothic period abolished the existing legal differences between the Visigoths and local peoples. After the death of Rekkesvint, the struggle between claimants to the throne intensified under the conditions of an elective monarchy. At the same time, the power of the king noticeably weakened, and continuous palace conspiracies and rebellions did not stop until the collapse of the Visigothic state in 711.

Arab domination and the beginning of the Reconquista.

The victory of the Arabs in the Battle of the Guadalete River in Southern Spain on July 19, 711 and the death of the last Visigoth king Roderic two years later in the Battle of Segoyuela sealed the fate of the Visigothic kingdom. The Arabs began to call the lands they captured Al-Andaluz. Until 756 they were governed by a governor who was formally subordinate to the Damascus caliph. In the same year, Abdarrahman I founded an independent emirate, and in 929 Abdarrahman III assumed the title of caliph. This caliphate, centered in Cordoba, lasted until the beginning of the 11th century. After 1031, the Cordoba Caliphate broke up into many small states (emirates).

To a certain extent, the unity of the caliphate has always been illusory. The vast distances and difficulties of communication were aggravated by racial and tribal conflicts. Extremely hostile relations developed between the politically dominant Arab minority and the Berbers who made up the majority of the Muslim population. This antagonism was further exacerbated by the fact that the best lands went to the Arabs. The situation was aggravated by the presence of layers of Muladi and Mozarabs - the local population who, to one degree or another, experienced Muslim influence.

Muslims were actually unable to establish dominance in the far north of the Iberian Peninsula. In 718, a detachment of Christian warriors under the command of the legendary Visigothic leader Pelayo defeated the Muslim army in the mountain valley of Covadonga. Gradually moving towards the Duero River, Christians occupied free lands that were not claimed by Muslims. At that time, the border region of Castile (territorium castelle - translated as “land of castles”) was formed; It is appropriate to note that back at the end of the 8th century. Muslim chroniclers called it Al-Qila (castles). In the early stages of the Reconquista, two types of Christian political formations arose, differing in geographical location. The core of the Western type was the kingdom of Asturias, which, after the transfer of the court to Leon in the 10th century. became known as the Kingdom of Leon. The County of Castile became an independent kingdom in 1035. Two years later, Castile united with the Kingdom of León and thus acquired a leading political role, and with it priority rights to the lands conquered from the Muslims.

In the more eastern regions there were Christian states - the kingdom of Navarre, the County of Aragon, which became a kingdom in 1035, and various counties associated with the kingdom of the Franks. Initially, some of these counties were the embodiment of the Catalan ethno-linguistic community, the central place among them was occupied by the County of Barcelona. Then the County of Catalonia arose, which had access to the Mediterranean Sea and conducted a lively maritime trade, in particular in slaves. In 1137 Catalonia joined the Kingdom of Aragon. This is a state in the 13th century. significantly expanded its territory to the south (to Murcia), also annexing the Balearic Islands. In 1085, Alfonso VI, king of Leon and Castile, captured Toledo, and the border with the Muslim world moved from the Duero River to the Tagus River. In 1094, the Castilian national hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, known as the Cid, entered Valencia. However, these major achievements were not so much the result of the zeal of the crusaders, but rather a consequence of the weakness and disunity of the rulers of the taifa (emirates in the territory of the Cordoba Caliphate). During the Reconquista, it happened that Christians united with Muslim rulers or, having received a large bribe (parias) from the latter, were hired to protect them from the crusaders.

In this sense, the fate of Sid is indicative. He was born approx. 1040 in Bivar (near Burgos). In 1079, King Alfonso VI sent him to Seville to collect tribute from the Muslim ruler. However, soon after this he did not get along with Alphonse and was expelled. In eastern Spain, he embarked on the path of an adventurer, and it was then that he received the name Sid (derived from the Arabic “seid”, i.e. “lord”). The Sid served such Muslim rulers as the emir of Zaragoza al-Moqtadir, and the rulers of Christian states. From 1094 Cid began to rule Valencia. He died in 1099. The Castilian epic Song of My Cid, written c. 1140, goes back to earlier oral traditions and reliably reports many historical events. The song is not a chronicle of the Crusades. Although the Cid fights the Muslims, in this epic it is not they who are portrayed as the villains, but the Christian princes of Carrion, the courtiers of Alfonso VI, while the Cid's Muslim friend and ally, Abengalvon, surpasses them in nobility.

Completion of the Reconquista.

Muslim emirs were faced with a choice: either constantly pay tribute to Christians, or turn to co-religionists in North Africa for help. Eventually, the Emir of Seville, al-Mu'tamid, turned to the Almoravids for help, who had created a powerful state in North Africa. Alfonso VI managed to hold Toledo, but his army was defeated at Salac (1086); and in 1102, three years after the death of the Cid, Valencia also fell.

The Almoravids removed the Taif rulers from power and at first were able to unite Al-Andaluz. But their power weakened in the 1140s, and by the end of the 12th century. they were supplanted by the Almohads - the Moors from the Moroccan Atlas. After the Almohads suffered a heavy defeat from the Christians at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), their power was shaken.

By this time, the mentality of the crusaders had formed, as evidenced by life path Alfonso I the Warrior, who ruled Aragon and Navarre from 1102 to 1134. During his reign, when memories of the first were still fresh crusade, most of the Ebro River valley was recaptured from the Moors, and the French crusaders invaded Spain and took such important cities as Zaragoza (1118), Tarazona (1110) and Calatayud (1120). Although Alphonse was never able to fulfill his dream of going to Jerusalem, he lived to see the spiritual-knightly order of the Templars established in Aragon, and soon the orders of Alcantara, Calatrava and Santiago began their activities in other areas of Spain. These powerful orders provided great assistance in the fight against the Almohads, holding strategically important points and establishing economy in a number of border areas. Throughout the 13th century. Christians achieved significant success and undermined the political power of Muslims in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. King Jaime I of Aragon (reigned 1213–1276) conquered the Balearic Islands and, in 1238, Valencia. In 1236, King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon took Cordoba, Murcia surrendered to the Castilians in 1243, and in 1247 Ferdinand captured Seville. Only the Muslim Emirate of Granada, which existed until 1492, retained its independence. The Reconquista owed its successes not only to the military actions of Christians. A major role was also played by the willingness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims and provide them with the right to live in Christian states, preserving their faith, language and customs. For example, in Valencia, the northern territories were almost completely cleared of Muslims; the central and southern regions, except for the city of Valencia itself, were inhabited mainly by Mudejars (Muslims who were allowed to remain). But in Andalusia, after a major Muslim uprising in 1264, the policy of the Castilians completely changed, and almost all Muslims were evicted.

Late Middle Ages

In the 14th–15th centuries. Spain was torn apart by internal conflicts and civil wars. From 1350 to 1389 there was a long struggle for power in the kingdom of Castile. It began with the confrontation between Pedro the Cruel (ruled from 1350 to 1369) and the alliance of nobles led by his illegitimate half-brother Enrique of Trastamara. Both sides sought foreign support, particularly from France and England, who were embroiled in the Hundred Years' War.

In 1365, Enrique of Trastamara, expelled from the country, with the support of French and English mercenaries, captured Castile and the following year proclaimed himself King Enrique II. Pedro fled to Bayonne (France) and, having received help from the British, regained the country, defeating Enrique's troops at the Battle of Najera (1367). After this, the French king Charles V helped Enrique regain the throne. Pedro's troops were defeated on the plains of Montel in 1369, and he himself died in single combat with his half-brother.

But the threat to the existence of the Trastamara dynasty did not disappear. In 1371, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, married Pedro's eldest daughter and began to lay claim to the Castilian throne. Portugal was involved in the dispute. The heir to the throne married Juan I of Castile (r. 1379–1390). Juan's subsequent invasion of Portugal ended in a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Aljubarrota (1385). Lancaster's campaign against Castile in 1386 was unsuccessful. The Castilians subsequently bought off his claim to the throne, and both sides agreed to a marriage between Catharine of Lancaster, daughter of Gaunt, and Juan I's son, the future Castilian king Enrique III (r. 1390–1406).

After the death of Enrique III, the throne was inherited by his minor son Juan II, but in 1406–1412 the state was actually ruled by Ferdinand, the younger brother of Enrique III, who was appointed co-regent. In addition, Ferdinand managed to defend his rights to the throne in Aragon after the death of the childless Martin I there in 1395; he ruled there from 1412–1416, constantly interfering in Castile affairs and pursuing the interests of his family. His son Alfonso V of Aragon (r. 1416–1458), who also inherited the Sicilian throne, was primarily interested in affairs in Italy. The second son, Juan II, was absorbed in affairs in Castile, although in 1425 he became king of Navarre, and after the death of his brother in 1458 he inherited the throne in Sicily and Aragon. The third son, Enrique, became Master of the Order of Santiago.

In Castile, these “princes from Aragon” were opposed by Alvaro de Luna, an influential favorite of Juan II. The Aragonese party was defeated at the decisive Battle of Olmedo in 1445, but Luna himself fell out of favor and was executed in 1453. The reign of the next Castilian king, Enrique IV (1454–1474), led to anarchy. Enrique, who had no children from his first marriage, divorced and entered into a second marriage. For six years, the queen remained barren, for which rumor blamed her husband, who received the nickname “Powerless.” When the queen gave birth to a daughter, named Juana, rumors spread among the common people and among the nobility that her father was not Enrique, but his favorite Beltran de la Cueva. Therefore, Juana received the contemptuous nickname “Beltraneja” (Beltran’s offspring). Under pressure from the opposition-minded nobility, the king signed a declaration in which he recognized his brother Alphonse as heir to the throne, but declared this declaration invalid. Then representatives of the nobility gathered in Avila (1465), deposed Enrique and proclaimed Alfonso king. Many cities sided with Enrique, and a civil war began, which continued after Alphonse’s sudden death in 1468. As a condition for ending the rebellion, the nobility demanded that Enrique appoint his half-sister Isabella as heir to the throne. Enrique agreed to this. In 1469, Isabella married the Infante Fernando of Aragon (who will go down in history under the name of the Spanish King Ferdinand). After the death of Enrique IV in 1474, Isabella was declared Queen of Castile, and Ferdinand, after the death of his father Juan II in 1479, took the throne of Aragon. This is how the unification of the largest kingdoms of Spain took place. In 1492, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada, fell. That same year, Columbus, with the support of Isabella, made his first expedition to the New World. In 1512, the Kingdom of Navarre was included in Castile.

Aragon's Mediterranean acquisitions had important consequences for all of Spain. First, the Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sardinia came under the control of Aragon, then Sicily. During the reign of Alfonso V (1416–1458), Southern Italy was conquered. To administer newly acquired lands, kings appointed governors or procuradores. Back at the end of the 14th century. such governors (or viceroys) appeared in Sardinia, Sicily and Majorca. A similar management structure was reproduced in Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia due to the fact that Alfonso V was away for a long time in Italy.

The power of monarchs and royal officials was limited by the Cortes (parliaments). Unlike Castile, where the Cortes were relatively weak, in Aragon it was necessary to obtain the consent of the Cortes to make decisions on all important bills and financial issues. Between meetings of the Cortes, royal officials were supervised by standing committees. To supervise the activities of the Cortes at the end of the 13th century. city delegations were created. In 1359, a General Deputation was formed in Catalonia, whose main powers were limited to collecting taxes and spending funds. Similar institutions were created in Aragon (1412) and Valencia (1419).

The Cortes, being by no means democratic bodies, represented and defended the interests of the wealthy sections of the population in cities and rural areas. If in Castile the Cortes were an obedient instrument of the absolute monarchy, especially during the reign of Juan II, then in the kingdom of Aragon and Catalonia, which was part of it, a different concept of power was implemented. She proceeded from the fact that political power initially established by free people by concluding an agreement between those in power and the people, which stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties. Accordingly, any violation of the agreement by the royal authority is considered a manifestation of tyranny.

Such an agreement between the monarchy and the peasantry existed during the so-called uprisings. remens (serfs) in the 15th century. The protests in Catalonia were directed against the tightening of duties and the enslavement of peasants, especially intensified in the mid-15th century. and became the reason for civil war 1462–1472 between the Catalan General Deputation, which supported the landowners, and the monarchy, which stood up for the peasants. In 1455, Alfonso V abolished some feudal duties, but only after the next upsurge of the peasant movement, Ferdinand V signed the so-called in the monastery of Guadalupe (Extremadura) in 1486. "Guadalupe Maxim" on the abolition of serfdom, including the most severe feudal duties.

The situation of the Jews. In the 12th–13th centuries. Christians were tolerant of Jewish and Islamic culture. But by the end of the 13th century. and throughout the 14th century. their peaceful coexistence was disrupted. The growing tide of anti-Semitism reached its peak during the massacre of Jews in 1391.

Although in the 13th century. Jews made up less than 2% of the population of Spain; they played an important role in the material and spiritual life of society. Nevertheless, Jews lived separately from the Christian population, in their own communities with synagogues and kosher shops. Segregation was facilitated by Christian authorities who ordered the allocation of special quarters - alhama - to Jews in cities. For example, in the city of Jerez de la Frontera, the Jewish quarter was separated by a wall with a gate.

Jewish communities were given considerable independence in managing their own affairs. Among the Jews, as well as among the Christian townspeople, wealthy families gradually emerged and acquired great influence. Despite political, social and economic restrictions, Jewish scholars made great contributions to the development of Spanish society and culture. Thanks to excellent knowledge foreign languages they carried out diplomatic missions for both Christians and Muslims. Jews played a key role in spreading the achievements of Greek and Arab scientists in Spain and other countries Western Europe.

Nevertheless, at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. Jews were subjected to severe persecution. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity, becoming conversos. However, conversos often remained living in urban Jewish communities and continued to engage in traditional Jewish activities. The situation was complicated by the fact that many conversos, having become rich, penetrated the oligarchy of cities such as Burgos, Toledo, Seville and Cordoba, and also occupied important positions in the royal administration.

In 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established, headed by Tomás de Torquemada. First of all, she drew attention to Jews and Muslims who accepted the Christian faith. They were tortured to “confess” to heresy, after which they were usually executed by burning. In 1492, all unbaptized Jews were expelled from Spain: almost 200 thousand people emigrated to North Africa, Turkey, and the Balkans. Most Muslims, under threat of expulsion, converted to Christianity.

Internecine wars, which led to an almost complete decline of culture. Romanesque style In the X-XII centuries. (and in a number of places - in the 13th century) the so-called Romanesque style dominated in the art of Western Europe, which was one of the important stages in the development of medieval art. The Romanesque style absorbed elements of late antique and Merovingian art, the culture of the Carolingian Renaissance, as well as...

The images on the knightly coats of arms included mottos - short sayings that served to explain its meaning. They often served as a battle cry for knights. One of the most attractive pastimes for medieval chivalry was tournaments, that is, exemplary battles in which entire crowds participated. Our baron's overlord, having enormous funds, decided to organize a tournament. They shouted a warning...

Spanish historiography has developed a unique idea of the Spanish Middle Ages. Since the time of the Italian humanists of the Renaissance, a tradition has been established to consider the barbarian invasions and the fall of Rome in 410 AD. the starting point of the transition from the ancient era to the Middle Ages, and the Middle Ages itself were seen as a gradual approach to the Renaissance (15–16 centuries), when interest in the culture of the ancient world reawakened. When studying the history of Spain, particular importance was attached not only to the crusades against Muslims (Reconquista), which lasted several centuries, but also to the very fact of the long coexistence of Christianity, Islam and Judaism on the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, the Middle Ages in this region begin with the Muslim invasion in 711 and end with the Christian capture of the last stronghold of Islam, the Emirate of Granada, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 (when all these events took place).

Visigothic period.

Arab domination and the beginning of the Reconquista.

Muslims were actually unable to establish dominance in the far north of the Iberian Peninsula. In 718, a detachment of Christian warriors under the command of the legendary Visigothic leader Pelayo defeated the Muslim army in the mountain valley of Covadonga. Gradually moving towards the Duero River, Christians occupied free lands that were not claimed by Muslims. At that time, the border region of Castile (territorium castelle - translated as “land of castles”) was formed; It is appropriate to note that back at the end of the 8th century. Muslim chroniclers called it Al-Qila (castles). In the early stages of the Reconquista, two types of Christian political entities arose, differing in geographical location. The core of the Western type was the kingdom of Asturias, which, after the transfer of the court to Leon in the 10th century. became known as the Kingdom of Leon. The County of Castile became an independent kingdom in 1035. Two years later, Castile united with the Kingdom of León and thus acquired a leading political role, and with it priority rights to the lands conquered from the Muslims.

In this sense, the fate of Sid is indicative. He was born approx. 1040 in Bivar (near Burgos). In 1079, King Alfonso VI sent him to Seville to collect tribute from the Muslim ruler. However, soon after this he did not get along with Alphonse and was expelled. In eastern Spain, he embarked on the path of an adventurer, and it was then that he received the name Sid (derived from the Arabic “seid”, i.e. “lord”). The Sid served such Muslim rulers as the emir of Zaragoza al-Moqtadir, and the rulers of Christian states. From 1094 Cid began to rule Valencia. He died in 1099. The Castilian epic Song of My Cid, written c. 1140, goes back to earlier oral traditions and reliably conveys many historical events. The song is not a chronicle of the Crusades. Although the Cid fights the Muslims, in this epic it is not they who are portrayed as the villains, but the Christian princes of Carrion, the courtiers of Alfonso VI, while the Cid's Muslim friend and ally, Abengalvon, surpasses them in nobility.

Completion of the Reconquista.

By this time, the mentality of the crusaders had formed, as evidenced by the life of Alfonso I the Warrior, who ruled Aragon and Navarre from 1102 to 1134. During his reign, when memories of the first crusade were still fresh, most of the river valley was recaptured from the Moors. Ebro, and the French crusaders invaded Spain and took such important cities as Zaragoza (1118), Tarazona (1110) and Calatayud (1120). Although Alphonse was never able to fulfill his dream of going to Jerusalem, he lived to see the spiritual-knightly order of the Templars established in Aragon, and soon the orders of Alcantara, Calatrava and Santiago began their activities in other areas of Spain. These powerful orders provided great assistance in the fight against the Almohads, holding strategically important points and establishing economy in a number of border areas. Throughout the 13th century. Christians achieved significant success and undermined the political power of Muslims in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. King Jaime I of Aragon (reigned 1213–1276) conquered the Balearic Islands and, in 1238, Valencia. In 1236, King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon took Cordoba, Murcia surrendered to the Castilians in 1243, and in 1247 Ferdinand captured Seville. Only the Muslim Emirate of Granada, which existed until 1492, retained its independence. The Reconquista owed its successes not only to the military actions of Christians. A major role was also played by the willingness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims and provide them with the right to live in Christian states, preserving their faith, language and customs. For example, in Valencia, the northern territories were almost completely cleared of Muslims; the central and southern regions, except for the city of Valencia itself, were inhabited mainly by Mudejars (Muslims who were allowed to remain). But in Andalusia, after a major Muslim uprising in 1264, the policy of the Castilians completely changed, and almost all Muslims were evicted.

Late Middle Ages

The Cortes, being by no means democratic bodies, represented and defended the interests of the wealthy sections of the population in cities and rural areas. If in Castile the Cortes were an obedient instrument of the absolute monarchy, especially during the reign of Juan II, then in the kingdom of Aragon and Catalonia, which was part of it, a different concept of power was implemented. She proceeded from the fact that political power is initially established by free people by concluding an agreement between those in power and the people, which stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties. Accordingly, any violation of the agreement by the royal authority is considered a manifestation of tyranny.

Such an agreement between the monarchy and the peasantry existed during the so-called uprisings. remens (serfs) in the 15th century. The protests in Catalonia were directed against the tightening of duties and the enslavement of peasants, especially intensified in the mid-15th century. and became the reason for the civil war of 1462–1472 between the Catalan General Deputation, which supported the landowners, and the monarchy, which stood up for the peasants. In 1455, Alfonso V abolished some feudal duties, but only after the next upsurge of the peasant movement, Ferdinand V signed the so-called in the monastery of Guadalupe (Extremadura) in 1486. "Guadalupe Maxim" on the abolition of serfdom, including the most severe feudal duties.

Jewish communities were given considerable independence in managing their own affairs. Among the Jews, as well as among the Christian townspeople, wealthy families gradually emerged and acquired great influence. Despite political, social and economic restrictions, Jewish scholars made great contributions to the development of Spanish society and culture. Thanks to their excellent knowledge of foreign languages, they carried out diplomatic missions for both Christians and Muslims. Jews played a key role in spreading the achievements of Greek and Arab scientists to Spain and other Western European countries.

In 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established, headed by Tomás de Torquemada. First of all, she drew attention to Jews and Muslims who accepted the Christian faith. They were tortured to “confess” to heresy, after which they were usually executed by burning. In 1492, all unbaptized Jews were expelled from Spain: almost 200 thousand people emigrated to North Africa, Turkey, and the Balkans. Most Muslims converted to Christianity under threat of expulsion.