Structural levels of organization of inanimate matter. Abstract basic structural levels of matter. We can also talk about three main directions of biology or, figuratively speaking, three images of biology

1. Introduction.

The entire world around us is moving matter in its infinitely varied forms and manifestations, with all its properties, connections and relationships. Let's take a closer look at what matter is, as well as its structural levels.

1. What is matter. The history of the emergence of the view of matter.

Matter (lat. Materia - substance), “...a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is given to a person in his senses, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our senses, existing independently of us.”

Matter is an infinite set of all objects and systems existing in the world, the substrate of any properties, connections, relationships and forms of movement. Matter includes not only all directly observable objects and bodies of nature, but also all those that, in principle, can be known in the future on the basis of improving the means of observation and experiment. From the point of view of the Marxist-Leninist understanding of matter, it is organically connected with the dialectical-materialist solution to the main question of philosophy; it proceeds from the principle of the material unity of the world, the primacy of matter in relation to human consciousness and the principle of the knowability of the world on the basis of a consistent study of specific properties, connections and forms of movement of matter.

The basis of ideas about the structure of the material world is a systems approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, planet, organism or galaxy, can be considered as a complex formation, including component parts organized into integrity. To denote the integrity of objects in science, the concept of a system was developed.

Matter as an objective reality includes not only matter in its four states of aggregation (solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma), but also physical fields (electromagnetic, gravitational, nuclear, etc.), as well as their properties, relationships, products interactions. It also includes antimatter (a set of antiparticles: positron, or antielectron, antiproton, antineutron), recently discovered by science. Antimatter is by no means antimatter. Antimatter cannot exist at all. The negation here does not go further than “not” (non-matter).

Movement and matter are organically and inextricably linked with each other: there is no movement without matter, just as there is no matter without movement. In other words, there are no unchanging things, properties and relationships in the world. “Everything flows”, everything changes. Some forms or types are replaced by others, transform into others - movement is constant. Peace is a dialectically disappearing moment in the continuous process of change and becoming. Absolute peace is tantamount to death, or rather, non-existence. One can understand in this regard A. Bergson, who considered all reality as an indivisible moving continuity. Or A.N. Whitehead, for whom “reality is a process.” Both motion and rest are definitely fixed only in relation to some frame of reference. Thus, the table at which these lines are written is at rest relative to the given room, which, in turn, is at rest relative to the given house, and the house itself is at rest relative to the Earth. But together with the Earth, the table, room and house move around the earth’s axis and around the Sun.

Moving matter exists in two main forms - in space and in time. The concept of space serves to express the properties of extension and order of coexistence of material systems and their states. It is objective, universal (universal form) and necessary. The concept of time fixes the duration and sequence of changes in the states of material systems. Time is objective, inevitable and irreversible. It is necessary to distinguish between philosophical and natural scientific ideas about space and time. The philosophical approach itself is represented here by four concepts of space and time: substantial and relational, static and dynamic.

The founder of the view of matter as consisting of discrete particles was Democritus.

Democritus denied the infinite divisibility of matter. Atoms differ from each other only in shape, order of mutual succession, and position in empty space, as well as in size and gravity, which depends on the size. They have infinitely varied shapes with depressions or bulges. Democritus also calls atoms “figures” or “figurines”, from which it follows that the atoms of Democritus are the smallest, further indivisible figures or figurines. IN modern science There was a lot of debate about whether the atoms of Democritus were physical or geometric bodies, but Democritus himself had not yet reached the distinction between physics and geometry. From these atoms moving in different directions, from their “vortex”, by natural necessity, through the bringing together of mutually similar atoms, both individual whole bodies and the whole world are formed; the movement of atoms is eternal, and the number of emerging worlds is infinite.

The world of objective reality accessible to humans is constantly expanding. The conceptual forms of expressing the idea of structural levels of matter are diverse.

Modern science identifies three structural levels in the world.

2. Micro, Macro, Mega worlds.

Microworld– these are molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial diversity of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 -24 s.

Macroworld- the world of stable forms and sizes commensurate with humans, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years.

Megaworld- these are planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies - a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years.

And although these levels have their own specific laws, the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds are closely interconnected.

At the microscopic level, physics today is studying processes that take place at lengths of the order of 10 to the minus eighteenth power of cm, over a time of the order of 10 to the minus twenty-second power of s. In the megaworld, scientists use instruments to record objects distant from us at a distance of about 9-12 billion light years.

Microworld. Democritus in antiquity put forward the Atomistic hypothesis of the structure of matter , later, in the 18th century. was revived by the chemist J. Dalton, who took the atomic weight of hydrogen as one and compared the atomic weights of other gases with it. Thanks to the works of J. Dalton, the physical and chemical properties of the atom began to be studied. In the 19th century D.I. Mendeleev built a system of chemical elements based on their atomic weight.

In physics, the idea of atoms as the last indivisible structural elements matter came from chemistry. Actually, physical studies of the atom begin at the end of the 19th century, when the French physicist A. A. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity, which consisted in the spontaneous transformation of atoms of some elements into atoms of other elements.

The history of research into the structure of the atom began in 1895 thanks to the discovery by J. Thomson of the electron, a negatively charged particle that is part of all atoms. Since electrons have a negative charge, and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, it was assumed that in addition to the electron there is a positively charged particle. The mass of the electron was calculated to be 1/1836 of the mass of a positively charged particle.

There were several models of the structure of the atom.

In 1902, the English physicist W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proposed the first model of the atom - a positive charge is distributed over a fairly large area, and electrons are interspersed with it, like “raisins in pudding.”

In 1911, E. Rutherford proposed a model of the atom that resembled the solar system: in the center there is an atomic nucleus, and electrons move around it in their orbits.

The nucleus has a positive charge and the electrons have a negative charge. Instead of the gravitational forces acting in the solar system, electrical forces act in the atom. Electric charge of the nucleus of an atom, numerically equal to the atomic number in periodic table Mendeleev, is balanced by the sum of the electron charges - the atom is electrically neutral.

Both of these models turned out to be contradictory.

In 1913, the great Danish physicist N. Bohr applied the principle of quantization to solve the problem of the structure of the atom and the characteristics of atomic spectra.

N. Bohr's model of the atom was based on the planetary model of E. Rutherford and on the quantum theory of atomic structure developed by him. N. Bohr put forward a hypothesis about the structure of the atom, based on two postulates that are completely incompatible with classical physics:

1) in each atom there are several stationary states (in the language of the planetary model, several stationary orbits) of electrons, moving along which an electron can exist without emitting ;

2) when an electron transitions from one stationary state to another, the atom emits or absorbs a portion of energy.

Ultimately, it is fundamentally impossible to accurately describe the structure of an atom based on the idea of the orbits of point electrons, since such orbits do not actually exist.

N. Bohr's theory represents, as it were, the borderline of the first stage in the development of modern physics. This is the latest effort to describe the structure of the atom based on classical physics, supplemented with only a small number of new assumptions.

It seemed that N. Bohr's postulates reflected some new, unknown properties of matter, but only partially. Answers to these questions were obtained as a result of the development of quantum mechanics. It turned out that N. Bohr's atomic model should not be taken literally, as it was at the beginning. Processes in the atom, in principle, cannot be visually represented in the form of mechanical models by analogy with events in the macrocosm. Even the concepts of space and time in the form existing in the macroworld turned out to be unsuitable for describing microphysical phenomena. The theoretical physicists' atom increasingly became an abstract, unobservable sum of equations.

Macroworld . In the history of the study of nature, two stages can be distinguished: pre-scientific And scientific .

Pre-scientific, or natural philosophy, covers the period from antiquity to the formation of experimental natural science in the 16th-17th centuries. Observed natural phenomena were explained on the basis of speculative philosophical principles.

The most significant for the subsequent development of natural sciences was the concept of the discrete structure of matter, atomism, according to which all bodies consist of atoms - the smallest particles in the world.

Begins with the formation of classical mechanics scientific stage of studying nature.

Since modern scientific ideas about the structural levels of the organization of matter were developed in the course of a critical rethinking of the ideas of classical science, applicable only to macro-level objects, we need to start with the concepts of classical physics.

The formation of scientific views on the structure of matter dates back to the 16th century, when G. Galileo laid the foundation for the first physical picture of the world in the history of science - a mechanical one. He not only justified heliocentric system N. Copernicus discovered the law of inertia, and developed a methodology for a new way of describing nature - scientific-theoretical. Its essence was that only some physical and geometric characteristics stood out, which became the subject scientific research. Galileo wrote: " I will never demand from external bodies anything other than size, figure, quantity and more or less rapid movement in order to explain the occurrence of taste, smell and sound. » .

I. Newton, relying on the works of Galileo, developed a strict scientific theory of mechanics, which describes both the movement of celestial bodies and the movement of earthly objects by the same laws. Nature was viewed as a complex mechanical system.

Within the framework of the mechanical picture of the world developed by I. Newton and his followers, a discrete (corpuscular) model of reality emerged. Matter was considered as a material substance consisting of individual particles - atoms or corpuscles. Atoms are absolutely strong, indivisible, impenetrable, characterized by the presence of mass and weight.

An essential characteristic of the Newtonian world was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, which is absolutely constant and always at rest. Time was presented as a quantity independent of either space or matter.

Movement was considered as movement in space along continuous trajectories in accordance with the laws of mechanics.

The result of Newton's picture of the world was the image of the Universe as a gigantic and completely determined mechanism, where events and processes are a chain of interdependent causes and effects.

The mechanistic approach to describing nature has proven to be extremely fruitful. Following Newtonian mechanics, hydrodynamics, the theory of elasticity, the mechanical theory of heat, molecular kinetic theory and a number of others were created, in line with which physics has achieved enormous success. However, there were two areas - optical and electromagnetic phenomena that could not be fully explained within the framework of a mechanistic picture of the world.

Along with the mechanical corpuscular theory, attempts were made to explain optical phenomena in a fundamentally different way, namely, on the basis of the wave theory formulated by X. Huygens. The wave theory established an analogy between the propagation of light and the movement of waves on the surface of water or sound waves in the air. It assumed the presence of an elastic medium filling all space - a luminiferous ether. Based on the wave theory of X. Huygens successfully explained the reflection and refraction of light.

Another area of physics where mechanical models proved inadequate was the area of electromagnetic phenomena. The experiments of the English naturalist M. Faraday and the theoretical works of the English physicist J. C. Maxwell finally destroyed the ideas of Newtonian physics about discrete matter as the only type of matter and laid the foundation for the electromagnetic picture of the world.

The phenomenon of electromagnetism was discovered by the Danish naturalist H. K. Oersted, who first noticed the magnetic effect of electric currents. Continuing research in this direction, M. Faraday discovered that a temporary change in magnetic fields creates an electric current.

M. Faraday came to the conclusion that the study of electricity and optics are interconnected and form a single field. His works became the starting point for the research of J. C. Maxwell, whose merit lies in the mathematical development of M. Faraday's ideas about magnetism and electricity. Maxwell "translated" Faraday's model of field lines into mathematical formula. The concept of “field of forces” was originally developed as an auxiliary mathematical concept. J.C. Maxwell gave it a physical meaning and began to consider the field as an independent physical reality: “ An electromagnetic field is that part of space that contains and surrounds bodies that are in an electric or magnetic state » .

From his research, Maxwell was able to conclude that light waves are electromagnetic waves. The single essence of light and electricity, which M. Faraday suggested in 1845, and J. C. Maxwell theoretically substantiated in 1862, was experimentally confirmed by the German physicist G. Hertz in 1888.

After the experiments of G. Hertz, the concept of a field was finally established in physics, not as an auxiliary mathematical construct, but as an objectively existing physical reality. A qualitatively new, unique type of matter was discovered.

So to end of the 19th century V. physics has come to the conclusion that matter exists in two forms: discrete matter and continuous field.

As a result of subsequent revolutionary discoveries in physics at the end of the last and beginning of this century, the ideas of classical physics about matter and field as two qualitatively unique types of matter were destroyed.

Megaworld . Modern science views the megaworld or space as an interacting and developing system of all celestial bodies.

All existing galaxies are included in the system of the highest order - the Metagalaxy . The dimensions of the Metagalaxy are very large: the radius of the cosmological horizon is 15-20 billion light years.

Concepts "Universe" And "Metagalaxy"- very similar concepts: they characterize the same object, but in different aspects. Concept "Universe" denotes the entire existing material world; concept "Metagalaxy"- the same world, but from the point of view of its structure - as an ordered system of galaxies.

The structure and evolution of the Universe are studied by cosmology . Cosmology as a branch of natural science, it is located at a unique junction of science, religion and philosophy. Cosmological models of the Universe are based on certain ideological premises, and these models themselves have great ideological significance.

In classical science there was the so-called steady state theory of the Universe, according to which the Universe has always been almost the same as it is now. Astronomy was static: the movements of planets and comets were studied, stars were described, their classifications were created, which was, of course, very important. But the question of the evolution of the Universe was not raised.

Modern cosmological models of the Universe are based on general theory relativity of A. Einstein, according to which the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in the Universe. Its properties as a whole are determined by the average density of matter and other specific physical factors.

Einstein's equation of gravity has not one, but many solutions, which explains the existence of many cosmological models of the Universe. The first model was developed by A. Einstein himself in 1917. He rejected the postulates of Newtonian cosmology about the absoluteness and infinity of space and time. In accordance with A. Einstein's cosmological model of the Universe, world space is homogeneous and isotropic, matter is distributed evenly in it on average, and the gravitational attraction of masses is compensated by the universal cosmological repulsion.

The existence of the Universe is infinite, i.e. has no beginning or end, and space is limitless, but finite.

The universe in A. Einstein’s cosmological model is stationary, infinite in time and limitless in space.

In 1922 Russian mathematician and geophysicist A.A Friedman rejected the postulate of classical cosmology about the stationary nature of the Universe and obtained a solution to the Einstein equation, which describes the Universe with “expanding” space.

Since the average density of matter in the Universe is unknown, today we do not know in which of these spaces of the Universe we live.

In 1927, the Belgian abbot and scientist J. Lemaitre connected the “expansion” of space with data from astronomical observations. Lemaitre introduced the concept of the beginning of the Universe as a singularity (i.e., a superdense state) and the birth of the Universe as the Big Bang.

In 1929, American astronomer E.P. Hubble discovered the existence of a strange relationship between the distance and speed of galaxies: all galaxies are moving away from us, and with a speed that increases in proportion to the distance - the galaxy system is expanding.

The expansion of the Universe is considered a scientifically established fact. According to the theoretical calculations of J. Lemaître, the radius of the Universe in its original state was 10 -12 cm, which is close in size to the radius of an electron, and its density was 10 96 g/cm 3 . In a singular state, the Universe was a micro-object of negligible size. From the initial singular state, the Universe moved to expansion as a result of the Big Bang.

Retrospective calculations determine the age of the Universe at 13-20 billion years. G.A. Gamow suggested that the temperature of the substance was high and fell with the expansion of the Universe. His calculations showed that the Universe in its evolution goes through certain stages, during which the formation of chemical elements and structures. In modern cosmology, for clarity, the initial stage of the evolution of the Universe is divided into “eras”

Hadron era. Heavy particles that enter into strong interactions.

The era of leptons. Light particles entering into electromagnetic interaction.

Photon era. Duration 1 million years. The bulk of the mass - the energy of the Universe - comes from photons.

Star era. Occurs 1 million years after the birth of the Universe. During the stellar era, the process of formation of protostars and protogalaxies begins.

Then a grandiose picture of the formation of the structure of the Metagalaxy unfolds.

In modern cosmology, along with the Big Bang hypothesis, the inflationary model of the Universe, which considers the creation of the Universe, is very popular. The idea of creation has a very complex justification and is associated with quantum cosmology. This model describes the evolution of the Universe starting from the moment 10 -45 s after the start of expansion.

Proponents of the inflationary model see a correspondence between the stages of cosmic evolution and the stages of creation of the world described in the book of Genesis in the Bible.

In accordance with the inflation hypothesis, cosmic evolution in the early Universe goes through a number of stages.

The beginning of the Universe is defined by theoretical physicists as a state of quantum supergravity with a radius of the Universe of 10 -50 cm

Inflation stage. As a result of a quantum leap, the Universe passed into a state of excited vacuum and, in the absence of matter and radiation in it, intensively expanded according to an exponential law. During this period, the space and time of the Universe itself was created. During the inflationary stage lasting 10 -34. The Universe inflated from an unimaginably small quantum size of 10 -33 to an unimaginably large 10 1000000 cm, which is many orders of magnitude greater than the size of the observable Universe - 10 28 cm. During this entire initial period there was no matter or radiation in the Universe.

Transition from the inflationary stage to the photon stage. The state of false vacuum disintegrated, the released energy went to the birth of heavy particles and antiparticles, which, having annihilated, gave a powerful flash of radiation (light) that illuminated space.

The stage of separation of matter from radiation: the matter remaining after annihilation became transparent to radiation, the contact between matter and radiation disappeared. The radiation separated from matter constitutes the modern relict background, theoretically predicted by G. A. Gamov and experimentally discovered in 1965.

IN further development The Universe moved in the direction from the simplest homogeneous state to the creation of increasingly complex structures - atoms (initially hydrogen atoms), galaxies, stars, planets, the synthesis of heavy elements in the bowels of stars, including those necessary for the creation of life, the emergence of life and as the crown creation - man.

The difference between the stages of the evolution of the Universe in the inflationary model and the Big Bang model concerns only the initial stage of the order of 10 -30 s, then there are no fundamental differences between these models in understanding the stages of cosmic evolution.

In the meantime, these models can be calculated on a computer with the help of knowledge and imagination, but the question remains open.

The greatest difficulty for scientists arises in explaining the causes of cosmic evolution. If we put aside the particulars, we can distinguish two main concepts that explain the evolution of the Universe: the concept self-organization and concept creationism .

For concept self-organization the material Universe is the only reality, and no other reality exists besides it. The evolution of the Universe is described in terms of self-organization: there is a spontaneous ordering of systems in the direction of the formation of increasingly complex structures. Dynamic chaos creates order.

Within the framework of the concept creationism, i.e. creation, the evolution of the Universe is associated with implementation of the program, determined by a reality of a higher order than the material world. Supporters of creationism draw attention to the existence in the Universe of a directed nomogen - development from simple systems to increasingly complex and information-intensive ones, during which the conditions for the emergence of life and man were created. The anthropic principle is used as an additional argument , formulated by the English astrophysicists B. Carr and Riess.

Among modern theoretical physicists there are supporters of both the concept of self-organization and the concept of creationism. The latter recognize that the development of fundamental theoretical physics makes it an urgent need to develop a unified scientific and technical picture of the world, synthesizing all achievements in the field of knowledge and faith.

The Universe at various levels, from conventionally elementary particles to giant superclusters of galaxies, is characterized by structure. Modern structure The Universe is the result of cosmic evolution, during which galaxies were formed from protogalaxies, stars from protostars, and planets from protoplanetary clouds.

Metagalaxy- is a collection of star systems - galaxies, and its structure is determined by their distribution in space filled with extremely rarefied intergalactic gas and penetrated by intergalactic rays.

According to modern concepts, a metagalaxy is characterized by a cellular (mesh, porous) structure. There are huge volumes of space (on the order of a million cubic megaparsecs) in which galaxies have not yet been discovered.

The age of the Metagalaxy is close to the age of the Universe, since the formation of the structure occurs in the period following the separation of matter and radiation. According to modern data, the age of the Metagalaxy is estimated at 15 billion years.

Galaxy- a giant system consisting of clusters of stars and nebulae, forming a rather complex configuration in space.

Based on their shape, galaxies are conventionally divided into three types: elliptical , spiral , incorrect .

Elliptical galaxies– have the spatial shape of an ellipsoid with varying degrees of compression; they are the simplest in structure: the distribution of stars uniformly decreases from the center.

Spiral galaxies– presented in a spiral shape, including spiral branches. This is the most numerous type of galaxy, which includes our Galaxy - the Milky Way.

Irregular galaxies– do not have a distinct form, they lack a central core.

Some galaxies are characterized by exceptionally powerful radio emission, exceeding visible radiation. This radio galaxies .

The oldest stars, whose age approaches the age of the galaxy, are concentrated in the core of the galaxy. Middle-aged and young stars are located in the galactic disk.

Stars and nebulae within the galaxy move in a rather complex way, together with the galaxy they take part in the expansion of the Universe, in addition, they participate in the rotation of the galaxy around its axis.

Stars. On modern stage During the evolution of the Universe, the matter in it is predominantly in a stellar state. 97% of the matter in our Galaxy is concentrated in stars, which are giant plasma formations of various sizes, temperatures, and with different characteristics of motion. Many, if not most, other galaxies have "stellar matter" that makes up more than 99.9% of their mass.

The age of stars varies over a fairly wide range of values: from 15 billion years, corresponding to the age of the Universe, to hundreds of thousands - the youngest. There are stars that are currently being formed and are in the protostellar stage, i.e. they haven't become real stars yet.

The birth of stars occurs in gas-dust nebulae under the influence of gravitational, magnetic and other forces, due to which unstable homogeneities are formed and diffuse matter breaks up into a series of condensations. If such condensations persist long enough, then over time they turn into stars. The main evolution of matter in the Universe took place and is happening in the depths of stars. It is there that the “melting crucible” is located, which determined the chemical evolution of matter in the Universe.

At the final stage of evolution, stars turn into inert (“dead”) stars.

Stars do not exist in isolation, but form systems. The simplest star systems - the so-called multiple systems - consist of two, three, four, five or more stars revolving around a common center of gravity.

Stars are also united into even larger groups - star clusters, which can have a “scattered” or “spherical” structure. Open star clusters number several hundred individual stars, globular clusters number many hundreds of thousands.

Associations, or clusters of stars, are also not immutable and eternally existing. After a certain amount of time, estimated in millions of years, they are scattered by the forces of galactic rotation.

solar system is a group of celestial bodies, very different in size and physical structure. This group includes: the Sun, nine major planets, dozens of planetary satellites, thousands of small planets (asteroids), hundreds of comets and countless meteorite bodies, moving both in swarms and in the form of individual particles. By 1979, 34 satellites and 2000 asteroids were known. All these bodies are united into one system due to the gravitational force of the central body - the Sun. The solar system is an ordered system that has its own structural laws. Single character solar system manifests itself in the fact that all the planets revolve around the Sun in the same direction and almost in the same plane. Most of the planets' satellites (their moons) rotate in the same direction and in most cases in the equatorial plane of their planet. The sun, planets, satellites of planets rotate around their axes in the same direction in which they move along their trajectories. The structure of the solar system is also natural: each subsequent planet is approximately twice as far from the Sun as the previous one.

The solar system was formed approximately 5 billion years ago, and the Sun is a star of the second (or even later) generation. Thus, the Solar System arose from the waste products of stars of previous generations, which accumulated in gas and dust clouds. This circumstance gives grounds to call the solar system a small part of stardust. Science knows less about the origin of the Solar System and its historical evolution than is necessary to build a theory of planet formation.

The first theories of the origin of the solar system were put forward by the German philosopher I. Kant and the French mathematician P. S. Laplace. According to this hypothesis, the system of planets around the Sun was formed as a result of the forces of attraction and repulsion between particles of scattered matter (nebulae) in rotational motion around the Sun.

The beginning of the next stage in the development of views on the formation of the Solar system was the hypothesis of the English physicist and astrophysicist J. H. Jeans. He suggested that the Sun once collided with another star, as a result of which a stream of gas was torn out of it, which, condensing, transformed into planets.

Modern concepts the origin of the planets of the solar system are based on the fact that it is necessary to take into account not only mechanical forces, but also others, in particular electromagnetic ones. This idea was put forward by the Swedish physicist and astrophysicist H. Alfvén and the English astrophysicist F. Hoyle. According to modern ideas, the original gas cloud from which the Sun and the planets were formed consisted of ionized gas subject to the influence of electromagnetic forces. After the Sun was formed from a huge gas cloud through concentration, small parts of this cloud remained at a very large distance from it. The gravitational force began to attract the remaining gas towards the resulting star - the Sun, but its magnetic field stopped the falling gas at various distances - exactly where the planets are located. Gravitational and magnetic forces influenced the concentration and condensation of the falling gas, and as a result, planets were formed. When the largest planets arose, the same process was repeated on a smaller scale, thus creating satellite systems.

Theories of the origin of the Solar system are hypothetical in nature, and it is impossible to unambiguously resolve the issue of their reliability at the present stage of scientific development. In all existing theories There are contradictions and unclear areas.

Currently, in the field of fundamental theoretical physics, concepts are being developed according to which the objectively existing world is not limited to the material world perceived by our senses or physical instruments. The authors of these concepts came to the following conclusion: along with the material world, there is reality higher order, which has a fundamentally different nature compared to the reality of the material world.

Conclusion.

People have long tried to find an explanation for the diversity and weirdness of the world.

The study of matter and its structural levels is a necessary condition formation of a worldview, regardless of whether it ultimately turns out to be materialistic or idealistic.

It is quite obvious that the role of defining the concept of matter, understanding the latter as inexhaustible for constructing a scientific picture of the world, solving the problem of reality and knowability of objects and phenomena of the micro, macro and mega worlds is very important.

Bibliography:

1. Big Soviet encyclopedia

2. Karpenkov S.Kh. Concepts of modern natural science. M.: 1997

3. Philosophy

http://websites.pfu.edu.ru/IDO/ffec/hilos-index.html

4. Vladimirov Yu. S. Fundamental physics and religion. - M.: Archimedes, 1993;

5. Vladimirov Yu. S., Karnaukhov A. V., Kulakov Yu.I. Introduction to the theory of physical structures and binary geometrophysics. - M.: Archimedes, 1993.

6. Textbook “Concepts of modern natural science”

Kuznetsov B.T. From Galileo to Einstein - M.: Nauka, 1966. - P.38.

Cm.: Kudryavtsev P.S. Course on the history of physics. - M.: Education, 1974. - P. 179.

See: Dubnischeva T.Ya. Decree. Op. – P. 802 – 803.

Cm.: Grib A.A. Big Bang: creation or origin? /In the book. The relationship between the physical and reliptotic pictures of the world. - Kostroma: Publishing house MIITSAOST, 1996. - P. 153-166.

1. Structural levels of organization of matter

In its most general form, matter is an infinite set of all objects and systems coexisting in the world, the totality of their properties, connections, relationships and forms of motion. Moreover, it includes not only all directly observable objects and bodies of nature, but also everything that is not given to us in sensations. The entire world around us is moving matter in its infinitely varied forms and manifestations, with all its properties, connections and relationships. In this world, all objects have internal order and systemic organization. Order is manifested in the regular movement and interaction of all elements of matter, due to which they are combined into systems. The whole world, thus, appears as a hierarchically organized set of systems, where any object is simultaneously an independent system and an element of another, more complex system.

According to the modern natural scientific picture of the world, all natural objects are also ordered, structured, hierarchically organized systems. Based on a systematic approach to nature, all matter is divided into two large classes of material systems - inanimate and living nature. In a system of inanimate nature, the structural elements are: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, fields, macroscopic bodies, planets and planetary systems, stars and stellar systems, galaxies, metagalaxies and the Universe as a whole. Accordingly, in living nature the main elements are proteins and nucleic acids, cell, unicellular and multicellular organisms, organs and tissues, populations, biocenoses, living matter of the planet.

At the same time, both inanimate and living matter include a number of interconnected structural levels. Structure is a set of connections between elements of a system. Therefore, any system consists not only of subsystems and elements, but also of various connections between them. Within these levels, the main ones are horizontal (coordination) connections, and between levels - vertical (subordination). The set of horizontal and vertical connections makes it possible to create a hierarchical structure of the Universe, in which the main qualifying feature is the size of the object and its mass, as well as their relationship with man. Based on this criterion, the following levels of matter are distinguished: microworld, macroworld and megaworld.

Microworld is a region of extremely small, directly unobservable material microobjects, the spatial dimension of which is calculated in the range from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 -24 s. This includes fields, elementary particles, nuclei, atoms and molecules.

The macroworld is the world of material objects commensurate in scale with a person and his physical parameters. At this level, spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters, meters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, days and years. In practical reality, the macrocosm is represented by macromolecules, substances in various states of aggregation, living organisms, humans and the products of their activities, i.e. macrobodies.

The Megaworld is a sphere of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in astronomical units, light years and parsecs, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years. This level of matter includes the largest material objects: stars, galaxies and their clusters.

Each of these levels has its own specific laws that are irreducible to each other. Although all these three spheres of the world are closely connected with each other.

Megaworld structure

The main structural elements of the megaworld are planets and planetary systems; stars and star systems that form galaxies; systems of galaxies that form metagalaxies.

Planets - non-self-luminous celestial bodies, shaped like a ball, rotating around stars and reflecting their light. Due to their proximity to Earth, the most studied planets of the Solar System are those moving around the Sun in elliptical orbits. Our Earth, located from the Sun at a distance of 150 million km, also belongs to this group of planets.

Stars are luminous (gas) space objects formed from a gas-dust environment (mainly hydrogen and helium) as a result of gravitational condensation. The stars are located at great distances from each other and are thereby isolated from each other. This means that stars practically do not collide with each other, although the movement of each of them is determined by the gravitational force created by all the stars in the Galaxy. The number of stars in the Galaxy is about a trillion. The most numerous of them are dwarfs, whose masses are about 10 times less than the mass of the Sun. Depending on their mass, stars evolve into either white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes.

A white dwarf is an electron poststar formed when a star in the final stage of its evolution has a mass less than 1.2 solar masses. The diameter of the white dwarf is equal to the diameter of our Earth, the temperature reaches about a billion degrees, and the density is 10 t/cm 3, i.e. hundreds of times greater than the earth's density.

Neutron stars arise at the final stage of the evolution of stars with a mass of 1.2 to 2 solar masses. High temperatures and pressures in them create conditions for the formation of a large number of neutrons. In this case, a very rapid compression of the star occurs, during which rapid nuclear reactions begin in its outer layers. In this case, so much energy is released that an explosion occurs, scattering the outer layer of the star. Its internal regions are rapidly shrinking. The remaining object is called a neutron star because it is made of protons and neutrons. Neutron stars are also called pulsars.

Black holes are stars in the final stages of their development, whose mass exceeds 2 solar masses, and have a diameter of 10 to 20 km. Theoretical calculations showed that they have a gigantic mass (10 15 g) and an anomalously strong gravitational field. They got their name because they do not have a glow, and due to their gravitational field they capture from space all cosmic bodies and radiation that cannot come out of them back, they seem to fall into them (being pulled in, like into a hole). Due to strong gravity, no captured material body can move beyond the object's gravitational radius, and therefore they appear "black" to the observer.

Stellar systems (star clusters) are groups of stars interconnected by gravitational forces, having a common origin, similar chemical composition and including up to hundreds of thousands of individual stars. There are scattered star systems, such as the Pleiades in the constellation Taurus. Such systems do not have the correct shape. Currently, more than a thousand are known

star systems. In addition, stellar systems include globular star clusters, which contain hundreds of thousands of stars. Gravitational forces hold stars in such clusters for billions of years. Currently, scientists know about 150 globular clusters.

Galaxies are collections of star clusters. The concept of “galaxy” in its modern interpretation means huge star systems. This term (from the Greek “milk, milky”) was coined to refer to our star system, which is a light stripe with a milky tint stretching across the entire sky and is therefore called the Milky Way.

Conventionally, based on their appearance, galaxies can be divided into three types. The first (about 80%) includes spiral galaxies. In this species, the core and spiral “sleeves” are clearly observed. The second type (about 17%) includes elliptical galaxies, i.e. those that have the shape of an ellipse. The third type (approximately 3%) includes irregularly shaped galaxies that do not have a clearly defined nucleus. In addition, galaxies differ in size, the number of stars they contain, and luminosity. All galaxies are in a state of motion, and the distance between them is constantly increasing, i.e. there is a mutual moving away (scattering) of galaxies from each other.

Our solar system belongs to the galaxy Milky Way, which includes at least 100 billion stars and therefore belongs to the category of giant galaxies. It has a flattened shape, in the center of which there is a core with spiral “sleeves” extending from it. The diameter of our Galaxy is about 100 thousand, and the thickness is 10 thousand light years. Our neighboring galaxy is the Andromeda Nebula.

A metagalaxy is a system of galaxies that includes all known cosmic objects.

Since the megaworld deals with large distances, the following special units have been developed to measure these distances:

light year - the distance a ray of light travels during one year at a speed of 300,000 km/s, i.e. a light year is 10 trillion km;

An astronomical unit is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun, 1 AU. equal to 8.3 light minutes. This means that the sun's rays, having left the Sun, reach the Earth in 8.3 minutes;

parsec is a unit of measurement of cosmic distances within and between star systems. 1 pc - 206,265 au, i.e. approximately equal to 30 trillion km, or 3.3 light years.

Structure of the macrocosm

Each structural level of matter in its development is subject to specific laws, but at the same time there are no strict and rigid boundaries between these levels; they are all closely connected with each other. The boundaries of the micro- and macrocosm are mobile; there is no separate microcosm and a separate macrocosm. Naturally, macro-objects and mega-objects are built from micro-objects. Nevertheless, let us highlight the most important objects of the macrocosm.

The central concept of the macrocosm is the concept of matter, which in classical physics, which is the physics of the macrocosm, is separated from the field. Substance is a type of matter that has rest mass. It exists for us in the form of physical bodies that have some common parameters - specific gravity, temperature, heat capacity, mechanical strength or elasticity, thermal and electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, etc. All these parameters can vary widely, both from one substance to another, and for the same substance, depending on external conditions.

Microworld structure

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. radical changes have occurred in the natural scientific picture of the world, caused by the latest scientific discoveries in the field of physics and affecting its fundamental ideas and attitudes. As a result scientific discoveries The traditional ideas of classical physics about the atomic structure of matter were refuted. The discovery of the electron meant the loss of the atom's status as a structurally indivisible element of matter and thereby a radical transformation of classical ideas about objective reality. New discoveries have allowed:

reveal the existence in objective reality of not only the macro-, but also the micro-world;

confirm the idea of the relativity of truth, which is only a step on the path to knowledge of the fundamental properties of nature;

prove that matter does not consist of an “indivisible primary element” (atom), but of an infinite variety of phenomena, types and forms of matter and their interrelations.

Elementary particles concept. The transition of natural science knowledge from the atomic level to the level of elementary particles has led scientists to the conclusion that the concepts and principles of classical physics are inapplicable to the study of the physical properties of the smallest particles of matter (microobjects), such as electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms that form the invisible microcosm of us. Due to special physical indicators, the properties of objects in the microworld are completely different from the properties of objects in the macroworld we are used to and the distant megaworld. Hence the need arose to abandon the usual ideas that are imposed on us by objects and phenomena of the macroworld. The search for new ways to describe micro-objects contributed to the creation of the concept of elementary particles.

According to this concept, the main elements of the structure of the microworld are microparticles of matter, which are neither atoms nor atomic nuclei, do not contain any other elements and have the simplest properties. Such particles were called elementary, i.e. the simplest, not having any component parts.

After it was established that the atom is not the last “brick” of the universe, but is built from simpler elementary particles, their search took the main place in the research of physicists. The history of the discovery of fundamental particles began at the end of the 19th century, when in 1897 the English physicist J. Thomson discovered the first elementary particle - the electron. The history of the discovery of all elementary particles known today includes two stages.

The first stage falls on the 30-50s. XX century By the beginning of the 1930s. The proton and photon were discovered, in 1932 - the neutron, and four years later - the first antiparticle - the positron, which is equal in mass to the electron, but has a positive charge. By the end of this period, 32 elementary particles became known, and each new particle was associated with the discovery of a fundamentally new range of physical phenomena.

The second stage occurred in the 1960s, when the total number of known particles exceeded 200. At this stage, charged particle accelerators became the main means of discovery and research of elementary particles. In the 1970-80s. The flow of discoveries of new elementary particles intensified, and scientists started talking about families of elementary particles. At the moment, science knows more than 350 elementary particles, differing in mass, charge, spin, lifetime and a number of other physical characteristics.

All elementary particles have some common properties. One of them is the property of wave-particle duality, i.e. the presence of both wave properties and substance properties in all microobjects.

Another common property is that almost all particles (except the photon and two mesons) have their own antiparticles. Antiparticles are elementary particles similar to particles in all respects, but differing in opposite signs of electric charge and magnetic moment. After the discovery of a large number of antiparticles, scientists started talking about the possibility of the existence of antimatter and even the antiworld. When matter comes into contact with antimatter, the process of annihilation occurs - the transformation of particles and antiparticles into photons and mesons of high energies (matter turns into radiation).

Another important property of elementary particles is their universal interconvertibility. This property does not exist either in the macro- or in the mega-world.

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Structural levels of matter organization

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Structural levels of matter organization
Rubric (thematic category)	Education

In its most general form, matter is an infinite set of all objects and systems coexisting in the world, the totality of their properties, connections, relationships and forms of motion. Moreover, it includes not only all directly observable objects and bodies of nature, but also everything that is not given to us in sensations. The entire world around us is moving matter in its infinitely diverse forms and manifestations, with all its properties, connections and relationships. In this world, all objects have internal order and systemic organization. Order is manifested in the regular movement and interaction of all elements of matter, due to which they are combined into systems. The whole world, thus, appears as a hierarchically organized set of systems, where any object is simultaneously an independent system and an element of another, more complex system.

According to the modern natural-scientific picture of the world, all natural objects also represent self-ordered, structured, hierarchically organized systems. Based on a systematic approach to nature, all matter is divided into two large classes of material systems - inanimate and living nature. In system inanimate nature structural elements are: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, fields, macroscopic bodies, planets and planetary systems, stars and stellar systems, galaxies, metagalaxies and the Universe as a whole. Accordingly, in wildlife the main elements are proteins and nucleic acids, cells, unicellular and multicellular organisms, organs and tissues, populations, biocenoses, living matter of the planet.

At the same time, both inanimate and living matter include a number of interconnected structural levels. Structure is a set of connections between elements of a system. For this reason, any system consists not only of subsystems and elements, but also of various connections between them. Within these levels the main ones are -

There are horizontal (coordination) connections, and between levels there are vertical (subordination) connections. The set of horizontal and vertical connections makes it possible to create a hierarchical structure of the Universe, in which the main qualifying feature is the size of an object and its mass, as well as their relationship with a person. Based on this criterion, the following levels of matter are distinguished: microworld, macroworld and megaworld.

Microworld- the region of extremely small, directly unobservable material micro-objects, the spatial dimension of which is calculated in the range from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 - 24 s. This includes fields, elementary particles, nuclei, atoms and molecules.

Macroworld - the world of material objects commensurate in scale with a person and his physical parameters. At this level, spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters, meters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, days and years. In practical reality, the macrocosm is represented by macromolecules, substances in various states of aggregation, living organisms, humans and the products of their activities, ᴛ.ᴇ. macrobodies.

Megaworld - a sphere of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in astronomical units, light years and parsecs, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years. This level of matter includes the largest material objects: stars, galaxies and their clusters.

Each of these levels has its own specific laws that are irreducible to each other. Although all these three spheres of the world are closely connected with each other.

Structural levels of organization of matter - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Structural levels of organization of matter" 2017, 2018.

In classical natural science, and, above all, in the natural science of the last century, the doctrine of the principles of the structural organization of matter was represented by classical atomism. It was on atomism that the theoretical generalizations originating in each of the sciences were closed. The ideas of atomism served as the basis for the synthesis of knowledge and its original fulcrum. Nowadays, under the influence of the rapid development of all areas of natural science, classical atomism is undergoing intensive transformations. The most significant and widely significant changes in our ideas about the principles of the structural organization of matter are those changes that are expressed in the current development of system concepts.

The general scheme of the hierarchical step structure of matter, associated with the recognition of the existence of relatively independent and stable levels, nodal points in a series of divisions of matter, retains its force and heuristic meaning. According to this scheme, discrete objects of a certain level of matter, entering into specific interactions, serve as initial ones in the formation and development of fundamentally new types of objects with different properties and forms of interaction. At the same time, the greater stability and independence of the original, relatively elementary objects determines the repeating and persisting properties, relationships and patterns of objects of a higher level. This position is the same for systems of different nature.

Structurality and systemic organization of matter are among its most important attributes, expressing the orderliness of the existence of matter and the specific forms in which it manifests itself.

The structure of matter is usually understood as its structure in the macrocosm, i.e. existence in the form of molecules, atoms, elementary particles, etc. This is due to the fact that man is a macroscopic being and macroscopic scales are familiar to him, therefore the concept of structure is usually associated with various micro-objects.

But if we consider matter as a whole, then the concept of the structure of matter will also cover macroscopic bodies, all cosmic systems of the megaworld, and on any arbitrarily large space-time scale. From this point of view, the concept of “structure” is manifested in the fact that it exists in the form of an infinite variety of integral systems, closely interconnected, as well as in the orderliness of the structure of each system. Such a structure is infinite in quantitative and qualitative terms.

Manifestations of the structural infinity of matter are:

– inexhaustibility of objects and processes of the microworld;

– infinity of space and time;

– infinity of changes and development of processes.

Of the entire variety of forms of objective reality, only the finite region of the material world always remains empirically accessible, which now extends on a scale from 10 -15 to 10 28 cm, and in time - up to 2 × 10 9 years.

Structurality and systemic organization of matter are among its most important attributes. They express the orderliness of the existence of matter and those specific forms in which it manifests itself.

The material world is one: we mean that all its parts - from inanimate objects to living beings, from celestial bodies to man as a member of society - are somehow connected.

A system is something that is interconnected in a certain way and is subject to relevant laws.

The orderliness of a set implies the presence of regular relationships between the elements of the system, which manifests itself in the form of laws of structural organization. All natural systems have internal order, arising as a result of the interaction of bodies and the natural self-development of matter. External is typical for artificial systems created by man: technical, production, conceptual, etc.

Structural levels of matter are formed from a certain set of objects of any class and are characterized by a special type of interaction between their constituent elements.

The criteria for identifying different structural levels are the following:

– spatiotemporal scales;

– a set of essential properties;

– specific laws of motion;

– the degree of relative complexity encountered in the process historical development matter in a given area of the world;

- some other signs.

The currently known structural levels of matter can be classified according to the above characteristics into the following areas.

1. Microworld. These include:

– elementary particles and atomic nuclei - area of the order of 10 – 15 cm;

– atoms and molecules 10 –8 -10 –7 cm.

The microworld is molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial diversity of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 -24 s.

2. Macroworld: macroscopic bodies 10 –6 -10 7 cm.

The macroworld is the world of stable forms and quantities commensurate with humans, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years.

The megaworld is planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies - a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years.

And although these levels have their own specific laws, the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds are closely interconnected.

3. Megaworld: space systems and unlimited scales up to 1028 cm.

Different levels of matter are characterized by different types of connections.

On a scale of 10–13 cm - strong interactions, the integrity of the core is ensured by nuclear forces.

The integrity of atoms, molecules, and macrobodies is ensured by electromagnetic forces.

On a cosmic scale - gravitational forces.

As the size of objects increases, the energy of interaction decreases. If we take the energy of gravitational interaction as unity, then the electromagnetic interaction in an atom will be 1039 times greater, and the interaction between nucleons - the particles that make up the nucleus - will be 1041 times greater. The smaller the size of material systems, the more firmly their elements are interconnected.

The division of matter into structural levels is relative. On available space-time scales, the structure of matter is manifested in its systemic organization, existence in the form of a multitude of hierarchically interacting systems, ranging from elementary particles to the Metagalaxy.

Speaking about structurality - the internal dismemberment of material existence, it can be noted that no matter how wide the range of the worldview of science, it is closely related to the discovery of more and more new structural formations. For example, if earlier the view of the Universe was limited to the Galaxy, then expanded to a system of galaxies, now the Metagalaxy is being studied as a special system with specific laws, internal and external interactions.

In modern science, the method of structural analysis is widely used, which takes into account the systematic nature of the objects under study. After all, structure is the internal dismemberment of material existence, the way of existence of matter. Structural levels of matter are formed from a certain set of objects of any kind and are characterized in a special way interactions between their constituent elements, in relation to the three main spheres of objective reality, these levels look like this (Table 1).

Table 1 – Structural levels of matter

Inorganic nature	Live nature	Society
Submicroelementary	Biological macromolecular	Individual
Microelementary	Cellular	Family
Nuclear	Microorganic	Teams
Atomic	Organs and tissues	Large social groups (classes, nations)
Molecular	Body as a whole	State (civil society)
Macro level	Populations	State systems
Mega level (planets, star-planetary systems, galaxies)	Biocenosis	Humanity as a whole
Mega level (metagalaxies)	Biosphere	Noosphere

Each of the spheres of objective reality includes a number of interconnected structural levels. Within these levels, coordination relations are dominant, and between levels, subordination relations are dominant.

Thus, the structure of matter at the level of inanimate nature (inorganic) includes elementary particles, atoms, molecules (objects of the microworld, macrobodies and objects of the megaworld: planets, galaxies, metagalaxy systems, etc.). A metagalaxy is often identified with the entire Universe, but the Universe is understood in the extremely broad sense of the word; it is identical to the entire material world and moving matter, which can include many metagalaxies and other cosmic systems.

Wildlife is also structured. It distinguishes the biological level and the social level. The biological level includes sublevels:

– macromolecules (nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, proteins);

– cellular level;

– microorganic (single-celled organisms);

– organs and tissues of the body as a whole;

– population;

– biocenotic;

– biosphere.

The main concepts of this level at the last three sublevels are the concepts of biotope, biocenosis, biosphere, which require explanation.

Biotope is a collection (community) of individuals of the same species (for example, a pack of wolves) that can interbreed and reproduce their own kind (population).

Biocenosis is a collection of populations of organisms in which the waste products of some are the conditions for the existence of other organisms inhabiting an area of land or water.

Biosphere is a global system of life, that part of the geographical environment (lower part of the atmosphere, upper part of the lithosphere and hydrosphere), which is the habitat of living organisms, providing the conditions necessary for their survival (temperature, soil, etc.), formed as a result of interaction biocenoses.

General basis life at the biological level - organic metabolism (exchange of matter, energy and information with environment) - manifests itself at any of the selected sublevels:

– at the level of organisms, metabolism means assimilation and dissimilation through intracellular transformations;

– at the level of ecosystems (biocenosis), it consists of a chain of transformations of a substance initially assimilated by producer organisms through consumer organisms and destroyer organisms belonging to different species;

– at the level of the biosphere, a global circulation of matter and energy occurs with the direct participation of factors on a cosmic scale.

At a certain stage of development of the biosphere, special populations of living beings arise, which, thanks to their ability to work, have formed a unique level - social. Social reality in the structural aspect is divided into sublevels: individuals, families, various teams (industrial), social groups, etc.

Thus, any of the three areas of material reality is formed from a number of specific structural levels, which are in strict order within a particular area of reality.

The transition from one area to another is associated with the complication and increase in the number of formed factors that ensure the integrity of systems. Within each of the structural levels there are relationships of subordination ( molecular level includes atomic, and not vice versa). The patterns of new levels are irreducible to the patterns of the levels on the basis of which they arose, and are leading for a given level of organization of matter. Structural organization, i.e. systematicity is the way of existence of matter.

2. THREE “IMAGES” OF BIOLOGY. TRADITIONAL OR NATURALISTIC BIOLOGY

We can also talk about three main directions of biology or, figuratively speaking, three images of biology:

1. Traditional or naturalistic biology. Its object of study is living nature in its natural state and undivided integrity - the “Temple of Nature,” as Erasmus Darwin called it. Origins traditional biology date back to the Middle Ages, although it is quite natural to recall here the works of Aristotle, who considered issues of biology, biological progress, and tried to systematize living organisms (“the ladder of Nature”). The formation of biology into an independent science - naturalistic biology - dates back to the 18th and 19th centuries. The first stage of naturalistic biology was marked by the creation of classifications of animals and plants. These include the well-known classification of C. Linnaeus (1707 – 1778), which is a traditional systematization of the plant world, as well as the classification of J.-B. Lamarck, who applied an evolutionary approach to the classification of plants and animals. Traditional biology has not lost its importance even today. As evidence, they cite the position of ecology among the biological sciences, as well as throughout natural science. Its position and authority are currently extremely high, and it is primarily based on the principles of traditional biology, since it studies the relationships of organisms with each other (biotic factors) and with the environment (abiotic factors).

2. Functional-chemical biology, reflecting the convergence of biology with the exact physical and chemical sciences. A feature of physicochemical biology is the widespread use of experimental methods that make it possible to study living matter at the submicroscopic, supramolecular and molecular levels. One of the most important branches of physical and chemical biology is molecular biology- a science that studies the structure of macromolecules that underlie living matter. Biology is often called one of the leading sciences of the 21st century.

The most important experimental methods used in physicochemical biology include the method of labeled (radioactive) atoms, methods of X-ray diffraction analysis and electron microscopy, fractionation methods (for example, separation of various amino acids), the use of computers, etc.

3. Evolutionary biology. This branch of biology studies the patterns of historical development of organisms. Currently, the concept of evolutionism has become, in fact, a platform on which a synthesis of heterogeneous and specialized knowledge takes place. The basis of modern evolutionary biology is Darwin's theory. It is also interesting that Darwin in his time managed to identify such facts and patterns that have universal significance, i.e. the theory created by him is applicable to the explanation of phenomena occurring not only in living, but also inanimate nature. Currently, the evolutionary approach has been adopted by all natural sciences. At the same time, evolutionary biology is an independent field of knowledge, with its own problems, research methods and development prospects.

Currently, attempts are being made to synthesize these three directions (“images”) of biology and to form an independent discipline – theoretical biology.

4. Theoretical biology. The goal of theoretical biology is to understand the most fundamental and general principles, laws and properties underlying living matter. Here, different studies put forward different opinions on the question of what should become the foundation of theoretical biology. Let's look at some of them:

Axioms of biology. B.M. Mednikov, a prominent theorist and experimenter, derived 4 axioms that characterize life and distinguish it from “non-life.”

Axiom 1. All living organisms must consist of a phenotype and a program for its construction (genotype), which is inherited from generation to generation. It is not the structure that is inherited, but the description of the structure and instructions for its manufacture. Life based on only one genotype or one phenotype is impossible, because in this case, it is impossible to ensure either the self-reproduction of the structure or its self-maintenance. (D. Neumann, N. Wiener).

Axiom 2. Genetic programs do not arise anew, but are replicated in a matrix manner. The gene of the previous generation is used as a matrix on which the gene of the future generation is built. Life is a matrix copying followed by self-assembly of copies (N.K. Koltsov).

Axiom 3. In the process of transmission from generation to generation, genetic programs, as a result of many reasons, change randomly and undirectedly, and only by chance these changes turn out to be adaptive. The selection of random changes is not only the basis of the evolution of life, but also the reason for its formation, because without mutations selection does not operate.

Axiom 4.
In the process of phenotype formation, random changes in genetic programs are multiplied, which makes their selection possible by environmental factors. Due to the increase in random changes in phenotypes, the evolution of living nature is fundamentally unpredictable (N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky).

E.S. Bauer (1935) put forward the principle of stable nonequilibrium of living systems as the main characteristic of life.

L. Bertalanffy (1932) considered biological objects as open systems in a state of dynamic equilibrium.

E. Schrödinger (1945), B.P. The Astaurs envisioned the creation of theoretical biology in the image of theoretical physics.

S. Lem (1968) put forward a cybernetic interpretation of life.

5. A.A. Malinovsky (1960) proposed mathematical and systems methods as the basis for theoretical biology.

Moscow Open Social Academy

Department of Mathematical and General Natural Sciences

Academic discipline:

Concepts of modern natural science.

Abstract topic:

Structural levels of organization of matter.

Faculty of Correspondence Education

group number: FEB-3.6

Supervisor:

Moscow 2009

INTRODUCTION

I. Structural levels of organization of matter: micro-, macro-, mega-worlds

1.1 Modern look on the structural organization of matter

II. Structure and its role in the organization of living systems

2.1 System and whole

2.2 Part and element

2.3 Interaction of part and whole

III. Atom, man, Universe - a long chain of complications

CONCLUSION REFERENCES

Introduction

All objects of nature (living and inanimate nature) can be represented as a system that has features that characterize their levels of organization. The concept of structural levels of living matter includes ideas of systematicity and the associated organization of the integrity of living organisms. Living matter is discrete, i.e. is divided into constituent parts of a lower organization that have specific functions. Structural levels differ not only in complexity classes, but also in the patterns of functioning. The hierarchical structure is such that each higher level does not control, but includes the lower one. The diagram most accurately reflects the holistic picture of nature and the level of development of natural science as a whole. Taking into account the level of organization, one can consider the hierarchy of structures of organization of material objects of animate and inanimate nature. This hierarchy of structures begins with elementary particles and ends with living communities. The concept of structural levels was first proposed in the 1920s. of our century. In accordance with it, structural levels differ not only by complexity classes, but by patterns of functioning. The concept includes a hierarchy of structural levels, in which each subsequent level is included in the previous one.

The purpose of this work is to study the concept of the structural organization of matter.

I. Structural levels of matter organization: micro-, macro-, megaworlds

In modern science, the basis for ideas about the structure of the material world is a systems approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, a planet, etc. can be considered as a system - a complex formation that includes components, elements and connections between them. Element in in this case means the minimal, further indivisible part of a given system.

The set of connections between elements forms the structure of the system; stable connections determine the orderliness of the system. Horizontal connections are coordinating and ensure correlation (consistency) of the system; no part of the system can change without changing other parts. Vertical connections are connections of subordination; some elements of the system are subordinate to others. The system has a sign of integrity - this means that all its component parts, when combined into a whole, form a quality that cannot be reduced to the qualities of individual elements. According to modern scientific views, all natural objects are ordered, structured, hierarchically organized systems.

In the most general sense of the word “system” means any object or any phenomenon of the world around us and represents the interconnection and interaction of parts (elements) within the whole. Structure is the internal organization of a system, which contributes to the connection of its elements into a single whole and gives it unique features. Structure determines the ordering of the elements of an object. Elements are any phenomena, processes, as well as any properties and relationships that are in any kind of mutual connection and correlation with each other.

In understanding the structural organization of matter, the concept of “development” plays an important role. The concept of development of inanimate and living nature is considered as an irreversible directed change in the structure of natural objects, since the structure expresses the level of organization of matter. The most important property of a structure is its relative stability. Structure is a general, qualitatively defined and relatively stable order of internal relations between the subsystems of a particular system. The concept of “level of organization,” in contrast to the concept of “structure,” includes the idea of a change in structures and its sequence during the historical development of the system from the moment of its inception. While change in structure may be random and not always directed, change at the level of organization occurs in a necessary manner.

Systems that have reached the appropriate level of organization and have a certain structure acquire the ability to use information in order, through management, to maintain unchanged (or increase) their level of organization and contribute to the constancy (or decrease) of their entropy (entropy is a measure of disorder). Until recently, natural science and other sciences could do without a holistic, systematic approach to their objects of study, without taking into account the study of the processes of formation of stable structures and self-organization.

Currently, the problems of self-organization, studied in synergetics, are becoming relevant in many sciences, ranging from physics to ecology.

The task of synergetics is to clarify the laws of organizing an organization and the emergence of order. Unlike cybernetics, the emphasis here is not on the processes of managing and exchanging information, but on the principles of building an organization, its emergence, development and self-complication (G. Haken). The question of optimal ordering and organization is especially acute in research global problems- energy, environmental, and many others that require the attraction of enormous resources.

1.1 MODERN VIEWS ON THE STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF MATTER

In classical natural science, the doctrine of the principles of the structural organization of matter was represented by classical atomism. The ideas of atomism served as the foundation for the synthesis of all knowledge about nature. In the 20th century, classical atomism underwent radical transformations.

Modern principles structural organization of matter are associated with the development of system concepts and include some conceptual knowledge about the system and its features that characterize the state of the system, its behavior, organization and self-organization, interaction with the environment, purposefulness and predictability of behavior, and other properties.

The simplest classification of systems is to divide them into static and dynamic, which, despite its convenience, is still conditional, because everything in the world is in constant change. Dynamic systems are divided into deterministic and stochastic (probabilistic). This classification is based on the nature of predicting the dynamics of system behavior. Such systems are studied in mechanics and astronomy. In contrast, stochastic systems, which are usually called probabilistic-statistical, deal with massive or repeating random events and phenomena. Therefore, the predictions in them are not reliable, but only probabilistic.

Based on the nature of interaction with the environment, open and closed (isolated) systems are distinguished, and sometimes partially open systems are also distinguished. This classification is mainly conditional, because the idea of closed systems arose in classical thermodynamics as a certain abstraction. The vast majority, if not all, systems are open source.

Many complex systems found in the social world are goal-directed, i.e. focused on achieving one or several goals, and in different subsystems and at different levels of the organization these goals can be different and even come into conflict with each other.

The classification and study of systems made it possible to develop a new method of cognition, which was called the systems approach. The application of systems ideas to the analysis of economic and social processes contributed to the emergence of game theory and decision theory. The most significant step in the development of the systems method was the emergence of cybernetics as a general theory of control in technical systems, living organisms and society. Although individual control theories existed before cybernetics, the creation of a unified interdisciplinary approach made it possible to reveal deeper and general patterns management as a process of accumulation, transmission and transformation of information. The control itself is carried out using algorithms, which are processed by computers.

The universal theory of systems, which determined the fundamental role of the system method, expresses, on the one hand, the unity of the material world, and on the other hand, the unity scientific knowledge. An important consequence of this consideration of material processes was the limitation of the role of reduction in the knowledge of systems. It became clear that the more some processes differ from others, the more qualitatively heterogeneous they are, the more difficult it is to reduce. Therefore, the laws of more complex systems cannot be completely reduced to the laws of lower forms or simpler systems. As an antipode to the reductionist approach, a holistic approach arises (from the Greek holos - whole), according to which the whole always precedes the parts and is always more important than the parts.

Every system is a whole formed by its interconnected and interacting parts. Therefore, the process of cognition of natural and social systems can be successful only when their parts and the whole are studied not in opposition, but in interaction with each other.

Modern science views systems as complex, open, with many possibilities for new ways of development. The processes of development and functioning of a complex system have the nature of self-organization, i.e. the emergence of internally consistent functioning due to internal connections and connections with the external environment. Self-organization is a natural scientific expression of the process of self-motion of matter. Systems of living and inanimate nature have the ability to self-organize, as well as artificial systems.

In the modern scientifically based concept of the systemic organization of matter, three structural levels of matter are usually distinguished:

microworld - the world of atoms and elementary particles - extremely small directly unobservable objects, dimension from 10-8 cm to 10-16 cm, and lifetime - from infinity to 10-24 s.

the macrocosm is the world of stable forms and quantities commensurate with humans: earthly distances and velocities, masses and volumes; the dimension of macro-objects is comparable to the scale of human experience - spatial dimensions from fractions of a millimeter to kilometers and time dimensions from fractions of a second to years.

megaworld – the world of space (planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies); a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, distance is measured in light years, and time is measured in millions and billions of years;

The study of the hierarchy of structural levels of nature is associated with solving the complex problem of determining the boundaries of this hierarchy both in the megaworld and in the microworld. Objects of each subsequent stage arise and develop as a result of the combination and differentiation of certain sets of objects of the previous stage. Systems are becoming more and more multi-level. The complexity of the system increases not only because the number of levels increases. The development of new relationships between levels and with the environment common to such objects and their associations becomes essential.

The microworld, being a sublevel of the macroworlds and megaworlds, has completely unique features and therefore cannot be described by theories related to other levels of nature. In particular, this world is inherently paradoxical. The principle “consists of” does not apply to him. Thus, when two elementary particles collide, no smaller particles are formed. After the collision of two protons, many other elementary particles arise - including protons, mesons, and hyperons. The phenomenon of “multiple birth” of particles was explained by Heisenberg: during a collision, large kinetic energy is converted into matter, and we observe multiple birth of particles. The microworld is being actively studied. If 50 years ago only 3 types of elementary particles were known (electron and proton as the smallest particles of matter and photon as the minimum portion of energy), now about 400 particles have been discovered. The second paradoxical property of the microcosm is associated with the dual nature of the microparticle, which is both a wave and a corpuscle. Therefore, it cannot be strictly unambiguously localized in space and time. This feature is reflected in the Heisenberg uncertainty relation principle.

The levels of organization of matter observed by humans are mastered taking into account the natural living conditions of people, i.e. taking into account our earthly laws. However, this does not exclude the assumption that at levels sufficiently distant from us there may exist forms and states of matter characterized by completely different properties. In this regard, scientists began to distinguish geocentric and non-geocentric material systems.

The geocentric world is the reference and basic world of Newtonian time and Euclidean space, described by a set of theories related to objects on an earthly scale. Non-geocentric systems are a special type of objective reality, characterized by different types of attributes, different space, time, movement, than earthly ones. There is an assumption that the microworld and megaworld are windows into non-geocentric worlds, which means that their patterns, at least to a remote extent, make it possible to imagine a different type of interaction than in the macroworld or geocentric type of reality.

There is no strict boundary between the megaworld and the macroworld. It is usually believed that he

starts with distances of about 107 and masses of 1020 kg. The reference point for the beginning of the megaworld can be the Earth (diameter 1.28 × 10 + 7 m, mass 6 × 1021 kg). Since the megaworld deals with large distances, special units are introduced to measure them: astronomical unit, light year and parsec.

Astronomical unit (a.e.) – the average distance from the Earth to the Sun is 1.5 × 1011 m.

Light year – the distance that light travels in one year, namely 9.46 × 1015 m.

Parsec (parallax second) – the distance at which the annual parallax of the earth's orbit (i.e., the angle at which the semi-major axis of the earth's orbit is visible, located perpendicular to the line of sight) is equal to one second. This distance is equal to 206265 AU. = 3.08×1016 m = 3.26 St. G.

Celestial bodies in the Universe form systems of varying complexity. So the Sun and 9 planets moving around it form Solar system. The bulk of the stars in our galaxy are concentrated in a disk visible from the Earth “from the side” in the form of a foggy strip crossing the celestial sphere - the Milky Way.

All celestial bodies have their own history of development. The age of the Universe is 14 billion years. The age of the Solar System is estimated at 5 billion years, the Earth - 4.5 billion years.

Another typology of material systems is quite widespread today. This is the division of nature into inorganic and organic, in which the social form of matter occupies a special place. Inorganic matter is elementary particles and fields, atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules, macroscopic bodies, geological formations. Organic matter also has a multi-level structure: precellular level - DNA, RNA, nucleic acids; cellular level – independently existing single-celled organisms; multicellular level – tissues, organs, functional systems (nervous, circulatory, etc.), organisms (plants, animals); supraorganismal structures – populations, biocenoses, biosphere. Social matter exists only thanks to the activities of people and includes special substructures: individual, family, group, collective, state, nation, etc.

II. STRUCTURE AND ITS ROLE IN THE ORGANIZATION OF LIVING SYSTEMS

2.1 SYSTEM AND THE WHOLE

A system is a complex of elements that interact. Translated from Greek, it is a whole made up of parts, a connection.

Having undergone a long historical evolution, the concept of system since the middle of the 20th century. becomes one of the key scientific concepts.

Primary ideas about the system arose in ancient philosophy as orderliness and value of being. The concept of a system now has an extremely wide scope of application: almost every object can be considered as a system.

Each system is characterized not only by the presence of connections and relationships between its constituent elements, but also by its inextricable unity with the environment.

Various types of systems can be distinguished:

By the nature of the connection between the parts and the whole - inorganic and organic;

According to the forms of motion of matter - mechanical, physical, chemical, physico-chemical;

In relation to movement - statistical and dynamic;

By type of change - non-functional, functional, developing;

By the nature of exchange with the environment - open and closed;

By degree of organization - simple and complex;

By level of development - lower and higher;

By nature of origin - natural, artificial, mixed;

According to the direction of development - progressive and regressive.

According to one of the definitions, a whole is something that does not lack any of the parts, consisting of which it is called a whole. The whole necessarily presupposes the systematic organization of its components.

The concept of the whole reflects the harmonious unity and interaction of parts according to a certain ordered system.

The similarity of the concepts of the whole and the system served as the basis for their complete identification, which is not entirely correct. In the case of a system, we are not dealing with a single object, but with a group of interacting objects that mutually influence each other. As the system continues to improve towards the orderliness of its components, it can become integral. The concept of the whole characterizes not only the multiplicity of its constituent components, but also the fact that the connection and interaction of the parts are natural, arising from the internal needs of the development of the parts and the whole.

Therefore, the whole is a special kind of system. The concept of the whole is a reflection of the internally necessary, organic nature of the relationship between the components of the system, and sometimes a change in one of the components inevitably causes one or another change in the other, and often in the entire system.

The properties and mechanism of the whole as a higher level of organization compared to the parts that organize it cannot be explained only through the summation of the properties and moments of action of these parts, considered in isolation from each other. New properties of the whole arise as a result of the interaction of its parts, therefore, in order to know the whole, it is necessary, along with knowledge of the characteristics of the parts, to know the law of organization of the whole, i.e. the law of combining parts.

Since the whole as a qualitative certainty is the result of the interaction of its components, it is necessary to dwell on their characteristics. Being components of a system or a whole, the components enter into various relationships with each other. The relationships between elements can be divided into "element - structure" and "part - whole". In the system of the whole, the subordination of the parts to the whole is observed. The system of the whole is characterized by the fact that it can create the organs it lacks.

2.2 PART AND ELEMENT

An element is a component of an object that may be indifferent to the specifics of the object. In a category of structure one can find connections and relationships between elements that are indifferent to its specificity.

A part is also an integral component of an object, but, unlike an element, a part is a component that is not indifferent to the specifics of the object as a whole (for example, a table consists of parts - a lid and legs, as well as elements - screws, bolts, which can be used for fastening other objects: cabinets, cabinets, etc.)

A living organism as a whole consists of many components. Some of them will be simply elements, others at the same time parts. Parts are only those components that are inherent in the functions of life (metabolism, etc.): extracellular living matter; cell; textile; organ; organ system.

All of them have inherent functions of living things, they all perform their specific functions in the system of organization of the whole. Therefore, a part is a component of the whole, the functioning of which is determined by nature, the essence of the whole itself.

In addition to parts, the body also contains other components that do not themselves possess the functions of life, i.e. are nonliving components. These are the elements. Nonliving elements are present at all levels of the systemic organization of living matter:

In the protoplasm of the cell there are grains of starch, drops of fat, crystals;

In a multicellular organism, nonliving components that do not have their own metabolism and the ability to reproduce themselves include hair, claws, horns, hooves, and feathers.

Thus, part and element constitute necessary components of the organization of living things as an integral system. Without elements (nonliving components), the functioning of parts (living components) is impossible. Therefore, only the total unity of both elements and parts, i.e. inanimate and living components, constitutes the systemic organization of life, its integrity.

2.2.1 RELATIONSHIP OF CATEGORIES PART AND ELEMENT

The relationship between the categories part and element is very contradictory. The content of the category part differs from the category element: elements are all the constituent components of the whole, regardless of whether the specificity of the whole is expressed in them or not, and parts are only those elements in which the specificity of the object as a whole is directly expressed, therefore the category of part is narrower than the category of element. On the other hand, the content of the category of part is wider than the category of element, since only a certain set of elements constitutes a part. And this can be shown in relation to any whole.

This means that there are certain levels or boundaries in the structural organization of the whole that separate elements from parts. At the same time, the difference between the categories part and element is very relative, since they can be mutually transformed, for example, organs or cells, while functioning, are subject to destruction, which means that from parts they turn into elements and vice versa, they are again built from inanimate, i.e. . elements and become parts. Elements that are not excreted from the body can turn into salt deposits, which are already part of the body, and a rather undesirable one at that.

2.3 INTERACTION OF PART AND WHOLE

The interaction of the part and the whole is that one presupposes the other, they are united and cannot exist without each other. There is no whole without a part and vice versa: there are no parts outside the whole. A part becomes a part only in the system of the whole. A part acquires its meaning only through the whole, just as the whole is the interaction of parts.

In the interaction of a part and the whole, the leading, determining role belongs to the whole. Parts of an organism cannot exist independently. Representing private adaptive structures of the organism, parts arise during the development of evolution for the sake of the whole organism.

The determining role of the whole in relation to the parts in organic nature is best confirmed by the phenomena of autotomy and regeneration. A lizard caught by the tail runs away, leaving the tip of the tail behind. The same thing happens with the claws of crabs and crayfish. Autotomy, i.e. self-cutting of the tail in a lizard, claws in crabs and crayfish, is a protective function that contributes to the adaptation of the organism, developed in the evolutionary process. The body sacrifices its part in the interests of saving and preserving the whole.

The phenomenon of autotomy is observed in cases where the body is able to restore the lost part. The missing part of the lizard's tail grows back (but only once). Crabs and crayfish also often grow broken off claws. This means that the body is capable of first losing a part in order to save the whole, in order to then restore this part.

The phenomenon of regeneration further demonstrates the subordination of the parts to the whole: the whole necessarily requires the fulfillment, to one degree or another, of the lost parts. Modern biology found that not only lowly organized creatures (plants and protozoa), but also mammals have the regenerative ability.

There are several types of regeneration: not only individual organs are restored, but also entire organisms from individual parts of it (hydra from a ring cut from the middle of its body, protozoa, coral polyps, annelids, starfish, etc.). In Russian folklore, we know the Serpent-Gorynych, whose heads were cut off by good fellows, which immediately grew again... In general biological terms, regeneration can be considered as the ability of an adult organism to develop.

However, the determining role of the whole in relation to the parts does not mean that the parts are deprived of their specificity. The determining role of the whole presupposes not a passive, but an active role of the parts, aimed at ensuring the normal life of the organism as a whole. Submitting to the overall system of the whole, the parts retain relative independence and autonomy. On the one hand, the parts act as components of the whole, and on the other, they themselves are unique integral structures, systems with their own specific functions and structures. In a multicellular organism, of all the parts, it is the cells that represent the highest level of integrity and individuality.

The fact that the parts retain their relative independence and autonomy allows for relative independence in the study of individual organ systems: the spinal cord, the autonomic nervous system, the digestive systems, etc., which is of great importance for practice. An example of this is the study and disclosure of the internal causes and mechanisms of the relative independence of malignant tumors.

The relative independence of parts, to a greater extent than animals, is inherent in plants. They are characterized by the formation of some parts from others - vegetative reproduction. Everyone has probably seen cuttings of other plants grafted onto, for example, an apple tree in their life.

3..ATOM, MAN, UNIVERSE - A LONG CHAIN OF COMPLICATIONS

In modern science, the method of structural analysis is widely used, which takes into account the systematic nature of the object under study. After all, structure is the internal dismemberment of material existence, the way of existence of matter. Structural levels of matter are formed from a certain set of objects of any kind and are characterized by a special way of interaction between their constituent elements; in relation to the three main spheres of objective reality, these levels look like this.

STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF MATTER
	Inorganic		Society
1	Submicroelementary	Biological macromolecular	Individual
2	Microelementary	Cellular	Family
3	Nuclear	Microorganic	Teams
4	Atomic	Organs and tissues	Large social groups (classes, nations)
5	Molecular	Body as a whole	State (civil society)
6	Macro level	Population	State systems
7	Mega level (planets, star-planetary systems, galaxies)	Biocenosis	Humanity
8	Meta level (metagalaxies)	Biosphere	Noosphere

Each of the spheres of objective reality includes a number of interconnected structural levels. Within these levels, coordination relationships are dominant, and between levels, subordination ones are dominant.

A systematic study of material objects involves not only establishing ways to describe the relationships, connections and structure of many elements, but also identifying those of them that are system-forming, that is, they ensure the separate functioning and development of the system. A systematic approach to material formations presupposes the possibility of understanding the system in question at a higher level. The system is usually characterized by a hierarchical structure, that is, the sequential inclusion of a lower-level system into a higher-level system. Thus, the structure of matter at the level of inanimate nature (inorganic) includes elementary particles, atoms, molecules (objects of the microworld, macrobodies and objects of the megaworld: planets, galaxies, metagalaxy systems, etc.). A metagalaxy is often identified with the entire Universe, but the Universe is understood in the extremely broad sense of the word; it is identical to the entire material world and moving matter, which can include many metagalaxies and other cosmic systems.

Wildlife is also structured. It distinguishes the biological level and the social level. The biological level includes sublevels:

Macromolecules (nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, proteins);

Cellular level;

Microorganic (single-celled organisms);

Organs and tissues of the body as a whole;

Population;

Biocenotic;

Biosphere.

The main concepts of this level at the last three sublevels are the concepts of biotope, biocenosis, biosphere, which require explanation.

Biotope is a collection (community) of the same species (for example, a pack of wolves), which can interbreed and produce their own kind (populations).

Biocenosis is a collection of populations of organisms in which the waste products of some are the conditions for the existence of other organisms inhabiting an area of land or water.

The biosphere is a global system of life, that part of the geographic environment (lower part of the atmosphere, upper part of the lithosphere and hydrosphere), which is the habitat of living organisms, providing the conditions necessary for their survival (temperature, soil, etc.), formed as a result of interaction biocenoses.

The general basis of life at the biological level - organic metabolism (exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment) manifests itself at any of the identified sublevels:

At the level of organisms, metabolism means assimilation and dissimilation through intracellular transformations;

At the level of ecosystems (biocenosis), it consists of a chain of transformation of a substance initially assimilated by producer organisms through consumer organisms and destroyer organisms belonging to different species;

At the level of the biosphere, a global circulation of matter and energy occurs with the direct participation of factors on a cosmic scale.

At a certain stage of development of the biosphere, special populations of living beings arise, which, thanks to their ability to work, have formed a unique level - social. Social activity in the structural aspect is divided into sublevels: individuals, families, various teams (industrial), social groups, etc.

The structural level of social activity is in ambiguous linear relationships with each other (for example, the level of nations and the level of states). The interweaving of different levels within society gives rise to the idea of the dominance of chance and chaos in social activity. But a careful analysis reveals the presence of fundamental structures in it - the main spheres of social life, which are the material and production, social, political, spiritual spheres, which have their own laws and structures. All of them are, in a certain sense, subordinated within the socio-economic formation, deeply structured and determine the genetic unity of social development as a whole. Thus, any of the three areas of material reality is formed from a number of specific structural levels, which are in strict order within a particular area of reality. The transition from one area to another is associated with the complication and increase in the number of formed factors that ensure the integrity of systems. Within each of the structural levels there are relationships of subordination (the molecular level includes the atomic level, and not vice versa). The patterns of new levels are irreducible to the patterns of the levels on the basis of which they arose, and are leading for a given level of organization of matter. Structural organization, i.e. systematicity is the way of existence of matter.

Conclusion

The structural levels of the organization of matter are built according to the principle of a pyramid: the highest levels consist of a large number of lower levels. The lower levels are the basis of the existence of matter. Without these levels, further construction of the “pyramid of matter” is impossible. Higher (complex) levels are formed through evolution - gradually moving from simple to complex. Structural levels of matter are formed from a certain set of objects of any kind and are characterized by a special way of interaction between their constituent elements.

All objects of living and inanimate nature can be represented in the form of certain systems that have specific features and properties that characterize their level of organization. Taking into account the level of organization, one can consider the hierarchy of structures of organization of material objects of animate and inanimate nature. This hierarchy of structures begins with elementary particles, which represent the initial level of organization of matter, and ends with living organizations and communities - higher levels organizations.

The concept of structural levels of living matter includes ideas of systematicity and the associated organic integrity of living organisms. However, the history of systems theory began with a mechanistic understanding of the organization of living matter, according to which everything higher was reduced to the lower: life processes - to a set of physical and chemical reactions, and the organization of the body - to the interaction of molecules, cells, tissues, organs, etc.

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