Military reform was carried out. On the way to all-class military service: D.A. Milyutin and the “decline” of recruitment

Alexander II is known for his numerous reforms that affected all aspects of the life of Russian society. In 1874, on behalf of this tsar, Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin changed the conscription system for the Russian army. The format of universal conscription, with some changes, existed in the Soviet Union and continues today.

Military reform

The introduction of universal military service, which was epochal for the inhabitants of Russia at that time, occurred in 1874. It took place as part of large-scale reforms in the army undertaken during the reign of Emperor Alexander II. This tsar ascended the throne at a time when Russia was shamefully losing the Crimean War, unleashed by his father Nicholas I. Alexander was forced to conclude an unfavorable peace treaty.

However, the real consequences of failure in another war with Turkey appeared only a few years later. The new king decided to understand the reasons for the fiasco. They included, among other things, an outdated and ineffective system for replenishing army personnel.

Disadvantages of the recruitment system

Before the introduction of universal conscription, there was conscription in Russia. It was introduced in 1705. An important feature of this system was that conscription extended not to citizens, but to communities, which chose young men to be sent to the army. At the same time, the service life was lifelong. Bourgeois and artisans chose their candidates by blind lot. This norm was enshrined in law in 1854.

The landowners, who owned their own serfs, themselves chose the peasants, for whom the army became their home for life. The introduction of universal conscription freed the country from another problem. It consisted in the fact that legally there was no definite one. It varied depending on the region. At the end of the 18th century, the service life was reduced to 25 years, but even such a time frame separated people from their own farming for too long a period. The family could be left without a breadwinner, and when he returned home, he was already effectively incapacitated. Thus, not only a demographic, but also an economic problem arose.

Proclamation of reform

When Alexander Nikolaevich assessed all the disadvantages of the existing order, he decided to entrust the introduction of universal conscription to the head of the Military Ministry, Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin. He worked on the new legislation for several years. The development of the reform ended in 1873. On January 1, 1874, the introduction of universal conscription finally took place. The date of this event became significant for contemporaries.

The recruiting system was abolished. Now all men who had reached 21 years of age were subject to conscription. The state made no exceptions for classes or ranks. Thus, the reform also affected the nobles. The initiator of the introduction of universal conscription, Alexander II, insisted that there should be no privileges in the new army.

Service life

The main one was now 6 years (in the navy - 7 years). The time frame for being in reserve was also changed. Now they were equal to 9 years (in the navy - 3 years). In addition, a new militia was formed. Those men who had already served in actual service and in the reserve were included in it for 40 years. Thus, the state received a clear, regulated and transparent system for replenishing troops for any occasion. Now, if a bloody conflict began, the army did not have to worry about the influx of fresh forces into its ranks.

If a family had a sole breadwinner or only son, he was freed from the obligation to go to serve. A flexible deferment system was also provided (for example, in case of low welfare, etc.). The period of service was shortened depending on what kind of education the conscript had. For example, if a man had already graduated from university, he could only stay in the army for a year and a half.

Deferments and exemptions

What other features did the introduction of universal conscription in Russia have? Among other things, deferments appeared for conscripts who had health problems. If, due to his physical condition, a man was not able to serve, he was generally exempted from the obligation to serve in the army. In addition, an exception was also made for church ministers. People who had specific professions (medical doctors, students at the Academy of Arts) were immediately enlisted in the reserves without actually being in the army.

The national question was a sensitive one. For example, representatives of the indigenous peoples of Central Asia and the Caucasus did not serve at all. At the same time, such benefits were abolished in 1874 for the Lapps and some other northern nationalities. Gradually this system changed. Already in the 1880s, foreigners from the Tomsk, Tobolsk and Turgai, Semipalatinsk and Ural regions began to be called up for service.

Acquisition areas

Other innovations also appeared, which were marked by the introduction of universal conscription. The year of reform was remembered in the army by the fact that it now began to be staffed according to regional rankings. The entire Russian Empire was divided into three large sections.

The first of them was Great Russian. Why was he called that? It included territories where an absolute Russian majority lived (above 75%). The objects of ranking were counties. It was based on their demographic indicators that the authorities decided which group the residents belong to. The second section included lands where there were also Little Russians (Ukrainians) and Belarusians. The third group (foreign) is all other territories (mainly the Caucasus, Far East).

This system was necessary for manning artillery brigades and infantry regiments. Each such strategic unit was replenished by residents of only one site. This was done in order to avoid ethnic hatred in the troops.

Reform in the military personnel training system

It is important that the implementation of military reform (the introduction of universal military service) was accompanied by other innovations. In particular, Alexander II decided to completely change the system of officer education. Military educational institutions lived according to the old skeletal order. In the new conditions of universal conscription, they became ineffective and costly.

Therefore, these institutions began their own serious reform. Her main guide was Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich (the Tsar's younger brother). The main changes can be noted in several theses. Firstly, special military education was finally separated from general education. Secondly, access to it was made easier for men who did not belong to the noble class.

New military educational institutions

In 1862, new military gymnasiums appeared in Russia - secondary educational institutions that were analogues of civilian real schools. Another 14 years later, all class qualifications for admission to such institutions were finally abolished.

The Alexander Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which specialized in training military and legal personnel. By 1880, the number of military educational institutions throughout Russia had increased markedly compared to the figures at the beginning of the reign of the Tsar-Liberator. There were 6 academies, the same number of schools, 16 gymnasiums, 16 schools for cadets, etc.

Characteristic

Military reforms began after the Crimean War in the late 1850s and were carried out in several stages. Since 1862, military districts were introduced. The central element of the reform was the Manifesto on universal conscription and the Charter on conscription on January 1, 1874, which marked the transition from the principle of conscription in the army to all-class conscription.

The purpose of military reforms was to reduce the army in peacetime and at the same time ensure the possibility of its deployment during war.

As a result of military reforms, the following happened:

• reduction in army size by 40%;
• the creation of a network of military and cadet schools, which accepted representatives of all classes;
• improvement of the military administration system, introduction of military districts (1864), creation of the General Staff;
• the creation of public and adversarial military courts and a military prosecutor's office;
• abolition of corporal punishment (with the exception of canings for those specially “fined”) in the army;
• rearmament of the army and navy (adoption of rifled steel guns, new rifles, etc.), reconstruction of state-owned military factories;
• the introduction of universal conscription in 1874 instead of conscription and a reduction in terms of service. According to the new law, all young people who have reached the age of 21 are conscripted, but the government determines the required number of recruits every year, and by lot takes only this number from the conscripts, although usually no more than 20-25% of conscripts were called up for service. The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the conscript's older brother is serving or has served in service were not subject to conscription. Those recruited for service are listed in it: in the ground forces for 15 years - 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in the reserve, in the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in the reserve. For those who have completed primary education, the period of active service is reduced to 4 years, for those who have graduated from a city school - to 3 years, a gymnasium - to one and a half years, and for those who have had a higher education - to six months.
• development and introduction of new military regulations to the troops.

Charter on military service

From the charter:

1. Defense of the throne and fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject. The male population, regardless of condition, is subject to military service.
2. Cash ransom from military service and replacement by a hunter is not allowed. ...
3. …
10. Entry into conscription service is decided by drawing lots, which are drawn once for life. Persons who, according to the number of the lot they drew, are not eligible for enlistment in the standing troops, are enlisted in the militia.
11. Every year, only the age of the population is called up for drawing lots, namely young people who have turned 21 years old since October 1 of the year when the selection is made.
12. …
17. The total period of service in the ground forces for those entering by lot is determined at 15 years, of which 6 years of active service and 9 years in reserve...
18. The total service life in the navy is determined to be 10 years, of which 7 years of active service and 3 years in reserve.
19. …
36. The state militia is composed of all the male population not enrolled in the standing troops, but capable of bearing arms, from conscripts to 43 years of age inclusive. Persons under this age and persons discharged from the army and navy reserves are not exempt from conscription into the militia.

The renewal of the army began with changes in military uniforms. In the first year of the reign of Alexander II alone, 62 orders were issued concerning changes in uniforms. Such activity caused confusion in society:

The only transformations that the new sovereign immediately set about consisted of changing uniforms. Everyone who valued the fate of the fatherland looked at this with sorrow. We asked ourselves in amazement: is there really nothing more important than uniforms in the difficult circumstances in which we find ourselves? Is this really all that matured in the thoughts of the new king during his long tenure as heir? They recalled poems written, it seems, at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, and applying them to the present, they repeated:

“And a renewed Russia
I put on red pants."

The uninitiated did not suspect that samples of new uniforms were ready in the last days of Nikolai Pavlovich’s reign, and the young sovereign, issuing orders to change uniforms, carried out only what he considered his father’s last will.

- B.N. Chicherin “Literary movement at the beginning of a new reign”

Notes

Literature

• Dmitriev S. S. Reader on the history of the USSR. Volume III.
• *Military clothing of the Russian army. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1994. - 382 p. - ISBN 5-203-01560-0

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The difficult situation that arose in foreign policy at the end of the 19th century forced Alexander II to urgently transform the military system. The military reform of 1874 was designed to solve a number of important problems. As a result of a number of changes, the army was supposed to become more combat-ready, well-equipped with both equipment and highly qualified personnel.

Military-political prerequisites for reform

When covering this topic, we cannot limit ourselves to just one year. The reform of 1874 legally consolidated all changes in this area. The need for military reform was dictated even before the abolition of serfdom. The Russian army was poorly equipped in military-technical terms. This was the reason for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War. The foreign policy situation worsened: in 1870, France was defeated by Prussia. The German Empire was formed in Europe, which laid claim to primacy in the world. In addition, the arms race continued and military technology developed. But military reform in Russia could not be carried out at a rapid pace. The rearmament of the army depended on the Russian economy, which at that time lagged far behind Europe. It was necessary to develop industry and transport. Therefore, military reform was carried out in stages.

Military reform of 1861-1874. Stages

60-70 The 19th century was the time of a number of military reforms. At the first stage, the reorganization of the military infrastructure began. It included military administration and military educational institutions. The beginning of the reform is associated with the name of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In January 1862, he presented Alexander II with a plan for military reform. According to him:

• armed forces were reduced in peacetime;
• officers were being retrained;
• a new army management system was being introduced;
• military service was reduced to 15 years;
• corporal punishment was abolished;
• 15 military districts were subordinate to the War Ministry.

This system made it possible to quickly control troops. Considering the vast territory of Russia, this was strategically important. One of the main problems of the reform was the issue of training military personnel. In 1863, the cadet corps was reorganized into military gymnasiums. And the next year military schools were established. Every year they graduated 600 officers. 16 cadet schools graduated qualified military personnel. Higher military education has changed. Military Academies were formed in various specializations: artillery, engineering, military-legal. These changes significantly improved the training of the Russian army.

Military reform of 1874

All these measures were ineffective without a radical reorganization of the army. To do this, it was necessary to introduce a new staffing of the army, to replace the recruitment system adopted under Peter I with universal military service. This made it possible to create a trained reserve in case of hostilities. In Europe, such a system was introduced a long time ago.

Army transformations

Back in 1870, a draft law on the introduction of universal military service was prepared. Two years later the Charter was ready. During the discussion in the State Council, many opposed it. But despite the disagreements, the “Charter” was approved.

All military forces were divided into 4 parts:

1. Army and Navy.
2. Cossacks.
3. Reserve troops.
4. Militia.

The charter provided for universal military service for the entire male population over 20 years of age, regardless of belonging to any class. In peacetime, the number of conscripts was 25-30%. They were exempted from service due to marital status and physical unfitness. The conscripts drew lots. The required number of conscripts was determined by drawing lots. Those fit for service were enlisted in the militia, which was called up only in wartime. The length of military service was reduced depending on the level of education. Such military personnel entered service voluntarily, and their service life was halved. They were called volunteers. During their service, soldiers were taught to read and write. The military reform of 1874 contributed to the elimination of illiteracy among conscripts (80% were illiterate).

Rearmament of the Russian army

Since the mid-60s, the technical re-equipment of the Russian army began. Artillery guns were replaced by rifled ones. The construction of a steam fleet began. Since 1876, the army began to use horses, which were also subject to mobilization. The Berdan system rifle was adopted.

Historical meaning

The military reform of 1874 met the demands of the time. It gave a chance to solve the problem of modernizing the Russian army. As a result of the military reform in Russia, a personnel army was created with a trained reserve, and in the event of war, the reserve and militia constituted a mass army. The technical equipment of the army changed, which required higher knowledge from career officers. The entire male population was taught to read and write. All these measures were aimed at strengthening the Russian army as opposed to Western European ones. She became more combat-ready.

On January 1 (13), 1874, the “Manifesto on the introduction of universal military service” was published, according to which military service was imposed on all classes of Russian society. On the same day, the “Charter on Military Service” was approved. “Defense of the throne and fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject. The male population, regardless of condition, is subject to military service,” the Charter stated.

Starting from the time of Peter I, all classes in Russia were involved in military service. The nobles themselves had to undergo military service, and the tax-paying classes had to ensure that the army was staffed with a supply of recruits. When in the 18th century. The nobles were gradually freed from compulsory service; conscription turned out to be the lot of the poorest strata of society, since wealthy people could pay off by hiring a recruit for themselves.

Crimean War 1853-1856 demonstrated the weakness and backwardness of the military organization in the Russian Empire. During the reign of Emperor Alexander II, military reforms, which were dictated by external and internal factors, were carried out thanks to the activities of the Minister of War D. A. Milyutin in several areas: the introduction of new regulations, reduction of army personnel, training of trained reserves and officers, rearmament of the army, reorganization quartermaster service. The main goal of these reforms was to reduce the army in peacetime and at the same time ensure the possibility of its deployment during war. However, all the innovations could not eliminate the feudal-class structure of the army, based on a system of recruitment among peasants and the monopoly of nobles on occupying officer positions. Hence, Milyutin’s most important measure was the introduction of universal conscription.

Back in 1870, a special commission was formed to develop the issue of conscription, which, just four years later, presented to the emperor the Charter of universal conscription for all classes, which was approved by the highest in January 1874. Rescript of Alexander II addressed to Milyutin dated January 11 (23) 1874 instructed the minister to carry out the law “in the same spirit in which it was drafted.”

The Charter on Military Service of 1874 determined the total period of military service in the ground forces to be 15 years, in the navy - 10 years, of which active military service was 6 years on land and 7 in the navy, in the reserve - 9 years on land and 3 years in the navy. Infantry and foot artillery were recruited on a territorial basis. From now on, recruitment was abolished, and the entire male population over 21 years of age was subject to conscription. Persons who were exempt from military service due to various benefits were enlisted in the militia in the event of a declaration of war. Having entered the reserve, the soldier could only occasionally be called up for training camps, which did not interfere with his private studies or peasant labor.

The charter also provided for benefits for education and deferments for marital status. Thus, the only sons of their parents, the only breadwinners in the family with young brothers and sisters, and representatives of certain nationalities were subject to exemption from service. The clergy, doctors and teachers were completely exempted from military service.

To carry out conscription, provincial conscription presences were established in each province, which were under the jurisdiction of the Directorate for Conscription Affairs of the Main Staff of the Military Ministry of the Russian Empire. The charter on military service, with amendments and additions, continued to be in force until January 1918.

Lit.: Golovin N. N. Russian laws on universal military service // Military efforts of Russia in the World War. Paris, 1939; The same [Electronic resource]. URL:http://militera.lib.ru/research/golovnin_nn/01.html ; Goryainov S. M. Statutes on military service. St. Petersburg, 1913; Livin Y., Ransky G. Charter on military service. With all changes and additions. St. Petersburg, 1913; Charter on military service of January 1, 1874 [Electronic resource] // International Military Historical Association. B. d. URL: http://www.imha.ru/index.php?newsid=1144523930 .

The Crimean War revealed the glaring shortcomings of the Nicholas army and the entire military organization of Russia. The army was replenished by conscription, which fell with all its weight on the lower classes of the population, because the nobility was free from compulsory military service (since 1762), and rich people could buy their way out of conscription. Soldiers' service lasted 25 years and was associated, in addition to military dangers, with such hardships, hardships and deprivations that the population, handing over their youth as recruits, said goodbye to them, in most cases, forever. Conscription into military service was viewed as a severe punishment: landowners sought to recruit the most vicious (or rebellious) element from their villages as recruits, and the criminal law directly provided for conscription as a soldier among the punishments, on a par with exile to Siberia or imprisonment in prison companies.

The replenishment of the army with officers was also in a very unsatisfactory situation. Military schools were far from sufficient to replenish the army with the necessary officers; Most of the officers (from the noble “juniors” or from well-established non-commissioned officers) were of a very low level. Mobilizing the army in wartime was difficult due to the lack of trained reserves, both officers and soldiers.

At the very beginning of the reign of Alexander II, the most glaring hardships and injustices of the previous era were eliminated: the stick schools of the “cantonists” - soldiers' children - were closed and the cantonists were dismissed from the military class.

(1805 -1856 - Cantonists (“Canton” - from German) called minor sons of soldiers who were registered with the military department from birth, as well as the children of schismatics, Polish rebels, gypsies and Jews (children of Jews) forcibly sent to prepare for service taken from 1827 - under Nicholas I, before that there was a cash tax) - ldn-knigi)

Military settlements were abolished. In 1859, the period of compulsory military service for newly entering lower ranks was established in the army - 15 years, in the navy - 14.

With the entry into control of the War Ministry

D. A. Milyutin, in 1861, began energetic and systematic work in order to fundamentally and comprehensively {244} reforms of the army and the entire military department. In the 60s, Milyutin transformed the central military administration. In 1864, the “Regulations” on military district administration introduced local bodies of military administrative administration. All of Russia was divided into several military districts (in 1871 there were 14: 10 in European Russia, three in Asian and the Caucasian district) with “commanders” at the head, and thus the central military administration in St. Petersburg was relieved of many small matters and On the other hand, conditions were created for faster and more organized mobilization in certain parts of the state.

In his concern for the training of army officers, Milyutin completely reorganized the military education system. The former few cadet corps (consisting of general education and special classes) were transformed into “military gymnasiums” with a general education course in real gymnasiums, and their senior classes were separated for special military training of future officers and formed special “military schools.” Due to the insufficient number of existing military schools, “military gymnasiums” (with a 4-year general education course) and “cadet schools” (with a 2-year course) were created. In 1880 in Russia there were 9 military schools (including special ones), 16 cadet schools; 23 military gymnasiums, 8 pro-gymnasiums. For higher military education there were academies: general staff, engineering, artillery and military medical; The Military Law Academy was again created.

But Milyutin’s main reform and his main merit is the introduction of universal military service in Russia. The project developed by Milyutin met with strong opposition in the State Council and in the “special presence on conscription.” Hardened conservatives and supporters of noble privileges objected to the reform and frightened the tsar with the future “democratization” of the army, but with the support of the sovereign he led. Prince Konstantin Nikolaevich, {245} presiding over the State Council, Milyutin managed to carry out his project.

(December 3, 1873, the sovereign told Milyutin: “There is strong opposition to the new law..., and the women are shouting most of all” (Milyutin’s Diary). Of course, these were not village women, but the countesses and princesses surrounding the tsar, who in no way they did not want to come to terms with the idea that their Zhorzhiki would have to join the ranks of soldiers along with the village Mishkas and Grishkas. In his diary for 1873, Milyutin notes about the progress of the project: “it’s going slowly, there’s a lot of controversy,” or: “a heated meeting,” or. : “Count D. A. Tolstoy appears on the stage again, and again there are irritable, bilious, persistent bickering.” Minister of Public Education Count Tolstoy most of all argued against those benefits for education, which he insisted on minister of war Milyutin.) .

On January 1, 1874, the Manifesto on the introduction of universal conscription was published. On the same day, the Charter on Military Service was published, the first article of which read: “Defense of the throne and fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject. The male population, regardless of condition, is subject to military service.” According to the new law, every year (in November) a call is made to serve military service.

All young people who turned 20 years old by January 1 of this year must report for conscription; then, from those who are found fit for military service, the number of “recruits” required in the current year to replenish the cadres of the army and navy is selected by lot; the rest are enlisted in the “militia” (which is called up for service only in case of war). The period of active service in the army was set at 6 years; those who served this term were enlisted in the army reserve for 9 years (in the navy, the terms were 7 years and 3 years, respectively).

Thus, for the first time, Milyutin’s law created trained reserves for the Russian army in case of mobilization. - When serving military service, a number of benefits were provided based on marital status and education. Young people who were the sole breadwinners of their families were exempt from conscription for active service. {246} (the only son had the 1st category benefit), and for those who received an education, the period of active service was significantly reduced, to varying degrees depending on the level of education. Persons who had a certain educational qualification could (upon reaching the age of 17) serve military service as “volunteers”, and the period of active service for them was further reduced, and upon completion of service and upon passing the established exam, they were promoted to the first officer rank and formed a cadre of reserve officers.

Under the influence of the “spirit of the times” and thanks to the cares and efforts

YES. Milyutin in the 60s and 70s completely changed the entire structure and character of life of the Russian army. Severe drilling and cane discipline with cruel corporal punishment were expelled from her.

(Corporal punishment was retained only for those who had been fined," that is, those who had seriously offended and were transferred to the "disciplinary battalions" of the lower ranks.) Their place was taken by the reasonable and humane education and training of soldiers; on the one hand, combat training was increased: instead of “ceremonial marches”, they were trained in target shooting, fencing and gymnastics; the army's weapons were improved; at the same time, the soldiers were taught to read and write, so that Milyutin’s army, to some extent, compensated for the lack of school education in the Russian village.