Japan at the end of the XIX-XX centuries. Features of the development of Japan at the beginning of the 20th century

September events of 1905

After the signing of the peace treaty, the political situation in Japan continued to remain tense. The situation of the working masses during the war years became unbearable. Wide sections of the people were gripped by discontent. “At the present time,” Prime Minister Katsura wrote in one of his confidential documents, “literally everyone, from rickshaw drivers and cab drivers to small traders, is talking about the lack of livelihood.”

It is not surprising that the speech of a group of extreme chauvinists against the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, which they considered insufficiently beneficial for Japan, served as a reason for massive spontaneous anti-government protests. A protest meeting against the “humiliating” treaty with Russia was scheduled for September 5, 1905 in one of the parks in Tokyo. The government banned the rally, but crowds of people broke into the park. This reflected general dissatisfaction with government policies. Contrary to the plans of the rally organizers, the people moved towards the building of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Anti-government protests swept the entire city. There were clashes with police and troops in working-class areas. The unrest continued on September 6. In Tokyo, more than two-thirds of all police stations were destroyed. The number of killed and wounded exceeded 2 thousand. Only by issuing an order on martial law did the government restore order.

Serious unrest occurred in other cities. They continued until the end of September. These were spontaneous protests that reflected protest against the foreign and domestic policies of the ruling classes. Their leaders were workers, rickshaw pullers, artisans, and students. Troops and police managed to quell the unrest.

Strengthening the position of monopoly capital. Japanese foreign policy after the war

Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 marked the completion of the development of Japanese capitalism into imperialism. Japan became one of the imperialist colonial powers.

The outcome of the war gave the Japanese imperialists a free hand in Korea. In November 1905, the Korean government was imposed

treaty establishing a Japanese protectorate in 1910. Korea was annexed and turned into a Japanese colony.

Having captured the Kwantung region, Japan established itself in Southern Manchuria. In 1909, Japan reinforced its troops there and imposed new railway agreements on China. Consolidation in Southern Manchuria was considered by the Japanese imperialists as a step towards further aggression in China, which intensified during the Chinese Revolution of 1911-1913.

Although the country's financial situation at the end of the Russo-Japanese War was difficult, victory and the capture of new markets led to a revival of industry. In the first post-war year alone, more than 180 new industrial and commercial joint-stock companies emerged. But in 1907-1908. Japanese industry experienced a crisis that was part of the next global economic crisis. Then came a new rise, which lasted almost until the outbreak of the First World War. The value of the gross output of Japanese industry increased from 780 million yen in 1909 to 1372 million yen in 1914.

The Russo-Japanese War, as well as the continued militarization of the country after it, contributed to the development of heavy industry. There was a technical re-equipment of industry, further concentration of production and centralization of capital took place. But Japan still remained an agrarian-industrial country with a predominant rural population.

Monopoly business claimed to strengthen its influence in the state apparatus. At the same time, the role of the military increased. The ties between the monopolies and the militaristic elite became closer.

The transformation of Japan into a major colonial power changed the balance of power in the Far East and led to aggravation of contradictions between it and other imperialist powers. By this time, the unequal treaties of the period of “opening” of Japan had finally become an anachronism. As early as 1899, new trade treaties came into force, abolishing the right of extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction. And in 1911, England and the United States signed treaties with Japan that abolished all restrictions on its customs rights.

By supporting Japan, England and the United States sought to use it to weaken Russia, believing that due to Japan's financial weakness, British and American capital would reap the fruits of its victories. This, however, did not happen. Japan effectively closed the South Manchurian market. The Japanese policy of expansion in China, which, in turn, was claimed by England and the United States, led to the aggravation of Japanese-British and especially Japanese-American imperialist contradictions.

Japanese-American relations have deteriorated noticeably. In this regard, discrimination against the Japanese population living in the United States has intensified. California state authorities adopted a resolution to expel Japanese children from public schools where they studied together with the children of white Americans. There was a Japanese pogrom in San Francisco.

Anglo-Japanese relations also deteriorated, but both countries were still interested in preserving the alliance treaty of 1902, renegotiated in 1905. The treaty was directed against the national liberation movement of the Chinese people and other peoples of the East. In conditions of aggravation of Anglo-German contradictions, the alliance treaty with Japan was beneficial to England, because it prevented Japan from switching to the side of Germany. In turn, Japan was interested in preserving the union With England due to the increased tension in Japanese-American relations. But developments in the Pacific Ocean did not strengthen, but weakened the Anglo-Japanese alliance. In addition to the growing Anglo-Japanese contradictions, England was interested in American assistance in the event of war with Germany.

The influence of the Russian Revolution of 1905-1907. The labor movement on the eve of the First World War

As monopoly capitalism developed in Japan, its inherent irreconcilable contradictions intensified, and, first of all, the contradictions between the proletariat and monololist business. The Russian Revolution of 1905-1907 had a strong influence on the labor and democratic movement.

Japanese socialists followed events in Russia with great attention and interest. The weekly Tekugen (“Straight Word”), published by them after the closure of the Heimin Shimbun, published materials about the Russian revolution. In March 1906, Ko-toku published an article “One wave - ten thousand waves,” which said: “Just as at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. The French revolution shook the countries of Europe, the Russian revolution will cause in the 20th century. changes in the social and economic structure of all countries of the world. The Russian revolution will not stop in Russia. Russia is only the first center of workers' revolutions flaring up in the world. The Russian Revolution is the beginning of the world revolution. The victory of their revolutionary parties is the victory of our revolutionary socialist parties in all countries.”

The Russian Revolution was welcomed by the best representatives of the Japanese intelligentsia. The famous democratic poet Takuboku Ishikawa wrote in one of his poems:

Who dares to reproach me if I go to Russia,

To fight together with the rebels

And die fighting!

Under the influence of the Russian Revolution, the strike movement intensified, reaching its highest point in 1907, when, according to official data, 57 strikes were registered. The workers' unrest at the Asio copper mines had the greatest response in February 1907. The workers drove the police out of the mines and seized food warehouses. The authorities declared a state of siege and sent troops against the workers.

During this period, attempts were made to recreate the trade unions dissolved by the authorities in 1900. In February 1906, the Japanese Socialist Party was created. At the second congress in 1907, a formulation was added to its program that read: “The real party sets as its goal the achievement of socialism.” The party was soon outlawed by the government.

By this time, two wings had formed in the Japanese socialist movement - the opportunist-reformist one, led by Tazoe, and the revolutionary one, led by Kotoku. But the Kotoku group was somewhat influenced by anarcho-syndicalist ideas.

After the suppression of the Asio miners' protest and the banning of the Socialist Party, the government and entrepreneurs' offensive against the workers intensified. Since 1908, the strike movement began to decline.

The government decided to crack down on the leaders of the socialist movement. In June 1910, Kotoku and his wife and 24 of their comrades were arrested on false, provocative charges of organizing a conspiracy against the emperor. The process took place behind closed doors, in strict secrecy. In January 1911, Kotoku and 11 socialists were executed, the rest were sent to hard labor. Only after the Second World War, when some Japanese archives were opened, the details of this atrocity of the Japanese reaction became known. Kotoku held his own in court with great courage and dignity. In prison he wrote a series of poems. One of them says:

We can bind our body with iron,

Throw on the chopping block, into prison -

The spirit that guides us to the right cause,

Don't shackle anyone.

One of the defendants in the Kotoku case, former Heimin Shimbun typesetter Seimi Sakambto, languished in prison for 35 years. He was released only in 1945, after the defeat of Japanese Imperialism in the Second World War.

In conditions of brutal police terror, Japanese socialists continued to fight. On the eve of the First World War

the strike movement revived. In December 1911, 6 thousand Tokyo tram workers, led by Katayama, went on strike. For leading the strike, Katayama was thrown into prison, and after his release he had to emigrate in 1914.

In the spring of 1912, workers at the naval arsenal in Kure and merchant seamen at a number of Japanese ports went on strike. In 1913, 47 strikes were registered in Japan, and in 1914, 50 strikes.

The eve of the First World War was characterized by the aggravation of internal and external contradictions of Japanese imperialism.

Along with the growth of the labor movement, there was a rise in the democratic movement, reflecting the dissatisfaction of the broad masses with political lack of rights, heavy taxes, etc. The main demand of this movement was universal suffrage. In February 1913, demonstrations took place in a number of Japanese cities against the militaristic Katsura cabinet. The struggle within the ruling camp also intensified. The Katsura cabinet was forced to resign.

In the context of the approaching world war, American-Japanese contradictions intensified, the Anglo-Japanese alliance weakened, and mutual distrust in Japan's relations with Tsarist Russia increased.

Education and culture

Western reforms and capitalist industrialization began to be implemented in Japan just one or two decades after more than two centuries of self-isolation of the country from the outside world. It is not surprising that the Meiji era was accompanied by intensive penetration of Western culture and science into Japan. Young Japanese began to study at higher educational institutions in Europe and the USA. Teachers from other countries were invited to Japanese educational institutions. Back in 1858, Russian doctors Albert and Zalessky founded a medical school in Hakodate. Among the professors at Japanese universities there were British, Americans, Germans, French, and Russians.

The attitude towards European culture and Europeanization has become the subject of heated debate. The ruling circles emphasized a purely utilitarian attitude towards Western culture, science, and ideology; they sought to prevent the spread of liberal and radical ideas. In contrast, Iichiro Tokutomi (1863-1957) and other progressive publicists saw Europeanization as a means of political and cultural progress of the country. Tokutomi called for abandoning hieroglyphic writing and switching to the Latin alphabet. Supporters of “Japanism” fought against this approach, putting forward the slogan “protection of national beauty.”

A major role was played by the activities of Japanese educators, the most prominent of whom was Yukichi Fukuzawa (1834-1901). His works “Everything about the Countries of the World”, “Call to Science”, as well as “Autobiography” promoted the achievements of science and culture of foreign countries. Fukuzawa showed the inconsistency of feudal ideology. His pedagogical activity was of great importance. The Fukuzawa School, which was later transformed into a university, gained exceptional popularity.

A prominent representative of the left wing of Japanese enlightenment was Temin Nakaz (1847-1901). After a three-year stay in France, he became an ardent supporter of the ideas of Rousseau and the French encyclopedists. Students from all over Japan came to the “School of French Science” created and headed by him. The journalistic activity of Nakae, a convinced democrat and predecessor of the Japanese socialists, had a great impact.

An integral part of Western reforms was the restructuring of education. According to the 1872 Education Law, Japan was divided into eight districts, in each of which a university was created. The university district was divided into 32 districts, each district had one secondary and 210 primary schools. Four-year (since 1907 - six-year) education became compulsory.

Subsequently, new universities and technical institutes (public and private) appeared. In 1879, the Academy of Sciences was founded in Tokyo.

School education aimed to educate the younger generation in the spirit of boundless devotion to imperial power and the existing system. All primary schools taught a course in moral education and ethics (shu-shin). The special “Imperial Rescript on Public Education,” published in 1890, ordered the education of the people in the Shinto and Confucian spirit. “Our subjects,” said this remarkable document, “united by loyalty and filial piety, from generation to generation they remained in harmony. This is the inviolability of our empire, this is where the origins of our education lie.

Subjects, be respectful to your parents, devoted to your brothers and sisters, be harmonious as spouses, faithful as friends, live in modesty and moderation. Be merciful, read the sciences and improve yourself in the arts - and thereby you will develop intellectual traits and improve your moral strength."

Everything served to instill a loyal spirit. Even the school lunch - white rice in a square box with a red circle of the sun laid out on it with pickled plums - resembled the national flag.

Along with the samurai-feudal culture and the culture of the reactionary elite, elements of the democratic culture of the Japanese people also developed. Their formation was greatly influenced by the “movement for freedom and people's rights”, the activities of the “Society of Common People”, the emerging socialist movement, and such figures as Temin Nakae, Sen Katayama, Den-jiro Kotoku.

By the end of the 19th century. Japanese readers become aware of the best works of Western European and Russian literature. The works of Russian classics, the ideas of Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky had a noticeable impact on the literary process in Japan, which resulted in the so-called “literary revolution”. In the mid-80s, Shoe Tsubouchi’s treatise “On the Essence of the Novel” and Shi-mei Ftabatey’s programmatic article “The Theory of the Novel” appeared, calling on writers to depict real life and the inner world of a person. At the same time, there were calls for the unity of the literary and spoken language. These principles were embodied in Ftabatey's novel The Floating Cloud.

One of the largest Japanese writers of that time, Roka Tokutomi, gained fame for his social novels that condemned feudal remnants in social and family relations (“Kuroshiwo”, “It’s Better Not to Live”). His literary activity was greatly influenced by L.N. Tolstoy.

The pinnacle of Japanese critical realism at the beginning of the 20th century. was the work of Toson Shimazaki (1872-1943).

The rise of the labor and socialist movement was reflected in the works of Nabe Kinosyta, who published the anti-militarist novel “Pillar of Fire” in 1904.

In poetry, the “literary revolution” was accompanied by the emergence of new poetic forms. The ideological content of poetic works also changed. The founder of Japanese progressive and democratic poetry, Takubbku Ishikawa (1885-1912), had great respect for the socialist movement that arose in Japan. The poems of the poetess Akikb Esano, which denounced militarism and social injustice, enjoyed success. Here is her short poem “Wonderful City”:

A city where you won't see soldiers on the street,

Where there are no moneylenders, no churches, no detectives,

Where a woman is free and respected,

Where is the flowering of culture, where everyone works,

Oh, how different you are from our vaunted Tokyo.

Europeanization also affected theatrical life. The simpa theater, which was originally created by amateurs and then became professional, gained popularity. It staged plays with modern themes. In 1906, the troupe of the “Literary and Artistic Society” arose, and in 1909, the “Free Theater”, which staged plays by Shakespeare, Ibsen, and Gorky. At the same time, traditional theater genres, especially kabuki theater, continued to develop.

As everyone probably knows, the middle of the 20th century for Japan was overshadowed by the tragic events associated with the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. And this period was very difficult for the country, because its economy was also greatly weakened.

The only chance to restore the country from ruins was a complete renewal of the production base, as well as powerful leaps in technology. Acting with maximum effort, the Japanese managed not only to develop the production of computers, cars, and any new scientific technologies according to Western models, but also to make their own adjustments to them, due to which the whole world started talking about the country.

Thanks to its own additions, Japan has formed its own system of education and sports, which fully reflects the essence of the culture of this country. And now the hard work of the Japanese has made their culture attractive to all peoples of the world, as well as to people of all ages. Having taken one of the first places on the world stage, Japan now strives to improve every day, creating more and more beautiful, unusual and new things and technologies.

Reflection of national art in the culture of the 20th century

Enriched with new knowledge, Japanese culture allowed cinema to move to a new level. At first, the Japanese began to produce films that were somewhat reminiscent of ordinary theaters, but after a while the acting style was reformed towards realism. And in every still reflects the essence of the country, which demonstrates simplicity, contemplation and laconicism.

By the way, in the middle of the 20th century there were already six large film companies in Japan, and around the same time the creation of gorgeous films by the world famous .

Also, the art of Japan has been enriched with a new genre - which has gained worldwide popularity. At first, there was imitation of their Western colleagues, including Disney, but then the Japanese decided to enlarge the eyes of the characters in order to give their heroes distinctive features.

Japanese literature has made a real revolution in the minds of readers, captivating them with drama and frankness, as well as combining reality and mythology. And, perhaps, we should name the names of the writers who became the founders of such art in Japan - And .

Of course, we must not forget about Japan. At the beginning of the century, shakuhachi and shamisen instruments were especially popular, but they soon faded into the background. After all, Japanese hearts were conquered by synthesizers and electric guitars, which later were able to gain worldwide recognition.

The influence of culture on Japanese fashion in modern times of the 20th century

Of course, the culture and art of the 20th century around the world, as well as Japan, left their mark on fashion, which has retained its trends to this day. With the advent of anime, the Japanese, and subsequently residents of other countries, began to imitate the heroes, dressing up as cartoon characters and copying their gestures, behavior, and statements.

In some areas of Japan you can meet young people who identify themselves as belonging to a certain subculture. For example, supporters of the Gothic movement constantly dress in black outfits, lace frills, and leather gloves. Fans of RnB and hip-hop often visit solariums to give their skin an unnatural shade of tan, which is not typical for the Japanese, and also dye their hair white.

The orderliness of feudal Japan was disrupted by the squadron of the American Admiral Perry in 1854. He forced the government to allow Americans into 2 port cities. The Russians, British and French did not fail to take advantage of the slightly opened loophole. The presence of foreigners led to the loss of Japan's customs independence.

The government's policies caused discontent, which led to the assassination of the head of government. The authority of the shogunate was seriously damaged. Resistance escalated into armed confrontation with the British in 1863, and three years later a secret alliance was formed to restore imperial rule.

In November 1867, the 15-year-old Emperor Meiji ascended the throne. The Meiji Restoration promoted the adoption of military and political systems along Western lines. A constitution was adopted. At the turn of the 20th century, Japan extended dominance in the Yellow and Sea of ​​Japan and annexed Korea, Taiwan and the southern part of Sakhalin.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Japanese moved away from democracy towards militarism. Participation in the First World War, on the side of the Entente, made it possible to expand the borders of the empire and strengthen its influence in the Pacific region.

In 1931, the Japanese army invaded Manchuria. After condemnation of the actions by the League of Nations, Japan withdrew from its membership. International isolation and expansionist aspirations pushed Japan to cooperate with Nazi Germany. In 1936, Japan signed a pact with Germany directed against the Comintern. In 1941, Japan became an ally of Germany and Italy, joining the Axis countries. In 1941, Japan signed a neutrality pact with the USSR and pledged to respect the inviolability of Manchuria and Mongolia.

The conquered Chinese territories in 1895 did not satisfy the appetites of the empire. In 1937, the second Sino-Japanese War began. The invasion of China caused a negative reaction in the world. The United States imposes an oil embargo against Japan. Relations between Japan and the United States were strained to the limit.

In early December 1941, Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, the base of the US Pacific Fleet. At the same time, the Philippines, Malacca and Hong Kong are annexed. On December 8, 1941, the US Congress declared war on Japan. The United States entered World War II.

Japan's dominance in the Pacific theater of operations did not last long. Recovering from Pearl Harbor, the Americans defeated the Japanese fleet in the Coral Sea. Japan was forced to go on the defensive. By this time, she could not count on significant help from the Axis countries, since Germany was thoroughly bogged down on the territory of the USSR.

After the fall of Berlin and the surrender of Germany in May 1945, active military operations by the countries of the Anti-Hitler Coalition against Japan began. In July 1945, the emperor received an ultimatum demanding surrender, but rejected it. Soviet troops begin military operations in Mongolia and China.

On August 6, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped on the city of Hiroshima, which razed the city to the ground. The same fate befell Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. On September 2, 1945, the signature of a Japanese representative appears on the Instrument of Surrender.

The collapse forced Japan to adopt a new constitution in 1947, which declared liberal democracy and a policy of pacifism. In 1952, the San Francisco Peace Treaty was signed, putting an end to Japan's militaristic past. In 1956, Japan became a member of the UN.

The change in priorities led the Japanese economy to prosperity until 1991. From 1991 to 2000, the Japanese economy was hit by a crisis, from which it emerged with flying colors. Japan is now a leader in high technology.

For quite a long period of time, Japan's foreign policy was based on relations only with nearby countries - China and Korea. The beginning of the 16th century changed the vision of the Japanese. Missionaries from Portugal and Spain brought Christianity to the country. However, after some time, everything changed radically. The beginning of the 17th century was characterized by the almost complete isolation of Japan from trade relations with European countries. The Tokugawa shogunate, fearing that Japan would be subject to colonial conquest, adopted many decrees according to which trade was maintained only with China and Holland, and Christianity was expelled from the state.

Japan remained isolated for two hundred years, and then established relations with Russia, America, France and England. Isolated from the rest of the world, Japan tried to make up for lost time by rapidly adopting knowledge in the field of industry and jurisprudence from European countries.

Japanese foreign policy in the 19th century

At the beginning of the century, Japan continued to stay apart from European states. Significant changes in foreign policy began to occur after 1854, when Japan signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship with America. Later, a similar agreement was approved with Russia, it was called the “Simoda Treaty”. After these two events, Japan began to establish trade relations with many other European countries.

The introduction of a large number of imported goods into the country had a great influence on the domestic policy of the state. The workshops of Japanese artisans and manufacturers began to suffer significant losses, which gave rise to public unrest. In this regard, the beginning of the bourgeois Meiji revolution was laid, the main goal of which was the overthrow of the shogunate.

The second half of the 19th century was characterized by the modernization of Japan. Great efforts were made to ensure that Japan became one of the most powerful states in East Asia. At the end of the 19th century this was achieved. The desire for dominance pushed Japan into an armed battle with China, which took place in 1894-1895. In this battle, Japan won an unquestioned victory. The outcome of the war had an effect on the industrial activities of the state and gaining access to the Chinese market. After this, Japan began to revise the terms of treaties with states in the West.

Japanese foreign policy in the 20th century

At the end of the First World War, Japan was one of the countries that won. She made many acquisitions through victories over the countries of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. The morale of the Japanese army continued to grow stronger, fueling interest in new battles and victories.

Japan's foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century was affected by the consequences of the global economic crisis. The blow fell primarily on America, which at that time had close economic relations with Japan. The large-scale earthquake of 1923 and the agrarian crisis within the state played a certain role in this situation.

The consequences that developed against the backdrop of the crisis period pushed Japan to take active action. The main option for solving this situation was the Tanaka Memorandum program, which was based on inciting conflicts with mainland countries. One of the main stages of the program was the capture of Northeast China.

In the second half of the 20th century, Japan was drawn into World War II. The main opponents of the state were the USA and the USSR, and Japan was defeated in both battles. Japan's foreign policy after World War II was significantly undermined. America took over the bulk of the government functions of the state. Foreign trade, justice, control of the state budget and the rule of parliament were carried out under the direction of American authorities. It was not in the interests of the United States to abandon the Potsdam Declaration and oppose the Japanese people, who advocated democracy in the country. Communication with other countries could not be established directly by Japan; it was in the hands of the occupation authorities. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs played a symbolic role; it had no rights, it only maintained contact between the occupying forces and state headquarters. Of all the political parties in the state, there was only one - the Great Japan Political Association. But after the capitulation, other, young parties began to appear.

Japan's industry suffered little in the post-war period. Major production cuts affected only industries that satisfy the consumer demand of the population. In the first time after the occupation, Japan lagged behind other countries in its industrial development, but the United States provided Japan with economic assistance, which also played a role in the restoration of state forces.

The years 1949-1950 are characterized for Japan by the implementation of land reform. The agrarian question has always been the most acute. The Japanese government could not allow the democratic transformation of agriculture by peasants. Therefore, the reform was carried out through parliamentary means. According to the reform, the lands of the landowners were purchased by the state and then sold by the peasants. People renting land from landowners had a special advantage. Despite the fact that the reform led to some changes, it was not able to completely solve the agrarian question.

Over the past 70 years, Japan has been actively seeking to improve its position in the global space. Japan's modern foreign policy is based mainly on the destruction of stereotypes that developed after the Second World War. The main tactic that the state practices is cultural diplomacy. Japan is trying to get rid of the stigma of being an aggressor and a defeated country. The main goals that Japan set for itself were successfully achieved.

Of all the Asian countries, only Japan developed as an independent state. She strove for power and prosperity in order to take a prominent place among the European powers. To this end, the imperial government borrowed its scientific, technical, economic and political achievements from the West. At the beginning of the 20th century. Japan was already considered a great power like, for example, England, France or Russia.

Industrial engineering

After the Meiji Revolution, favorable business opportunities were created in the country. Only wealthy merchant and banking houses had the necessary capital, and they were in no hurry to invest in the construction of factories and factories. Habitual trading operations and usury brought them considerable income without additional effort and risk. In these conditions, the state played a special role.

The old road between Edo and Kyoto is one of the paintings from the series “53 Stations of the Tokaido Road”, 1833. Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858). Outstanding master of engraving. Influenced European painters, especially Van Gogh

The so-called “model enterprises” were built at the expense of the treasury. But they turned out to be unprofitable. Therefore, in 1880, most of the “model enterprises” were sold at low prices to private individuals, which, of course, stimulated entrepreneurial activity.

As a result, in a short period of time (70-90s of the 19th century), Japan acquired railways and telegraph communications, arsenals and a fleet, and modern industry. In three decades, the country has traveled a path that took European states several centuries to achieve.

Constitution of 1889

In the early 80s. A movement for a constitution began in Japan. Its participants were private entrepreneurs, yesterday's samurai who had adapted to new conditions, representatives of the Japanese intelligentsia who received a European education, and even individual people from princely families. The imperial government made a concession, and on February 11, 1889 the text of the constitution was published.

A constitutional monarchy was created in Japan. Almost unlimited power was assigned to the emperor. His person was declared “sacred and inviolable.” The government was not responsible to the created parliament. At any moment and without explanation, the emperor could suspend the work of parliament, dissolve it and convene a new one. A small part of the population enjoyed the right to vote - men over 25 years of age who paid a high tax. The Constitution formally proclaimed freedom of speech, correspondence, press, assembly and association. It significantly strengthened the monarchical system and lasted until 1946.

Influence of Western culture

The Meiji era saw changes not only in economics and politics, but also in cultural life. In 1871, a policy was proclaimed to overcome feudal backwardness and to create an “enlightened civilization” in the country. The Japanese persistently borrowed the achievements of Western culture, science and technology. Young people went to study in Europe and the United States of America. Conversely, foreign specialists were widely attracted to Japan. Professors at Japanese universities were British, Americans, French and Russians. Some fans of everything European even proposed adopting English as the national language.

“Views of Barbarian Countries” is the title of the engraving. It depicts the Port of London as it was seen by the famous Japanese artist Yoshitoro

An integral part of the transformation was school reform. Primary and secondary schools and universities were opened in the country. A law in 1872 made four-year education compulsory. Already in the early 80s. Among young Japanese it was difficult to meet an illiterate person.

By the end of the 19th century. The Japanese become aware of the best works of Western European and Russian literature. Japanese writers created a new literature that differed from the medieval one. Real life and the inner world of man were increasingly depicted. The novel genre is gaining particular popularity. The largest writer of that time was Roka Tokutomi, who was influenced by L. Tolstoy. The novel “Kuroshivo”, translated into Russian, brought him fame. In 1896, cinema was brought to Japan, and 3 years later Japanese-made films appeared.

New in the way of life of Japanese society

Under the influence of the West, various innovations were introduced into the Japanese way of life. Instead of the traditional lunar calendar, the pan-European Gregorian calendar was introduced. Sunday was declared a day off. Railway and telegraph communications, publishing houses and printing houses appeared. Large brick houses and European-style shops were built in the cities.

Changes also affected the appearance of the Japanese. The government wanted the Japanese to appear civilized in the eyes of Europeans. In 1872, the emperor and his entourage dressed in European clothes. After that, it began to spread among the urban population and much more slowly among the rural population. But one could often see a man in a kimono and trousers. Particularly difficult was the transition to European shoes, which differed from traditional Japanese ones.

Old customs were prohibited only because Europeans considered them barbaric. For example, common public baths, tattoos and others.

European hairstyles gradually came into fashion. Instead of the traditional Japanese one (long hair curled into a bun on top of the head), a mandatory short haircut was introduced. The government believed that it was more suitable for the citizens of a renewed Japan. The military were the first to part with their buns and put on their uniforms. However, civilians were in no hurry. It was only after the emperor cut his hair in 1873 that three-quarters of the male population of Tokyo followed his example.

The Japanese also borrowed from the Europeans the practice of eating meat products, which they traditionally abstained from. But everything changed after the belief spread that Europeans had achieved great success thanks to the calorie content of meat foods.

The borrowing of Western culture sometimes developed into a negative attitude towards one's own - national. There were cases of destruction of historical monuments and burning of ancient temples. But the fascination with everything European in Japan was short-lived.

Rise of nationalism

Already in the 80s. naive admiration for the West disappeared, and since the mid-90s. Japan was gripped by a wave of nationalism. Nationalists opposed borrowing from Europe. They extolled the Japanese nation in every possible way and called for expansion into the countries of Southeast Asia under the pretext of protecting this region from the West.

At school, children were raised in the spirit of national exclusivity and boundless devotion to the emperor. Schoolchildren were instilled with a sense of conviction in Japan's “sacred right” to dominate Asia. Even school lunches resembled the Japanese national flag. Pickled plums were laid out on white rice in the shape of a red circle of the sun.

The country's ruling circles used the idea of ​​Japanese national superiority over other nations to pursue an aggressive policy in the Far East and Southeast Asia.

External expansion

Japan looked with lust at its closest neighbors - Korea and China. There she could find raw materials and markets, which the rapidly developing industry so needed. The militant samurai spirit also pushed her towards an aggressive foreign policy.

Intensified penetration into Korea, which was officially considered a vassal of China, began. This was the main reason for the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, as a result of which the islands of Taiwan and Penghuledao were ceded to Japan. Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. allowed her to turn South Manchuria and Korea into her protectorates and gain ownership of South Sakhalin. During the First World War, Japan captured the Pacific islands - possessions of Germany and further strengthened its position in China.

Within a few decades, Japan became one of the world's leading powers. An aggressive foreign policy will ultimately lead this country to defeat and the national disaster of 1945.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

The history of Japanese railways began on September 12, 1872, when the first passenger train departed from Tokyo to Yokohama. The high-ranking officials invited to this celebration climbed into the carriages in the same way as a Japanese was accustomed to entering a house: before stepping on the step, each of them mechanically took off his shoes. When the delighted dignitaries disembarked in Yokohama fifty-seven minutes later, they were surprised and annoyed to discover that no one had bothered to transport and place their shoes on the platform in advance.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of Modern Times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.