Completion of the unification of Russian lands under Ivan III and Vasily III. Completion of the process of unification of Russian lands. Ivan III Reign of Ivan 3 the final stage of the unification of Rus'

This video tutorial was created specifically for self-study theme “Ivan III. Unification of Russian lands. Government reforms Ivan III". Users will learn about the accession of Ivan III, his 43-year reign and his role in the history of Russia, which was never appreciated by his descendants. Next, the teacher will talk about how all Russian lands were united.

Topic: Rus' in the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries

Lesson: Completion of the political unification of Rus'. Ivan's government reformsIII

1. Annexation of Novgorod and Rostov

After the death of Vasily II, his throne was inherited by his eldest son Ivan III (1462-1505), who, in fact, completed the process of political unification of the Russian lands into a single state. In 1462-1464. The Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Yaroslavl principalities were annexed to Moscow, and thus, only Novgorod, Tver, Rostov and Ryazan remained outside the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

At first, the Moscow prince took up the Novgorod problem in earnest, since the Novgorodians themselves gave rise to this. In Novgorod, anti-Moscow sentiments were traditionally strong, which especially intensified in the late 1460s, when Marfa Posadnitsa, the widow of the mayor Isaac Boretsky, and her sons Dmitry and Mikhail stood at the head of the anti-Moscow party of the Novgorod boyars. The main support in the fight against Moscow was the neighboring Polish-Lithuanian state: in 1468, the Novgorod boyars, in violation of the Yazhelbitsky Treaty, called the Lithuanian prince Mikhail Olelkovich to the Novgorod throne; in 1469, after the death of Bishop Jonah, a new Archbishop Theophilus was established not in Moscow, but in Kyiv, which was part of the Russian-Lithuanian metropolitanate; and finally, in 1471 they concluded an agreement with the Polish king Casimir IV (1444-1492), according to which Novgorod became his vassal.

The signing of this agreement overflowed Moscow's patience, and in the spring of 1471 Ivan III went on a campaign against Novgorod. On July 14, 1471, on the Shelon River, he smashed the Novgorod staff and captured the entire Boretsky clan and their henchmen: Martha herself was exiled to a monastery, and the rest, including her eldest son Dmitry, were executed by cutting off their heads. In August 1471, the new Novgorod leadership concluded the Korostyn Peace Treaty with Ivan III, according to which “Mr. Veliky Novgorod pledged to be persistent from Moscow” and not to come under the rule of Lithuania.

In 1474, Ivan III annexed the lands of the Rostov principality to Moscow without bloodshed, having bought their ownership rights from the local appanage princes.

In the fall of 1477, Ivan III, having received news of another victory of the anti-Moscow party, which provoked an uprising of the Novgorod mob against the Moscow officials, decided to finally deal with Novgorod and set out on a new campaign. In January 1478, the campaign was successfully completed without bloodshed. The Novgorod veche system was liquidated, the territory of the Novgorod boyar republic was declared the fatherland of the Moscow prince, and the grand-ducal governor began to rule it.

Rice. 2. Destruction of the Novgorod feudal republic ()

2. Annexation of Tver

The successful solution to the Horde problem allowed Ivan III to continue collecting Russian lands around Moscow. Tver was next in line, especially since the Tver prince Mikhail Borisovich himself provoked Ivan III to take decisive action. In 1483, having married the sister of Casimir IV, in violation of the Moscow Treaty of 1375, he entered into a dynastic alliance with the Polish king and recognized himself as his vassal. In August 1485, the Moscow army went on a campaign against Tver and, after a month-long siege, took it. The Tver prince fled to Lithuania, and his principality was liquidated and included in Moscow.

Immediately after these events, Ivan III accepted the title of Sovereign of All Rus', which had enormous foreign policy significance, since the possession of this title gave the Grand Duke of Moscow the legal right to lay claim to all Russian lands, primarily those that were part of Poland and Lithuania.

3. Main problems of historiography

When studying the history of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the creation of a single Russian state, scientists traditionally argue over three main problems:

1) on what basis this process took place;

2) how to evaluate this association;

3) is it possible to equate the concepts of “single” and “centralized” state.

It must be said that since the famous discussion about the formation of a unified Russian state (1946), our historical science (P. Smirnov, L. Cherepnin) has established the idea that the process of gathering Russian lands around Moscow took place exclusively on an economic basis, which is quite fit into Marxist theory historical materialism. However, recently a significant part of the authors (A. Sakharov, A. Kuzmin, Yu. Alekseev, V. Kobrin, A. Yurganov) say that the process of collecting Russian lands took place mainly for political reasons and was dictated primarily by the need to combat external the threat emanating from Poland and the Horde, and then those khanates that arose from its ruins.

As for the second problem, its essence lies in the fact that a number of authors (P. Smirnov) said that the process of creating Russian single state was reactionary in its essence, since it was associated not with the emergence of progressive bourgeois relations, but with the victory of the military-noble bureaucracy, which stood at the origins of serfdom and autocracy. Then, after the completion of the famous discussion devoted to the problems of the formation of the Russian unified state, the opinion about the absolute regularity, and most importantly, the progressiveness of this process, was established in Russian historical science. Although even then a number of authors (M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin), along with the positive aspects of “centralization,” also pointed out the negative aspects of this process, in particular the formation of an autocratic monarchy of the “Asian” type in Rus'.

Regarding the third problem, the essence of the disagreement comes down to the question of the synchronicity of the process of unification of Russian lands with the process of creating a Russian centralized state in the 15th century Some historians (L. Cherepnin) answered this question in the affirmative and equated the concepts of “single” and “centralized” state. Their opponents (M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin) said that in relation to this period we can only talk about the existence of one of the three main features of a centralized state - the unity of the state territory. As for the other two features - unified legal acts and national government institutions - they were formed only during the period of reforms The chosen one is pleased under Ivan the Terrible.

4. State reforms of IvanIII

The process of creating a unified Russian state put on the agenda the question of creating the first all-Russian state institutions. According to most modern historians, only the existence of two rather primitive central government bodies is known for certain - the palace, headed by the butler, who was in charge of the grand ducal domain, and the treasury, headed by the treasurer, which managed foreign policy, finances and sovereign rank, that is, military service. But on the whole, the traditional palace-patrimonial system retained its dominance in the unified Russian state. government controlled.

Under Ivan III in 1497, the first all-Russian Code of Law, consisting of 100 articles and containing norms of criminal and criminal procedural law. The authorship of this Code of Law is still the subject of scientific debate. Some historians (S. Yushkov) call it the author of the clerk Vladimir Gusev. Other experts (L. Cherepnin) argue that it was created through the efforts of three prominent members of the Boyar Duma, Prince Semyon Ryapolovsky and the boyars Ivan and Vasily Patrikeev.

Rice. 4. Code of Law 1497

Its main sources were the abridged version of the “Russian Truth” (XV century), Novgorod and Pskov court charters, current princely legislation, as well as common law and rich judicial practice. One group of articles was devoted to crimes against the person - murder, malicious slander and dishonor. Another group of articles concerned the protection of property from theft, robbery, extermination, damage, as well as its illegal use, etc. The Code of Laws for the first time established a clear system of punishments, in particular the death and “trade” (whip) executions, as well as different kinds monetary fines and penalties.

List of references for studying the topic "Complete of the unification of Russian lands. State reforms of Ivan III"

1. Zimin A. A. Russia on turn of the XV-XVI centuries. - M., 1982

2. Kuzmin A. G. History of Russia from ancient times to 1618 - M., 2003

3. Presnyakov A.E. Formation of the Great Russian State. - M., 2012

4. Sakharov A. M. Cities of North-Eastern Rus' in the XIV-XV centuries. - M., 1959

5. Tikhomirov M. N. Russia in the 16th century. - M., 1960

6. Froyanov I. Ya. Drama of Russian history: on the path to the oprichnina. - M., 2007

7. Cherepnin L.V. Formation of the Russian centralized state in the XIV-XV centuries. - M., 1960

1. Library of Yakov Krotov ().

The process of unifying the Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state was completed during the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III.

Vasily II early made his son Ivan III co-ruler of the state. He received the throne when he was 22 years old. He gained a reputation as a prudent and successful, cautious and far-sighted politician. Ivan III is one of the key figures in our history. He managed to complete the unification of northeastern Rus' almost bloodlessly. In 1468, the Yaroslavl principality was finally annexed, whose princes became service princes of Ivan III. In 1472, the annexation of Perm the Great began. Vasily II the Dark also bought half of the Rostov principality, and in 1474 Ivan II acquired the remaining part. Finally, Tver, surrounded by Moscow lands, passed to Moscow in 1485 after its boyars took the oath to Ivan III, who approached the city with a large army. In 1489, the Vyatka land, which was important in commercial terms, became part of the state. Many princes of the western Russian regions (Vyazemsky, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky) passed from Lithuania to the Moscow prince.

For a long time, the Novgorod Boyar Republic, which still had considerable power, resisted the annexation of its lands to Moscow. Fearing the loss of their privileges in the event of subordination to Moscow, part of the Novgorod boyars, led by the mayor Martha Boretskaya, entered into an agreement of vassal dependence of Novgorod on Lithuania. Having learned about the agreement between the boyars and Lithuania, Ivan III took decisive measures to subjugate Novgorod, organizing several campaigns. In the decisive battle on the Sheloni River, the Moscow prince won. In 1478, Novgorod was finally annexed to Moscow. Moscow's opponents were resettled in the center of the country. Considering the strength of Novgorod, Ivan III left a number of privileges for it: the right to communicate with Sweden, and promised not to involve Novgorodians in service on the southern borders.

The annexation of the Novgorod, Vyatka and Perm lands with the non-Russian peoples of the north and northeast living here to Moscow expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state. The princes in the annexed lands became boyars of the Moscow sovereign. These principalities were now called districts and were governed by governors from Moscow.

After the annexation of Tver, Ivan III received the honorary title “By the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Rus', Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and other lands.” Under him, the term “Russia” began to be used in relation to our state, and the double-headed eagle became the coat of arms of our country.

Vasily III continued his father's work. The son of Ivan III and Sophia Paleologus, the nieces of the last Byzantine emperor. He began the fight for the abolition of the appanage system and behaved like an autocrat. Taking advantage of the attack of the Crimean Tatars on Lithuania, Vasily III annexed Pskov in 1510. In 1514, Smolensk, conquered from the same Lithuania, became part of the Moscow state. Finally, in 1521, the Ryazan land, which was already dependent on Moscow, became part of Russia. Thus, the process of uniting northeastern and northwestern Rus' in one state was completed. The largest power in Europe was formed, which from the end of the 15th century. began to be called Russia.

A huge burden was lifted from the shoulders of our country by the liberation from the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the fall of the Golden Horde.

The Russian centralized state developed in the northeastern and northwestern lands Kievan Rus. His education was accelerated by the need to fight external dangers, especially the Golden Horde, which kept Rus' at bay for more than two hundred years. The first defeat of the Golden Horde yoke was the battle on the Kulikovo field in 1380. And only a hundred years later in 1480. It was finally overthrown. This happened after a clash between Moscow and Mongol troops on the Ugra River. Ivan III managed to win over the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, whose troops attacked the possessions of Casimir IV, who was in alliance with the horde and thereby thwarted his attack against Moscow. Simple

The main goal of Ivan III in domestic policy there was an extension of the grand ducal power to the whole of Great Russia, and ultimately to the whole of Rus'. Into his sphere political activity Thus, not only the Grand Duchy of Moscow was involved, but also many other parts of Rus'. His goals can be characterized as nationally Russian, and not specifically Moscow. The old wording in the title of the Moscow Grand Dukes, All Rus', now acquired additional meaning.

The task facing Ivan III in carrying out his national policy had two sides: firstly, he had to annex the hitherto independent Russian states to Moscow, and secondly, limit the power of his brothers and other appanage princes. As we know, he avoided hasty decisions whenever possible, preferring to move gradually and concentrate his attention on one specific problem at a time. Therefore, the process of unifying Great Russia continued throughout the reign of Ivan III, and some less significant tasks were even left to his son and successor Vasily III to solve.

Let us remember that in 1462 – the year of Ivan III’s accession to the throne – Great Russia was still far from political unity. In addition to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, there were two more great principalities (Tver and Ryazan), two principalities (Yaroslavl and Rostov) and three city-republics (Novgorod, Pskov and Vyatka).

The Grand Duchy of Moscow itself was also not completely unified. Although Ivan III's father, Vasily II, confiscated the appanages of Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaka (Galich in the Kostroma land), Ivan Andreevich Mozhaisky and Vasily Yaroslavovich Borovsky, he agreed to leave Prince Mikhail Andreevich in Vereya and Beloozero to rule there as a grand ducal vassal ("younger brother") . Mikhail addressed Vasily II as his master and “elder brother.”

In the first or second year of his reign, Ivan III, in turn, concluded an agreement with Michael on approximately the same terms as the Treaty of 1450. Michael's political dependence on the Grand Duke was reflected in the same terminology: in the Treaty of 1472, Ivan called himself Michael's "elder brother" and his "lord." Similar terms were used in the Treaty of 1482. In the Treaty of 1483, Mikhail had to recognize the son of Ivan III, Ivan the Young, as his “elder brother.” It can be seen how Ivan III consistently strengthened the power of the Grand Duke, which was reflected in the change in the “terminology of subordination.” Around 1483, Mikhail Andreevich wrote a will in which he called Ivan III not only his master, but also his sovereign; Moreover, he added the expression “All Rus'” to Ivan’s title. And what was even more important for Ivan III, he bequeathed to him the principalities of Vereiskoye and Beloozerskoye. Mikhail died in 1486, and both of his principalities then officially went to Muscovy.

All of Vasily II's brothers died in infancy (except one, who died at the age of 21) and left no offspring. Thus, during the reign of Vasily II the question of appanages within the grand-ducal family did not arise. Vasily left 5 sons, including Ivan III. The Old Russian idea, according to which each son received a share of his father's property, was so strong that Vasily II had to take it into account. In his last will and disposition, Vasily “blessed” the eldest son of Ivan III with the great principality and gave about half of the territory to his direct control: fourteen cities against twelve, divided between the other four sons.

Of the brothers of Ivan III, Yuri became the Prince of Dmitrov; Andrey Bolshoy - Prince of Uglitsky; Boris - Prince of Volotsk; Andrei Menshoi - Prince of Vologda.

Although Ivan III respected the will of his father and recognized the appanage rights of his brothers, he had no intention of expanding their domains. When Yuri Dmitrovsky, leaving no offspring, died in 1472, Ivan III ordered his inheritance to be returned to the Grand Duke as escheat. This was contrary to the ancient tradition, according to which each of the remaining brothers was entitled to a share of the property of the deceased brother. Then in 1478, Ivan Vasilyevich refused to allocate the brothers a share of the lands received from Novgorod. Ivan III's policies angered Andrei Bolshoi and Boris, and, as we have seen, they actually rebelled against him the following year. The immediate reason for this speech was the conflict with Ivan III in the case of Prince Ivan Vladimirovich Obolensky-Lyko. Prince Obolensky was the deputy of the Grand Duke in the city of Velikiye Luki. The townspeople were outraged by Obolensky's abuses, and they complained to the Grand Duke. Ivan III removed Obolensky and ordered him to be put on trial. Then the offended Obolensky left Ivan III and entered the service of Prince Boris Volotsky, taking advantage of the old boyar privilege of freedom of service. Ivan III, however, no longer recognized this principle and sent his men to capture Obolensky and forcefully bring him to Moscow for trial. The act of the Grand Duke naturally caused the indignation of princes Boris and Andrei the Bolshoi. However, in 1480, during the invasion of Khan Akhmat, Boris and Andrei, under pressure from their mother and the Rostov bishop Vassian, agreed to peace with Ivan. Ivan III made some concessions. He granted Andrey Bolshoi the important city of Mozhaisk, adding it to the Uglitsky inheritance, and Boris the small town of Vyshgorod with several villages in the Dmitrov land in addition to Volok. Both Mozhaisk and Vyshgorod were part of the inheritance of the late Prince Yuri. But despite this agreement, relations between Ivan III and the two brothers remained strained.

In 1481, Prince Andrei Menshoi of Vologda died childless. His inheritance, as before that of Yuri, passed to the Grand Duke, which could not improve the relations of Ivan III with Andrei the Bolshoi and Boris. In 1491, Andrei Bolshoi was unable to take part in the campaign against the Golden Horde. Then he and Boris were accused of treason. Ivan III forgave Boris, but Andrei was taken into custody, and his inheritance was confiscated; he died in prison in 1493. The following year, Prince Boris Volotsky died, leaving two sons. One of them was unmarried and died in 1504; the second - married, but without sons - died in 1513. This happened during the reign of Vasily III, who appropriated Volok as escheat property, which was one of those cases when Vasily III completed the work of his father.

As for external rulers, the Yaroslavl princes ceded their rights eleven years later. Died in 1456 Grand Duke Ivan Ryazansky, leaving his nine-year-old son Vasily, whom he entrusted to the care of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II. In 1464, Ivan III married his sister Anna to the young Vasily of Ryazan. After which Ryazan, although formally independent, became subordinate to Moscow. Vasily died in 1483, leaving two sons, Ivan and Fedor. The latter bequeathed his half of the Ryazan principality to Ivan III of Moscow (1503), but Ivan (V), who died in 1500, was succeeded by his son Ivan (VI).

The greatest achievement of Ivan III in the unification of Great Russia was the annexation of Novgorod (1478). Novgorod was subjugated only after a long struggle and a series of coercive measures applied to the townspeople for several years after 1478. However, the deed was done, although at the cost of destroying Novgorod traditions.

The conquest of Tver turned out to be much easier. It should be noted that Mikhail, Grand Duke of Tver (brother of Ivan III's first wife), helped Ivan III in his campaigns against Novgorod. As a reward for his help, he expected to receive part of the Novgorod territories, but was refused. Around 1483, Mikhail entered into an alliance against Moscow with Casimir of Lithuania. As soon as news of the agreement reached Ivan III, he sent troops to Tver (1484). Having received no support from Casimir, Mikhail entered into peace negotiations.

According to the Treaty of 1485, Mikhail recognized Ivan III of “All Rus'” as his master and elder brother, and Ivan the Young as his elder brother. Mikhail was forced to take an oath never to enter into any agreements with Casimir of Lithuania. Although Mikhail signed this agreement, he had no intention of fulfilling it and continued secret negotiations with Casimir. Soon, Moscow agents intercepted one of Michael's letters to Casimir, after which Ivan III personally led the army to Tver (August 24, 1485). The city surrendered on the third day of the siege, and Mikhail fled to Lithuania. To make it easier for citizens to transition to new government, Ivan III appointed a new prince to Tver - his son, Ivan the Young.

Having conquered Tver, Ivan III turned his attention to the small northern republic of Vyatka. Originally a colony of Novgorod, Vyatka gained independence at the end of the 12th century. The city of Khlynov became its capital. The Novgorodians were irritated by the loss of a valuable region, and the Vyatichi were constantly ready to repel their attempts to restore their dominance there. The Vyatichi were free people and very arrogant. They managed to quarrel with almost all their neighbors, including the Dvintsy (who were subordinate to Novgorod) and the inhabitants of the city of Ustyug, annexed to Moscow during the reign of Vasily I. The Vyatichi gradually extended their power to the south, down the Vyatka River, a tributary of the Kama. Some Finnish clans from the Votyak and Cheremis tribes became their subjects. After the formation of the Kazan Khanate, the Kazan Tatars, moving north, penetrated the region of lower Vyatka, as a result of which several clashes occurred between them and the Vyatichi.

Seeking a compromise either with Novgorod or with Kazan, the Vyatichi often turned to Moscow for help. When they realized that such assistance could threaten their independence, they instead tried to establish friendly relations with the Khanate of Kazan. During civil war in Muscovy, in 1451–52, the Vyatichi supported Dmitry Shemyaka against Vasily II. After the victory over Shemyaka, Vasily II sent a detachment to Vyatka. This first Muscovite campaign against Vyatka failed. In the second campaign, the Muscovites defeated the Vyatichi, and they gave Vasily II. oath of allegiance (1460), but soon after the departure of Moscow troops they restored their independence.

When Ivan III, in 1468, asked the Vyatichi to support the Moscow campaign against Kazan with troops, they refused and declared neutrality in the Moscow-Kazan conflict. Three years later, however, they agreed to take part in the Moscow campaign against Novgorod. This, of course, was a mistake, since, despite all the dislike for Novgorod, its very existence served as a certain limitation on Moscow’s unification policy. In 1486, the Vyatichi raided Ustyug, a possession of Muscovy. A year later, they again refused to participate in the war with Kazan. Then Ivan III asked Metropolitan Gerontius to send a message to the Vyatichi people. The Metropolitan convinced the Vyatichi people not to help Muslims against Christians and threatened them with excommunication. Having received no answer, Ivan III sent a strong army to Vyatka under the command of Prince Danila Shchenya and boyar Grigory Morozov. Tver, Ustyug and Dvina formations took part in the campaign together with the Moscow army, which included cavalry. Ivan's vassal Khan Muhammad-Emin sent 700 horsemen. Let us remember that both the Ustyugans and the Dvints had their own grievances against Vyatka and therefore were eager to punish the Vyatichi.

On August 16, 1486, the united Moscow army appeared in front of Khlynov. Moscow military leaders demanded that the Vyatichi swear obedience to Ivan III and hand over three of their leaders. Three days later they obeyed. Three leaders were transferred to the protection of Ustyug residents. This, however, was not all. On September 1, all citizens of Vyatka with their families (there were apparently several thousand of them) were ordered to leave their homes and taken to Moscow via Ustyug. In Moscow, three leaders were executed. All other Vyatichi had to enter the grand ducal service. Several were granted estates. This was the end of Vyatka.

As a result of these events, by the end of the reign of Ivan III, only part of the Ryazan principality and the city of Pskov remained independent states in Great Russia. Neither Ryazan nor Pskov posed any threat to Moscow. Pskov needed Moscow's support against the Livonian knights, and therefore one could count on his commitment to the Grand Dukes of Muscovy.

The Russian centralized state developed in the northeastern and northwestern lands of Kievan Rus, its southern and southwestern lands were included in Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. Its formation was accelerated by the need to fight external dangers, especially the Golden Horde, and subsequently the Kazan, Crimean, Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazakh khanates, Lithuania and Poland.

The formation of the Russian centralized state was based on the growth of feudal land ownership and economy, and later on the development of serfdom. The expansion of the scale of land ownership forced the feudal lords to look for ways to secure the peasants.

During feudal fragmentation peasants often moved from one principality-state to another. Only a single state could ensure that the peasants were assigned to certain feudal lords.

Thus, in contrast to the advanced countries of Western Europe, the formation of a single state in Russia took place under the complete dominance and further progress of the feudal mode of production. This led to the further establishment of serfdom in the country.

1. STAGES OF FORMATION OF A UNITED STATE

Scientists identify the following factors that influenced the formation of a unified Russian state: territorial, economic, political, ideological, personal, foreign policy.

The territorial factor includes the fact that the Moscow Principality occupied a more advantageous central position in relation to other Russian lands. The river and land routes passing through its territory gave Moscow the significance of the most important hub of trade and other connections between Russian lands.

In addition, covered from the north-west of Lithuania by the Tver Principality, and from the east and south-east of the Golden Horde by other Russian lands, the Moscow Principality was less subject to sudden devastating raids of the Golden Horde. This allowed the Moscow princes to gather and accumulate strength, gradually create superiority in material and human resources in order to act as organizers and leaders of the unification process and liberation struggle.

All this, combined with the purposeful and flexible policy of the Moscow princes in relations with the Golden Horde and other Russian lands, ultimately determined the victory of Moscow for the role of the leader and political center of the formation of a unified Russian state.

The economic factor of the unification of the Russian principalities into a single state was expressed in the fact that from the beginning of the 14th century the fragmentation of Russian lands ceased, giving way to their unification. This was caused primarily by the strengthening of economic ties between the Russian lands, which was a consequence of the general economic development countries.

At this time, intensive development of agriculture began. Agricultural production is characterized in this period by the increasing spread of the millet system, which requires constant cultivation of the land. Since the peasant always deals with only one plot, which takes a break from sowing only after a year (two-field system) or two (three-field system), there is a need to fertilize the fields. All this requires more advanced tools.

As a result, the process of separating crafts from agriculture goes deeper and deeper, which entails the need for exchange between the peasant and the artisan, that is, between the city and the village. The natural division of labor between individual regions of the country, due to their natural characteristics, forms economic ties on a scale throughout Rus'.

Strengthening economic ties also required the political unification of Russian lands. However, unlike the West, where this factor was decisive, here it was not (the single Russian market emerged only in the 17th century).

The political factor that determined the unification of the Russian lands was expressed in the aggravation of the class struggle and the strengthening of the class resistance of the peasantry.

The rise of the economy and the opportunity to obtain an ever-increasing surplus product encourage the feudal lords to intensify the exploitation of the peasants. Moreover, the feudal lords strive not only economically, but also legally to secure the peasants in their estates and estates, to enslave them. Such a policy caused natural resistance among the peasantry, which took on various forms. Peasants kill feudal lords, seize their property, and set fire to their estates.

In such conditions, the feudal lords are faced with the task of keeping the peasantry in check and completing enslavement. This task could only be accomplished by a powerful centralized state, capable of performing the main function of the exploiting state - suppressing the resistance of the exploited masses.

Economic and political factors played a leading role in the unification of Rus'. Without them, the centralization process could not have achieved any significant success. At the same time, the economic and social development of the country in itself in the XIV – XVI centuries. could not yet lead to the formation of a centralized state. Although economic ties during this period achieved significant development, they were still not broad, deep and strong enough to bind the entire country together.

This is one of the differences between the formation of the Russian centralized state and similar processes in Western Europe. There, centralized states were created in the course of the development of capitalist relations. In Rus' in the XIV - XVI centuries. There could still be no talk of the emergence of capitalism or bourgeois relations.

The ideological factor also played a significant role in the creation of a centralized state, namely that the Russian Church has always been the bearer of national Orthodox ideology, which played an important role in the formation of powerful Rus'. To build an independent state and bring foreigners into the fence christian church, for this Russian society had to strengthen its moral strength.

Historians pay great attention to the development of religious ideology, within the framework of which the theory of “Moscow - the Third Rome” is formed, which ensured a compromise between the royal power and the church, pointing out that the development of this theory took place in the conditions of an acute ideological struggle within the church itself between the Josephites and non-money-grubbers . The latter most actively used this concept to strengthen the material and political power of the church.

The personal factor also played an important role in the creation of a unified state.

Thus, historians note that all the Moscow princes before Ivan Kalita were like two peas in a pod.

In relations with the Horde, Kalita continued the line outlined by Alexander Nevsky of external observance of vassal obedience to the khans, regular payment of tribute, so as not to give them reasons for new invasions of Rus', which almost completely ceased during his reign. The Russian lands received the respite they needed to restore and boost their economy and accumulate strength for the upcoming struggle to overthrow the yoke.

The collection of tribute from the entire Russian land, carried out by Kalita with all cruelty and inexorability, contributed to the concentration of significant funds in the hands of the Moscow prince, giving him the opportunity to exert political pressure on Novgorod and other Russian lands.

The reign of Kalita laid the foundation for the power of Moscow. Kalita's son, Prince Semyon Ivanovich (1340 - 1353), had already laid claim to the title of "Grand Duke of All Rus'" and received the nickname "Proud" for his arrogance.

The foreign policy factor that accelerated the centralization of the Russian state was the threat of an external attack, which forced the Russian lands to unite in the face of a common enemy.

It is characteristic that only when the formation of the Russian centralized state began did the defeat of the Golden Horde on the Kulikovo Field become possible. And when Ivan III managed to gather almost all the Russian lands and lead them against the enemy, the yoke was finally overthrown.

2. MOSCOW AS A CENTER FOR THE UNIFICATION OF Rus'

The process of collecting land began at the turn of the 13th – 14th centuries. under the son of Alexander Nevsky, Prince Daniil, continued under Ivan Kalita (1325 - 1340), Dmitry Donskoy (1359 - 1389), Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and ended mainly under his son Vasily III(1505 – 1533). During the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III alone, the territory of Rus' grew more than 6 times.

At the stage of gathering Rus' characteristic feature there was the formation of large feudal centers in North-Eastern Rus' and the selection of the strongest among them. The main rivals were Moscow and Tver. But they claimed the role of leader and Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan.

The principality of Vladimir was considered the center of Rus'. The label for the principality gave its owner power over all of Russia (that is, the northeastern and northwestern principalities - Novgorod the Great and Pskov, and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself).

However, Moscow still becomes the center of unification processes.

The decisive role in eliminating the independence of several dozen independent principalities and the formation of a single state (Muscovite Rus') was played by Moscow, a small town in the Vladimir principality. This was initially facilitated by certain reasons, and, above all, beneficial geographical position cities.

Moscow was surrounded by dense forests and fenced off from the Golden Horde by the Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod principalities. From the attacks of the Germans, Swedes and Lithuanians, Moscow was defended by Novgorod, Pskov and the Smolensk principality. Therefore, people left eastern and western oppressors and settled in the city itself and villages near Moscow, contributing to the economic growth of this region.

Moscow stood at the crossroads of trade routes (land and water). Novgorod merchants sailed along the Moscow River on ships to the Volga and further to the east. Merchants passed by Moscow from north to south, to the Crimea. Greek and Italian merchants came to Moscow from the south. Traders stopped in Moscow and exchanged goods. Moscow, becoming an important trading center, grew and became richer.

Secondly, the reason for the rise of Moscow was the purposeful and flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who used various methods to expand and strengthen their principality. Armed seizure, purchase of lands of spiritual and secular feudal lords were widely used, new territories were captured with the help of the Horde, the increase in the size of the principality was also facilitated by the resettlement of the population from the Moscow region to other regions with subsequent annexation, and the Rostov principality voluntarily entered the Moscow principality in 1474.

The third reason for the successful policy of the Moscow princes was the support of Moscow by the church, since the princes skillfully attracted it to their side.

The Moscow principality especially strengthened under the son of Daniil Alexandrovich Ivan Kalita (1325 - 1340).

Ivan Kalita laid the foundation for the power of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow principality became the strongest in Rus'. We can distinguish three most important areas of Ivan Kalita’s political activity. Ivan I sought to strengthen the prestige of his power and gain the support of the church. He succeeded. Since 1326, Moscow has become the religious center of Rus'; Metropolitan Peter moved his residence there from Vladimir.

Defending the interests of the Russian land, Ivan Kalita established good relations with the Golden Horde Khan and deftly used his power to his advantage. He often went to Sarai and always brought valuable gifts to the khan and his wives. He helped the khan suppress the uprising in Tver in 1327. For this he received a label for a great reign. Moscow became the political center of the Russian lands.

Relying on the authority of the church, Ivan Kalita consistently sought the rise and expansion of his principality and acted as an exemplary organizer of his inheritance. He brought the Rostov, Belozersk and Yaroslavl principalities under his influence, strengthened his influence in Novgorod, Uglich, Galich.

In the 50s - 70s, under the son of Ivan II the Red Dmitry (1359 - 1389), the struggle between Moscow and Tver for the label of the Vladimir principality intensified. Tver was supported by the Lithuanian prince Olgerd, who made campaigns against Moscow three times (in 1368, 1370, 1372).

Moscow Prince Dmitry was supported by Metropolitan Alexey (the church had long supported the policies of the Moscow princes) and the Moscow boyars, who did not want to come under the authority of the Tver prince. Moscow's leadership was already undeniable. The Moscow prince was supported by almost all of North-Eastern Rus'. In 1376, as a result of a military campaign against Tver and its capitulation, the Vladimir table was recognized as belonging to the Moscow princes.

The victory of Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo, which took place on the day of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary on September 8, 1380 on the right bank of the Don, also played a major role in strengthening the formation of a centralized state. It had enormous political significance. Although dependence on the Horde still remained, the Horde recognized Moscow as an independent national capital. The amount of tribute to the Horde khan was reduced. The Moscow princely dynasty achieved recognition from the Horde of its right to a great reign as a “fatherland”. Dmitry Donskoy for the first time transferred power to his son Vasily without the khan's label.

New expansions of the territory of the Moscow principality in the eastern and northeastern directions occurred during the reign of Vasily I (1389 - 1425), the son of Dmitry Donskoy. The Tver principality was surrounded on all sides by the lands of the Moscow prince, which sealed its fate. Vasily I made an attempt, fighting the Horde, to strengthen the alliance with Lithuania by marrying the Lithuanian princess Sofya Vitovna. But soon Lithuania betrayed Moscow. As a result, in 1402, Vasily I paid the ruler of the Horde, Edigei, who had ravaged the Moscow lands during the raid, a huge indemnity of 3 thousand rubles. But, having gathered its strength, Moscow repelled the new invasion of Edigei.

The new order of succession to the throne (from father to son, and not from older brother to younger, which existed earlier) did not immediately take hold in Rus'. The reign of Dmitry Donskoy's grandson Vasily II (1425 - 1462) was marked by a bloody 30-year feudal war. Claims to power in Moscow were made by the uncle of Vasily II - Prince of Galicia Yuri Dmitrievich and his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka.

Under Vasily II, the dependence of the church on the diocese of Constantinople ceased. In 1442, a council of Russian clergy independently appointed Metropolitan Jonah. The Russian Church became autocephalous. The Moscow Metropolitanate now became directly dependent on the strengthened power of the Grand Duke.

After the death of Vasily II in 1462, the Moscow throne was taken by his eldest son Ivan III (1462 - 1505). He was actually the creator of the Moscow state. By the time Ivan III seized the throne, the territory of the Moscow principality far exceeded the possession of the rest of the Russian princes.

3. COMPLETION OF THE UNIFICATION OF RUSSIAN LANDS INTO A SINGLE CENTRALIZED STATE

Ivan III made a great contribution to the creation of a centralized state.

The territory of the Moscow principality required centralized management. Supreme power belonged to the Moscow prince. He received the right to disgrace the boyars, confiscate their property, grant them new estates, and remove the boyars from public service.

Under Ivan III, the Boyar Duma was formed. The number of Moscow boyars began to include princes of previously independent principalities, i.e. former appanage rulers turned from vassals into subjects of Moscow.

A Palace was created, which was in charge of the grand ducal lands, and also dealt with litigation regarding land ownership.

The complication of public administration was reflected in the creation of the Treasury. The treasury performed financial functions, was the state chancellery and was in charge of foreign policy issues (in the middle of the 16th century it broke up into orders). The leading role in the apparatus was played by clerks (scribes). They regulated financial relations, dealt with embassy local, yam and other affairs.

Administratively, the country was divided into counties, camps, and volosts, headed by governors and volostels. They received the territory for “feeding”, i.e. took for themselves court fees and part of the taxes collected in this territory.

The growth of the authority of the Moscow prince was facilitated by the second marriage of Ivan III to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine Paleologus, Sophia in 1472. This marriage contributed to the rise of Rus', but did not realize the Pope’s plans for the unification of Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

Under Ivan III, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania laid claim to the lands of Veliky Novgorod. In Novgorod itself there was also a pro-Lithuanian orientation among the boyars, led by the widow of the Novgorod mayor Marfo Boretskaya.

In 1471, the Novgorod nobility called a Lithuanian governor, a protege of the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV, to rule the city. Ivan III undertook a series of campaigns against Novgorod in 1471, 1475, 1478, in which the Moscow prince was victorious. Novgorodians recognized Ivan III as their sovereign, political system Novgorod was liquidated, the veche was cancelled, the veche bell was taken to Moscow. Instead of mayors and thousanders, Moscow governors began to rule the city.

Pskov retained self-government. But his policy was under the strict control of the Moscow prince.

Under Ivan III, the policy of annexing appanage principalities to Moscow was consistently pursued. Small appanage princes went into the service of the Moscow prince, and their appanages were transformed from independent lands into fiefdoms. So the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities joined Moscow.

Tver Prince Mikhail Borisovich decided to strengthen his alliance with Lithuania in order to resist Moscow. Having learned about this, Ivan III began a campaign against Tver and in 1485 finally annexed the Tver lands to Moscow.

Although the Ryazan principality formally retained its independence until 1521, it was actually ruled by the Moscow prince.

Consolidating what had been achieved, Ivan III began to be called “Sovereign of All Rus'” instead of “Grand Duke”. At the end of the 15th century, a new name for the country appeared - Russia. The attributes of supreme power were formed earlier. The double-headed eagle - the Byzantine coat of arms became the coat of arms of Moscow Rus'.

During the reign of Vasily III (1505 - 1533), the unification of Russian lands was completed. He annexed the Pskov land, conquered Smolensk from Lithuania, and annexed the Ryazan principality. So, a single Russian state emerged with its capital in Moscow. It became the largest power on the European continent.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea of ​​Moscow as the “third Rome” took shape. It was formulated by Abbot Philotheus in his letter to Vasily III. Philotheus believed that the world center of Christianity consistently moved from Rome to Constantinople, and from there to Moscow. Moscow was the “third Rome”, and there would never be a fourth. The statement about Moscow - the “third Rome” was intended to serve the exaltation of the Moscow sovereigns.

The activities of Ivan III and Vasily III reflected the peculiarities of the formation of Moscow Rus'. The Russian unified centralized state was created as a feudal state in conditions of strengthening the feudal lords' ownership of land, the enslavement of peasants, and their struggle against serfdom with the insignificant role of cities.

The intensified process of unification of Russian lands allowed the Russian princes to pursue an active foreign policy. The main directions of Russia's foreign policy remained the struggle for the final overthrow of the yoke of the Golden Horde and the establishment of relations with the Kazan and Crimean khanates that separated from its composition, the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the return of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands it had seized, the struggle with the Livonian Order for access to the Baltic to the sea.

Under Ivan III, Rus' took shape not only as a single state, but also as a sovereign state. In November 1480, as a result of the “great stand” on the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka), the Mongol yoke was finally eliminated. At the end of the 15th century, the Seversky and part of the Smolensk lands, which previously served Lithuania, became part of Russia; later Russia would again lose these lands. Ivan III did not allow Russia to be drawn into the anti-Ottoman League of Christian Sovereigns, which was created by the Pope. He installed diplomatic relations with Italy, Germany, Hungary, Denmark, Turkey.

CONCLUSION

The formation of a single state is natural in the history of the country. It was prepared by the long-term socio-economic and political development of Rus'. Despite the enormous destruction of the economy and culture caused by the Tatars from the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries, it began to recover Agriculture, cities were rebuilt, trade was revived.

Significant changes have occurred in the main sphere of production. Agriculture became more productive. Rich grain buyers appeared locally.

The creation of a single centralized state was influenced by the following factors: territorial, economic, political, ideological, personal, foreign policy.

The most important of them were economic and political factors.

During the first period of the formation of a single centralized state in Rus' (beginning of the XIV - mid-XIV centuries), large feudal centers were formed in north-eastern Rus' (Tver, Moscow principalities, etc.) and the separation of the strongest from them - the future core and political center in the formation of a centralized state.

The first period ends with the Principality of Moscow becoming the strongest. Based on this, it was in the 60s - 70s. XIV century defeated its main opponents: Tver, Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality.

The second period of formation of a single centralized state occurred in the second half of the 14th century - the 50s. XV centuries By this time, the Principality of Moscow had accumulated such an amount of human, material and political resources that it needed minimal support in the struggle for unification. And his opponents were forced to seek outside help. The third forces were the Horde and Lithuania. During this period, Moscow began to unite the lands around itself. The annexation of the principalities meant their loss of state sovereignty. During this period, Moscow took the lead in the fight against the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

In the third period (the reign of Ivan III and partially the reign of Vasily III), the process of territorial unification continues. This process is associated with endless wars with Lithuania, because Russian lands began to come back under the rule of Moscow. During this period it was liquidated Tatar-Mongol yoke. Begins to form a new one state mechanism. The formation of a single centralized state - Muscovite Rus' - is being completed. It was during this period that a new name for the country appeared - Russia.

Under Ivan III, the annexation of appanage lands to Moscow continued actively. Those of the small Yaroslavl and Rostov princes who still retained their independence before Ivan III, under Ivan, all transferred their lands to Moscow and beat the Grand Duke so that he would accept them into his service. Becoming Moscow servants and turning into boyars of the Moscow prince, these princes retained their ancestral lands, but not as appanages, but as simple estates. They were their private owners, and the Moscow Grand Duke was already considered the “sovereign” of their lands. Thus, all the small estates were collected by Moscow, leaving only Tver and Ryazan. These “great principalities,” which had once fought against Moscow, were now weak and retained only a shadow of their independence. The last Ryazan princes, two brothers, Ivan and Fyodor, were nephews of Ivan III (sons of his sister Anna). Like their mother, they themselves did not leave Ivan’s will, and the Grand Duke, one might say, himself ruled Ryazan for them. One of the brothers (Prince Fyodor) died childless and bequeathed his inheritance to his uncle the Grand Duke, thus voluntarily giving half of Ryazan to Moscow. Another brother (Ivan) also died young, leaving a little son named Ivan, for whom his grandmother and her brother Ivan III ruled. Ryazan was under the complete control of Moscow. Prince Mikhail Borisovich obeyed Ivan III and Tver. The Tver army even went with the Muscovites to conquer Novgorod. But later, in 1484-1485, relations deteriorated. The Tver prince made friends with Lithuania, thinking of receiving help from the Lithuanian Grand Duke against Moscow. Ivan III, having learned about this, started a war with Tver and, of course, won. Mikhail Borisovich fled to Lithuania, and Tver was annexed to Moscow (1485). This is how the final unification of northern Rus' took place.

Unification of North-Eastern Rus' by Moscow 1300-1462

Moreover, the unifying national policy of Moscow attracted such service princes to the Moscow sovereign who belonged not to northern Rus', but to the Lithuanian-Russian principality. Princes Vyazemsky, Odoevsky, Novosilsky, Vorotynsky and many others. others, sitting on the eastern outskirts of the Lithuanian state, abandoned their Grand Duke and went over to the Moscow service, subordinating their lands to the Moscow Prince. It was this transition of the old Russian princes from the Catholic sovereign of Lithuania to the Orthodox prince of northern Rus' that gave the Moscow princes reason to consider themselves sovereigns of the entire Russian land, even that which was under Lithuanian rule and, although not yet united with Moscow, should, according to them opinion, to unite in the unity of faith, nationality and the old dynasty of St. Vladimir.