Abstract on the topic: “Congenital and acquired forms of behavior”

Introduction

Behavior is understood as a certain organized activity that connects the organism with the environment. While in humans the internal plane of consciousness is differentiated from behavior, in animals the psyche and behavior form an immediate unity, so the study of their psyche must be included as a component in the study of their behavior.

In the wide variety of specific acts of behavior that are observed in individuals at different stages of the evolutionary ladder, three main types of behavior, different in their psychological nature, are usually distinguished: instinctive behavior, skills and rational behavior. The efforts of researchers were initially aimed mainly at identifying their distinctive features and distinguishing them from each other. However, at present, the question of their interrelations arises with no less insistence. Only by revealing their differences, and their interrelations and mutual transitions, only by understanding how these forms of behavior, different in their psychological nature, are intertwined in specific behavior into a complex unity, functioning one within the other, can one understand their true nature and the true paths of their development.

The development of psychologically different forms of behavior occurs as a result of the struggle between two antagonistic, internally contradictory tendencies of heredity and variability, fixity And lability. In each form of behavior, both one and the other, both fixity and lability, are represented to one degree or another, but their ratio, their measure, changes during development, and this change in their measure leads at some key points of development to qualitative changes of the type behavior.

The purpose of the work is to consider congenital and acquired forms of behavior. Objectives: firstly, characterize the concept of behavior, then consider its types such as innate and acquired.

1. Concept of behavior

1.1 Concept of behavior

The need for something to maintain the life and development of the organism causes a special state called need. A complex complex of adaptive motor acts aimed at satisfying the body’s needs and manifested in purposeful activity is called behavior. Behavior is a combination of physiological and mental processes.

Translating all this into a more understandable language, we can say that the need for food in a wolf causes a great variety of different movements aimed at searching for prey and hunting it, as well as absorbing food and satisfying the existing need. All this can be called hunting behavior.

In the broadest terms, behavior can be divided into two types: innate and acquired, but there is no clear boundary between them, and most behavioral reactions of higher organisms undoubtedly contain elements of both types.

1.2 Main groups of behavior

The successful life of all living beings, including insects, is largely due to the variety of forms and mechanisms of their behavior. There are different ways to classify behavior. This is due to the large number of criteria that can be used as its basis.

One of the generally accepted classifications unites all forms of animal behavior into three main groups: individual, where their individual behavioral characteristics are manifested, reproductive - relationships between males and females, parents and children, and social - behavior between members of the animal community and interspecific relationships.

Individual behavior is associated primarily with food acquisition (finding, grasping, holding prey and subsequent manipulation of it), defensive (protective) and other actions. For example, representatives of some species of dragonflies, unable to quickly escape from an attack, protect themselves with a caustic liquid. When lizards or other animals try to grab them, the insects emit streams of orange liquid. Scattering at high speed at a distance of 40-50 cm, it causes severe skin burns.

Reproductive behavior is a complex complex of behavior associated with the formation of marriages, the construction of dwellings, the breeding of offspring, their feeding, protection, education, etc. A number of insect species are characterized by complex active care for the new generation, such as, for example, domestic red cockroaches. The female carries the capsule with the testicles for almost a month until the embryos develop. And when a signal is received that the time has come for the children to leave the testicles, she climbs into the gap, deftly unhooks the capsule and bites off the side scar. The mother strokes the little white cockroaches with black eyes that appear with her antennae and pushes them towards specially prepared crumbs of food. And then she leads them from crevice to crevice, teaching them to get food. Interestingly, several females of a group of cockroaches unite to raise babies, which helps their survival even in the most difficult habitat conditions.

Social behavior is characterized by various types of interaction of animals in a community of their own kind and interspecific relationships between individuals.

Social behavior is inherent mainly in social insects. In their communities there are both separately growing and reproducing individuals, and their naturally developing and reproducing life organizations.

2. Congenital and acquired forms of behavior

2.1 Innate behaviors

Innate behavior refers to those forms of behavior that are genetically programmed and which are almost impossible to change. Innate forms of behavior have developed and improved over many generations through natural selection, and their main adaptive value is that they contribute to the survival of the species. Innate forms of behavior include unconditioned reflexes and instincts.

To carry out innate reflexes, the body has ready-made reflex arcs . The centers of unconditioned reflexes are located in the spinal cord and in the brain stem, i.e. in the lower parts of the central nervous system. For their implementation, the participation of the cerebral cortex is not necessary. An important role in the mechanism of unconditioned reflexes belongs to feedback - information about the results and degree of success of the action performed. Thanks to unconditioned reflexes, the integrity of the body is preserved, the constancy of the internal environment is maintained, and reproduction occurs. Unconditioned reflexes underlie all behavioral reactions of animals and humans.

The implementation of innate unconditioned reflexes is determined by the presence of corresponding needs that arise as a result of a temporary disruption of the internal constancy (homeostasis) of the body or as a result of complex interactions with the outside world.

We can say that a change in the internal constancy of the body - an increase, for example, in the amount of hormones in the blood - leads to the manifestation of sexual reflexes, and an unexpected rustle - the influence of the external world - to alertness and the manifestation of an indicative reflex . Therefore, we can believe that the emergence of an internal need is actually a condition for the implementation of an unconditional reflex and, in a certain sense, its beginning.

Innate behavior is also called instinctive. Instinctive behavior is built mainly according to a hereditarily determined program and does not require special training or training for its full implementation. It corresponds to basic innate or instinctive actions.

The concept of instinct (from the Latin instinctus - urge) appeared in the works of philosophers back in the 3rd century BC. It means the innate ability of living beings to perform certain stereotypical actions due to internal motivation according to a certain hereditary program. IN modern science The concept of “instinct” is usually avoided due to the diversity and vagueness of its interpretation. The more commonly used concept is “instinctive behavior,” which is understood as an innate species-typical (typical for a given species) complex of behavioral acts.

The instinctive manifestations of living beings are characterized by amazing complexity and purposefulness, which often defies scientific understanding.

2.2 Learned behavior

Learned behavior refers to all forms of behavior that are formed as a result of individual experience living organism. The basis of acquired forms of behavior is learning.

Learning is the ability to acquire one’s own life experience, leading to adaptive changes in the behavior of an animal. The ability to learn is usually associated with the behavior of vertebrates, and especially mammals, but it is found in all animals, with the exception of protozoa, coelenterates and echinoderms, in which the nervous system is absent or its organization is very primitive. The physiological basis of learning has not yet been sufficiently studied. Learning can occur in many different ways. Let's name some of them.

1. Habituation or habituation- a process as a result of which already existing reactions are lost. Animals don't get used to it to react to stimuli that are frequently encountered but that are of little importance to them. For example, young animals often show anxiety in response to many stimuli, but they quickly become accustomed to most of these stimuli and stop responding to them. Habituation is beneficial in that it enhances the animal’s reactions to new stimuli that stand out from those to which the animal has already become accustomed. In addition, not reacting to indifferent stimuli helps to save energy that could be spent on useless behavioral acts.

Behavior based on learning (learning) is formed gradually with the accumulation of individual experience and the acquisition of certain skills. The ability for various forms of learning is “turned on” by the hereditary program at a certain stage of development or under the influence of certain factors.

Elementary rational activity manifests itself in some animals in a new, non-standard situation and is carried out in the absence of preliminary training. The ability for such activity is inherent in the animal’s hereditary program and is realized only under its guidance, providing the individual with the opportunity to make emergency, unconventional decisions.

The actual behavior of animals, including insects, most often represents a complex interweaving of basic instinctive actions and acquired individual experience.

Conclusion

Depending on the changing relationship between structure and function and behavior during the biological development of the psyche, various substages are distinguished, namely:

1. Instinctive forms of behavior in a narrower, specific sense of the word, i.e. forms of behavior with such a dependence of function on structure, in which a change in behavior in relation to vital situations is mainly possible only as a result of a change in the hereditary organization.

2. Individually variable forms of behavior.

Individually variable forms of behavior, in turn, are divided into: a) those that are based on functional stereotypes developed in the process of individual development, and adapt to the current situation only insofar as it is a repetition of previous situations: individually variable forms of behavior such as skills ; b) related to the development of intellectual and rational activity.

It is possible to establish what is innate and what is acquired in the behavior of an animal only based on genetic positions. Behavioral manifestations, like morphological characteristics, are determined by the genetic program of the animal, but usually they are reproduced in a new organism under the influence of some factors. To isolate individuals from these factors, experiments mainly use the method of raising young fish without contact with parents and members of the community. Then instinctive signs of animal behavior appear, which are independent of learning and the acquisition of individual experience. And if an animal is raised without isolation from its traditional environment, then those additional characteristics that can only develop through training will appear. In some cases, this also happens with the participation of elementary thinking. But in any case, the ability to acquire new individual characteristics is genetically determined.

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Hereditarily fixed reflexes underlie adaptive behavioral acts that manifest themselves without prior training. These reflexes are similar in all representatives of this species. At the same time, some innate reactions in representatives of different breeds of dogs can vary significantly (for example, in hunting and herding dogs).

The animal's body is well adapted to environmental conditions throughout its life, including during the prenatal period of development. It has been shown that in mammalian fetuses, in accordance with the unfolding of the genetic program, the central nervous system gradually matures and first generalized and then specialized reflex reactions to various stimuli arise. By the time of birth, complexes of central and peripheral nervous formations and associated apparatuses are formed, providing, during the neonatal period, first less complex and then increasingly complex specialized behavioral acts. They are aimed at interacting with the mother and surviving in the rather greenhouse conditions of the den.

I.P. Pavlov considered innate behavior as a set of complex unconditioned reflexes (instincts). He was primarily interested in the relationship between inherited and acquired reactions during life, studied under laboratory experimental conditions. Ethologists who study primarily the deployment of the genetic program in the natural habitat describe behavior from slightly different positions. Currently, the contradictions between these approaches are being smoothed out and attempts are being made to create a synthetic theory of behavior.

Can the manifestation of unconditioned reflex activity be considered unchanged in all individuals? Obviously this question should be answered in the negative. In accordance with the genetic program underlying development, all manifestations of an individual’s life activity are individual character. This indisputable position also applies to innate reactions to various stimuli. Thus, each animal has different thresholds for the perception of signals associated with the functioning of the sensory organs. Depending on the individual characteristics of the central and peripheral nervous systems, on the level of production of biologically active substances, innate reactions to certain stimuli manifest themselves differently. At the same time, the limits of variation in these reactions in representatives of a certain breed of dog are much narrower than in individuals of different breeds.

Environmental factors largely determine the characteristics of innate behavior. It can undergo significant changes as a result of influences on the animal’s body at different stages of life, but most of all during sensitive (critical) periods, sometimes lasting only a few days (and sometimes hours). At this time, certain external stimuli can modify the nature of the animal's response at subsequent stages of life. For example, unfavorable living conditions for females at the end of pregnancy (diet insufficient in calories or unbalanced in composition, stressors) lead to disruption of the sexual behavior of male offspring, who, upon becoming adults, behave in many respects according to the “female type.” It has been shown that such loss in male puppies can be prevented by administering tyrosine (an amino acid used in the biosynthesis of catecholamines) or a beta-endorphin blocker - naltrexone. Good results have also been obtained with injections of the male sex hormone testosterone. We must not forget, however, that when correcting one important function with such influences, an adverse effect on the development of others may appear.

Nature has provided protective mechanisms that mitigate the effect of damaging factors on the developing organism. Thus, when there is a deficiency of essential amino acids in food, they are mainly supplied to the fruits. However, offspring are not protected from the consequences of stressors even with short-term isolation from the mother during the neonatal period. Such exposure leads to a slowdown in body weight growth and irreversible changes in the structure of the brain, which will manifest themselves in behavioral defects. This is why it is important not to rush into weaning puppies from their mother.

The diverse reactions of a mature organism to external and internal signals can change under the influence of excessively strong early influences on the body. They depend on many factors that are important for higher nervous activity. These factors include: the number of puppies in the litter, the mother’s attention, and the external environment enriched or depleted in various signals. Even before birth, the fetal body is exposed to chemical influences as a result of environmental and food pollution or if the puppy is treated with any pharmacological drugs. Being relatively harmless for an adult, they are capable of distorting the development of the genetic program and changing the rate of maturation of the brain and endocrine glands. Hypoxia, a condition that occurs when there is insufficient oxygen supply to the body, has serious consequences. It often occurs during abnormal births, as a result of which brain development is disrupted, and animals exhibit deviations from normal behavior throughout their lives. Improving metabolism in nerve cells and normalizing brain function in these cases can be achieved by administering nootropic drugs to puppies, in particular piracetam (nootropil) and dimethylamine ethanol. Injections of ACTH-like peptides (ACTH 1-10, ACTH 4-10) also have a beneficial effect.

The above examples show that unconditioned reflexes are characterized by a certain variability associated with the details of the “biography” of the individual. They undergo changes in accordance with the state of the body and, above all, the control nerve centers. However, unconditioned reflexes as an innate form of behavior are relatively constant in comparison with acquired - conditioned reflexes, i.e. stereotypically manifest in response to irritation of certain nervous devices - receptors.

Many unconditioned reflexes have been described that are associated with various aspects of behavior and the regulation of vital systems of the body in accordance with the biological role of these reflexes, the type of stimuli that cause them, levels of control (connection with certain parts of the brain), and the order in which they occur in a specific adaptive act; several classifications have been proposed. I.P. Pavlov identified food, defensive, orientation, parental, and child reflexes, each of which can be divided into more specific ones. For example, food reflexes include reactions associated with search, extraction, inspection, grasping, tasting, absorption of food, secretion of digestive juices, movements of the stomach and intestines, etc.

When analyzing innate forms of behavior, the following reflexes are described: goals, collecting, caution, freedom, self-preservation (positive and negative), aggressive, watchdog, submission, sexual (male and female), play, parental, group (zoosocial), migration, saving strength , sleep regulation, restorative, imitation.

Unconditioned reflexes can be considered according to their level of complexity. The simplest include reactions of local significance, for example, blinking when a speck gets into the eye or withdrawing a burned paw. Coordination reflexes are more complex, as an example - a reflex that coordinates the contraction of flexor and extensor muscles. Integrative unconditioned reflexes include complexes of movements and accompanying changes in the body.

Mechanisms of nervous regulation different levels closely intertwined. The complexity of the organization of innate forms of behavior is clearly illustrated by the example of the salivary unconditioned reflex, which in the past was considered to be quite simple. In fact, it depends on the activity of many receptors, fibers of several cranial nerves, and many parts of the central nervous system. Salivation is associated with eating behavior, digestive processes, the work of the endocrine glands, blood circulation, breathing, and thermoregulation.

The relativity of any classification can be clearly seen in the example of one of the most important unconditioned reflexes - the indicative one. Due to its special role in behavior and connection with conditioned reflex activity, further attention will be paid to it.

The main material obtained in the initial period of studying higher nervous activity was based on the analysis of the autonomic conditioned reflex - salivation, caused by a variety of external signals that were not previously associated with this type of activity. Today it is called a classical, or conditioned reflex of the first type, which is a copy of the unconditioned one. Based on innate motor activity, conditioned reflexes of the second type (instrumental) are formed. They can correspond to the unconditioned ones (example: moving away from the flame of a fire before it burns, i.e. in response to the action of light and other conditioned stimuli) or differ significantly from them (example: standing on the hind legs, reinforced by giving food). Usually, a complex of instrumental and classical conditioned reflexes is formed simultaneously, i.e. the same signals cause a motor response and a variety of reactions from the respiratory, cardiovascular and digestive systems. The formation and extinction of these conditioned reflexes often occurs at different times.

A complex of unconditioned and conditioned, classical and instrumental reflexes fixed over a long period of time forms a system called a dynamic stereotype. It is produced with difficulty and has a certain inertness. Automatic skills associated with this stereotype can be gradually extinguished when living conditions change. Based on where the signal comes from to the nerve centers - from the external or internal environments, exteroceptive and interoceptive conditioned reflexes are distinguished. In the first case, visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, temperature, tactile conditioned reflexes are distinguished, in the second - mechanical, chemical, osmotic, temperature. In general, interoceptive conditioned reflexes (associated with irritation internal organs) are produced more slowly than exteroceptive ones. However, this pattern is relative. The formation of conditioned reflexes is determined by the correspondence of this act to the natural relationships of the body and the external environment. For example, an innate change in the choice of certain foods, which occurs when the chemoreceptors of the stomach and intestines are irritated, very quickly becomes a conditioned reflex and takes place already upon stimulation of the mechano-receptors of these organs.

Here we should dwell on the category of natural conditioned reflexes, which have much in common with imprinting. They are associated with the action of environmentally adequate stimuli. It has been shown, in particular, that the smell of meat does not cause an innate reaction of salivation in a puppy, but after a single feeding of raw meat, a conditioned reflex secretion of saliva to its smell is produced, which does not disappear throughout life. Unlike natural ones, artificial conditioned reflexes, which are based on a connection between stimuli and innate reactions that are not connected by natural relationships, are formed slowly.

Conditioned reflexes can arise when combined with reinforcement of simple signals, their complexes (sound + light), and sequential stimuli. When the signal and the unconditioned stimulus coincide in time, a conditioned reflex is developed. If you regularly, at certain intervals, give reinforcement, then later, after their expiration, an unconditioned reaction (conditioned reflex for time) appears without any additional influences.

The central nervous system is constantly bombarded with signals from the external and internal environments. The cerebral cortex simultaneously evaluates these signals in a given life situation. Consequently, the reactions caused by conditioned signals are determined by this assessment, and if the signals did not cause the expected effect, then one integral state was replaced by another (for example, there was a transition from food to defensive or sexual behavior). Typically, such a change depends on many stimuli (pain, noise, smell, etc.). Their appearance during dog training can seriously complicate the development of the necessary skill. External (unconditional) inhibition plays a significant role in this higher departments brain Thanks to it, the current activity stops, indicative-exploratory behavior manifests itself and the transition to another type of activity. External inhibition is thus the most important regulator of the relationship between the organism and the environment, since it “turns the needle” towards the most important form of behavior in a given situation.

In the case of the action of super-strong stimuli, extreme inhibition develops in the cells of the cerebral cortex, which in extreme cases manifests itself in complete immobility - stupor. This condition can interrupt the dog's performance of an important task. It is possible to increase the performance of cortical cells by introducing pharmacological substances, thereby preventing the development of extreme inhibition. These include caffeine, phenamine, sydnocarb, combined with tranquilizers. Individual selection of these drugs and their dosage is required. In some cases, their administration can lead to disruption of higher nervous activity. It is also difficult to predict what long-term consequences are possible with one or another pharmacological effect.

Internal (conditioned) inhibition plays an important role in the regulation of acquired adaptive activity. If a dog with a well-developed food salivary conditioned reflex is given a conditioned signal without reinforcing it with feeding, then the secretion of saliva will gradually decrease. The internal inhibition underlying this phenomenon is called extinction. It manifests itself in waves - the inhibited reflex can appear again.

Another type of internal inhibition, differentiation, eliminates reactions to non-reinforced stimuli that are close to the reinforced one, which makes it possible to more accurately tune behavior to a biologically important stimulus. In puppies, this type of inhibition matures gradually, so they often exhibit a generalized (generalized, nonspecific) reaction. Adult dogs differentiate between significant and insignificant signals well (manifestations of this phenomenon in dogs are colorfully described by K. Lorenz).

Internal inhibition also includes conditioned inhibition - the absence of a reaction to a positive conditioned signal combined with an indifferent stimulus. Thus, if the sound signaling food is combined with the application of a cold plate to the skin, conditioned reflex salivation is not caused.

Currently, the mechanisms of the conditioned reflex are well studied using electrophysiological and neurochemical methods. The unity of the mechanisms of external and internal inhibition has been established, and it has been proven that inhibition is the same active process as excitation. The elucidation of the mechanisms underlying conditioned reflex activity has intensified research into such an important component as memory.

3.5. Mechanisms of memory

The behavior of higher animals would be impossible without the use of past experience, i.e. without storing information about it in the nervous system. Sensory memory manifests itself in the retention of a trace of receptor stimulation in a neuron for a very short time - up to 0.5 s. Erasing a trace takes 0.15 s. Longer retention of information about current events is determined by short-term memory. It is studied mainly using delayed reactions. The animal develops a conditioned reflex, after which a pause (delay) is introduced between the signal and response associated with it.

Long-term retention of information is associated with long-term memory. The transition from short-term to long-term memory, i.e. consolidation of a memory trace in the central nervous system is carried out using intermediate memory. The mechanisms underlying these phenomena are still far from clear; it has been shown, however, that they are determined by electrical factors (circulation of nerve impulses) and structural and chemical changes in the central nervous system.

It is customary to distinguish different forms of long-term memory: figurative (preservation in the brain of signs of objects that the animal has encountered), emotional (dog breeders know well how long dogs retain a negative attitude towards people who have caused them harm) and conditioned reflex, responsible for the reproduction of certain motor and secretory acts.

A large amount of experimental material has been obtained characterizing the mechanisms of action of biologically active substances produced by the body on various forms of memory. One might think that by pharmacologically increasing or decreasing the balance of these substances and their effect on neurons, we can improve memory, and therefore increase the level of the dog’s performance. This is partly true, but we should not forget that the same pharmacological effect has different effects on different aspects of learning. In addition, it is difficult to predict the long-term consequences of introducing chemicals into the body.

Data obtained in laboratories on the influence of chemical compounds that have a pharmacological effect on memory do not yet provide a sufficiently complete answer to the question of the neurochemical mechanisms of memory. Psychostimulants and tranquilizers, which are often recommended to improve learning, can sometimes, on the contrary, cause retrograde amnesia (forgetting previously stored information). It is known, however, that memory is closely related to the functioning of such biologically active substances contained in the brain as acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and peptide hormones. It is incorrect to associate any one neuronal function with each of them.

One should also take into account the uniqueness of the neurochemical characteristics of different parts of the brain and their role in organizing certain forms of learning. In addition, we evaluate memory by the duration of the manifestation of various skills, but we can only indirectly judge the preservation of traces of certain influences in the nerve centers. At the same time, it is known that memory processes are associated with the central metabolism of biologically active substances, changes in which improve or worsen the development of a skill and its retention. Particular attention in the study of these processes is paid to brain monoamines - dopamine, norepinephrine, adrenaline and serotonin. It is shown that their balance largely determines the speed of learning and stabilization of the memory trace. Often, an increase in the content of one of these compounds in the brain has different effects on different forms of learning. Thus, with the development and strengthening of defensive reactions, the exchange of norepinephrine in the brain increases, and that of food - decreases. The administration of drugs that increase the content of serotonin in the brain significantly improves the learning process with food reinforcement, but worsens it with pain. Serotonin accelerates learning and promotes the preservation of conditioned reflexes developed under an emotionally positive background, acting in the opposite way in the formation of reactions (mainly defensive) accompanied by negative emotions.

Acetylcholine, GABA, and glutamic acid also play a significant role in memorization. The use of pharmaceutical drugs that affect the metabolism of these substances can affect learning and memory. However, let us once again recall the difficulties associated with the individual characteristics of the animal, the selection of appropriate doses (overdose often leads to the opposite effects), and the lack of sufficient knowledge about the neurochemical basis of memory.

The introduction of any pharmacological agent into the body causes a complex chain reaction. Data on the participation of neuropeptides in the regulation of memory processes are very interesting. The latter are quickly destroyed, and it can be assumed that their action is mediated through a cascade of biochemical reactions that determine a wide range of changes in the state of the central nervous system. Neuropeptides have been identified that have a significant effect on learning and memory. These include vasopressin, cholecystokinin, neurotensin, angiotensin and many others. Particular importance is attached to opioid peptides - endorphins and enkephalins. Some of them improve, others worsen memory. It also happens that the same opioid peptide stimulates the development and maintenance of a conditioned reflex in poorly learning animals and inhibits it in well-learning animals.

Thus, at the current stage of development of the science of memory, it is impossible to unconditionally recommend the introduction of drugs into the dog’s body that improve learning and memory, for several reasons. Firstly, their mechanism of action is largely unclear. Secondly, while they may have beneficial effects on some types of learning, these influences may hinder the formation and retention of other equally important skills. Thirdly, an artificial imbalance of biologically active substances in the body can disrupt normal functioning and lead to long-term changes in the behavior and activity of internal organs. Fourthly, many of the substances mentioned are still very expensive and are used in limited quantities even for experimental purposes.

3.6. SYSTEMIC BRAIN ACTIVITY

The functional state of the central nervous system continuously changes in accordance with changes in life activities. It is determined by posture, position of the limbs, and many signals from the external and internal environments. At any given moment, a special system of processes of excitation and inhibition develops in the brain and its individual structures, which determines the behavior of the organism under given conditions.

To understand the mechanisms by which the central nervous system controls the internal economy and activity aimed at interacting with the outside world, one should consider some of the main aspects of its systemic activity associated with the formation of complex forms of behavior.

3.6.1. The principle of dominance

A. A. Ukhtomsky created the doctrine of the dominant (from the Latin dorninantus = dominance) - the temporary predominance of excitation in nerve centers that are functionally united to carry out a certain activity. The focus of excitation, as it were, attracts streams of nerve impulses from extero- and interoreceptors and thereby predetermines the body's reaction aimed at a certain result. A “functional center” arises in the central nervous system, uniting departments that are distant from each other. Several foci of increased arousal may occur at the same time, making it possible to quickly switch from one activity to another. But at any given moment, the most persistent focus of excitation determines the direction (vector) of a certain activity of the body. Thus, stretching of the bladder creates a dominant focus of excitation associated with urination. Against this background, impulses coming into the central nervous system from different receptors support this focus and increase the level of its excitability. It drops sharply after the corresponding act - emptying the bladder.

Dominant is an important principle of the central nervous system. When training, it is necessary to remember this, since the development of a skill can be seriously affected if during training the dog develops a dominant focus associated with another type of activity. Switching of dominants can, for example, take place when an individual of the same or opposite sex appears (inhibition of the worker and manifestation of a new dominant aimed at sexual, play or defensive activity), with a sharp shout or with painful irritation.

Changes in the functional state of the body (estrus, pregnancy, lactation) are associated with the formation of long-term, persistently persistent dominant foci of excitation. A similar phenomenon is observed with insufficient nutrition, selective deprivation of any food product necessary for the body, and fatigue. Therefore, against such a background, developing skills that are not related to the current dominant state of the central nervous system is ineffective. Training is successful when the reinforcement corresponds to the character of the dominant (for example, when developing salivary or food-procuring conditioned reflexes in an unfed dog). In this case, a conditioned reflex can be developed even to painful stimulation. So, in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlova M.N. Erofeeva gradually converted the defensive reaction in a hungry dog ​​caused by the action of electric current into a food reaction. She reinforced the electric shocks with feeding, and eventually they stopped causing the dog to have a negative attitude towards the experimental room and the desire to chew the electrical cord, break free and run away. After several experiments under the influence of hunger, the defensive reaction began to gradually slow down. Further, when the dog lost significant weight and the dominant hunger sharply manifested itself, the electric current began to cause salivation and the entire repertoire of food-procuring behavior with signs of a positive emotional state. This example illustrates the plasticity of the central nervous system and the ability, against the background of a certain dominant, to transform defensive conditioned reflexes into food ones (we will see later that reverse transformations are also possible).

3.6.2. Conditioned reflex switching

The same conditioned stimulus, depending on the situation against which it operates, can be a signal for the manifestation of different types of activity. In fact, the above experiments with a change in the signal value of the electric current can serve as one of the examples of switching. The fact is that in these experiments the food reaction was caused by painful irritation of a certain area of ​​the skin in a certain environment. Outside the experimental room, the electric shocks caused the dog to react normally defensively.

To develop conditioned reflex switching, some kind of light or sound stimulus is usually used, the signal value of which changes depending on additional circumstances. For example, one experimenter develops a salivary conditioned reflex in response to the knocking of a metronome of a certain frequency during food reinforcement, while another, in response to the same signal, develops a defensive reflex, reinforced by electrocutaneous stimulation. A few days later, in experiments conducted by the first experimenter, the dog responds to the beats of the metronome by salivating, and in experiments conducted by the second, by withdrawing its paw. Time can also be a “switch” of the nature of the conditioned response: different conditioned reflexes can be developed to the same stimulus in the morning and evening hours. Conditioned reflex switching can occur within the same activity. If you reinforce the metronome beats with food in the morning and do not reinforce it in the evening, then this stimulus causes salivation in the morning and inhibits it in the evening.

The young cocker Don Quixote was home trained by his young owner to show stand. Don Quixote was immediately exhibited at a prestigious exhibition abroad, and behaved disgustingly. This is how the owner’s unforeseen conditioning of the learned exhibition pose by the home environment manifested itself. Experienced dog breeders usually practice posing in the ring at ordinary exhibitions, during which they do not so much show the dog as train it to posing in real exhibition conditions.

Observing the behavior of dogs, we are faced with the phenomenon of switching at every step. Yes, dog, completed the course general training, reacts positively to food offered by the owner (salivation, food-procuring movements, tail wagging), but refuses to take it from strangers, showing signs of a negative emotional state; to the same command “forward!” The dog reacts differently in front of a boom, a barrier and a ladder.

Of great interest is the so-called dissociated behavior, which can also be considered as switching. This form of training has been studied in the development of conditioned reflexes against the background of the introduction of pharmacological substances that change the functional state of the central nervous system. It is possible, using the same stimulus (light, sound, etc.), to develop, for example, against the background of caffeine administration, a food-procuring conditioned reflex, and against the background of small doses of strychnine, a defensive one. In the future, such an irritant will cause salivation or withdrawal of the paw, depending on the background created by the preliminary administration of one of the pharmacological drugs.

The given examples of complex forms of learning are well explained within the framework of the doctrine of the dominant. The state of the central nervous system, determined by the environment or internal factors, is the basis on which goal-directed behavior is built.

3.7. FACTORS THAT PROMOTE AND OBSTACLE LEARNING

3.7.1. Indicative-exploratory behavior

Above, attention was already drawn to the difficulties that arise when trying to draw a clear boundary between innate and acquired forms of behavior during life. These difficulties are associated with the fact that the former undergo significant changes in the process of life. The plasticity of unconditioned reflex reactions is determined by various factors and, above all, by the influence of developmental conditions in the prenatal period and in the first stages of life after birth on the deployment of the genetic program. The characteristics of the formation of many components of the puppy’s body, including the development of its central nervous system, and, consequently, many aspects of behavior depend on the nutrition received by the puppy, on the state of its endocrine organs, and on the external signals falling on it. The environmental conditions surrounding it after birth also play an important role. Thus, heritable reactions may manifest themselves differently depending on the influences on the organism in the early stages of life.

Unconditioned reflex reactions can also change significantly in subsequent age periods. Learning can influence all aspects of innate activity, for example, perception (conditioned reflex reduction in receptor sensitivity thresholds). Immediately after birth, inherited reactions begin to “overgrow” with conditioned ones. This is why it is so difficult to separate inherited and developed forms of behavior. The combination of these forms is very clearly manifested in orientation-exploratory behavior, one of the most important manifestations of higher nervous activity.

The orienting reflex occurs when exposed to new stimuli. Outwardly, it manifests itself in a reorientation of attention to them and the suspension of current activities. I.P. Pavlov called this mechanism the “what is it?” reflex. and proposed to distinguish the reflex of “biological caution” and the actual exploratory reflex - the movement of the animal towards a new source of irritation in order to better understand and evaluate it. Yu. Konorsky designated the orientation reflex as a “targeting” reflex, since it helps to configure the senses for optimal perception of a certain stimulus.

The indicative reaction is an integral part of conditioned reflex behavior. It increases the excitability of the cortical and subcortical structures of the brain, which is necessary to “close” the temporary connection between an indifferent stimulus and unconditional reinforcement when they coincide in time. One of the properties of this reaction is the ability to be extinguished upon repeated presentation of the stimulus. When this reaction is extinguished, the development of a conditioned reflex becomes significantly more difficult.

In puppies, the indicative reaction appears immediately after birth. From the first hours of life, they respond positively or negatively to odor stimuli. From the 10-15th day, the generalized form of the indicative reaction is replaced by local movements - turning the head towards the stimulus and subsequent elements of its examination. Following the olfactory, gustatory and tactile analyzers, other sense organs gradually mature - hearing and vision. An approximate reaction to sound stimuli appears on the 4-6th day of life, when the ear canals are still closed; it becomes more definite on the 15th day. In relation to light stimuli, a clear indicative reaction occurs at the age of 15-18 days. It gradually becomes more complex and by the age of one month reaches the level characteristic of an adult dog.

Usually we pay attention to the motor manifestations of this reaction. In fact, it also includes somatic and autonomic components. At the same time, such of them as a decrease and then an increase in respiratory movements, an increase in the number of heart contractions reflect the body’s preparation for the best implementation of a motor reaction. Such a complex allows the animal to quickly assess changes in the situation and react correctly to them. This determines the most important role of the orienting reaction as the basis for ensuring active adaptation to the constantly changing external environment.

In the process of development, the orienting reaction becomes more complex. From the 1st to the 15-25th day of a puppy’s life, it is associated mainly with eating behavior. For example, any touch to a puppy causes him to suck, smack and move towards the source of irritation. This age period is characterized by a state of prolonged excitation of the food center, supported and reinforced by any irritations in accordance with the principle of dominance. Food dominance, expressed in the appearance of a food search reaction in response to any irritation, has great biological significance - it facilitates the mother’s location, the act of sucking, and ultimately ensures the survival and normal development of the puppy.

As already noted, as a result of the newborn puppy’s encounter with new stimuli, the restructuring of innate behavior begins already in the first hours of life. A functional complex is formed in which congenital and acquired components closely interact. In this case, the orienting-exploratory reaction is organically included in the orienting-exploratory behavior.

3.7.2. Passive defensive behavior

In the process of evolution, different forms of behavior have arisen, each of which has important adaptive significance. One of them is passive-defensive behavior or, as it was called in Pavlov’s laboratories, the “biological caution reflex,” a self-protective mechanism that is replaced by exploratory behavior as one becomes familiar with the external environment. It is essential for adaptation to the action of unfamiliar stimuli and, with moderate manifestations, cannot be attributed to pathology. However, it is bordered by a high level of inhibition and the development of widespread sleep inhibition. In these cases, it is difficult to use the animal for work that requires a good orientation reaction and weakly expressed passive-defensive behavior. These qualities should be inherent in dogs of many breeds (shepherds, Airedales, Dobermans, pointers, St. Bernards, etc.). At the same time, their manifestation is determined not only by the genotype, but also by the conditions of upbringing. Optimal care for your puppy in the early stages of life deserves special attention. Negative effects may not immediately affect the behavior of the animal, but appear after a long time. Thus, in puppies exposed to stressful influences at one month of age, at six months of age passive-defensive behavior sharply manifests itself, slowing down the development of food-procuring skills. With the help of pharmacological interventions, this behavior can be corrected.

In particular, in the above case, such a correction can be made by introducing metamizil, a substance that reduces the content of acetylcholine in the brain and thereby reduces fear. In this way, it is possible to reduce the level of passive defensive reactions and significantly speed up the learning process. The same effect can be achieved by using other drugs that have a sedative (tranquilizing) effect.

It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of animals’ responses to certain stimuli at different periods of development. Weak defensive reactions to sharp stimuli are already observed in newborn puppies (having smelled ammonia or acetic acid, the puppy becomes restless, turns its head away, and whines). Such reactions were probably observed by many breeders when they lubricated the wounds of puppies with iodine or alcohol. Puppies aged 15-25 days require special attention when the color of the indicative reaction changes - it is joined by elements of passive defensive behavior, accompanied by defecation and urination. This type of response to unexpected sounds, light, smells, vestibular and tactile stimulation occurs in almost all puppies before the 40-45th day of life.

Biological significance the inclusion of passive-defensive elements in orientation-exploratory behavior is enormous. By the end of the first month of a puppy’s life, its range of vital activity expands. We rarely think about how many dangers await a puppy in the most ordinary environment if his actions were completely random. If previously the puppy was under the protection of its mother, now it is faced with new stimuli, the correct and quick response to which is still difficult due to the imperfection of the sensory organs and motor system, as well as the lack of sufficient life experience. Thanks to the presence of passive-defensive behavior, the puppy avoids many dangers. So, during walks, when there is a sudden horn of a car, headlights, the cry of a bird, or a sharp clap, the puppy usually stops moving and presses against the ground or the owner’s leg. This behavior is normal and does not require pharmacological correction. Puppy shyness should not be confused with cowardice. During this period of development, you need to be patient with the puppy, do not frighten him with a shout, do not pull the leash, and encourage the puppy with affection.

The further development of passive-defensive behavior largely depends on the conditions in which the puppy is raised. Its level decreases significantly in an “enriched” external environment (communication with peers, familiarity with new objects, phenomena, etc.). In the absence of sufficient stimuli (in isolation), the passive defensive reflex is strengthened and can persist throughout life.

From the 40-45th day to 3-4 months (a critical period called the period of “socialization” by the American scientist J. Scott), exploratory behavior reaches its maximum. With proper upbringing, elements of passive-defensive behavior are rarely manifested at this time. However, with excessive load, if it is necessary to solve complex problems, a breakdown may occur - the puppy refuses to work, whines, barks, and falls asleep during training.

Passive-defensive behavior in puppies aged 15-45 days is more primitive than in puppies 3-4 months old. In the latter, it manifests itself against the background of complex analytical and synthetic processes in the central nervous system associated with rational activity. These animals are very vulnerable, they solve complex problems well, but at the same time they easily become neurotic. At this age, the typological characteristics of the nervous system are formed, so passive-defensive behavior begins to have a pronounced individual character. At some stage, the puppy notices that his threats by barking, growling, and finally attacking are good defenses in conflict situations. Thus, the passive-defensive reaction is gradually replaced by an active-defensive one, characteristic of many breeds of dogs, especially service dogs.

It is interesting to see the difference in the way the active-defensive reaction develops in dogs of different breeds. Thus, timidity makes an East European Shepherd puppy afraid of everything and everyone. He clings to the protector-owner and is ready to bark at the whole wide world. As he gets older and bigger, he can really scare strangers. A conditioned reaction is developed that associates his attacks with safety. A brave, attacking defender of the owner grows up.

The development of anger in a Rottweiler or black terrier is completely different. Puppies of these breeds are less timid and early acquire a sense of security in the world around them. Often quite a lot of time passes and significant provocation is required for the owner to become convinced that this apparent good nature is the self-confidence of a strong defender dangerous to enemies.

For the correct development of defensive behavior in a puppy at the age of 3-4 months, it is necessary to monitor compliance with the regime, protect it from overload, and, if necessary, use bromides, valerian, Corvalol, Devican and other sedatives.

3.8. MOTIVATIONS

Complex forms of behavior are aimed at achieving certain results, which are associated with the satisfaction of various needs. The desire to satisfy these needs is referred to as drives, drives, or motivations. The motivations of hunger, thirst, fear, aggression, sexual, caring for offspring, interactions with other individuals and many others are described.

Motivation is a state of the central nervous system that underlies goal-directed behavioral acts. The presence of a need does not immediately affect the vector of behavior. This requires its transformation into motivation, i.e. the appearance of a corresponding focus of excitation in the central nervous system. The dominant principle contributes to the formation of motivation based on need - the dog can be very hungry, but the presence of a threat from the enemy or the presence of a female in heat will slow down the movement towards the food object.

It is convenient to further consider the mechanism of motivation using the example of eating behavior. Despite the apparent simplicity of satisfying the body's need for nutrients, the physiological processes underlying the motivation for hunger are extremely complex. Many parts of the central nervous system, located at its different levels, are involved in the regulation of food consumption. This is a functional association of I.P. Pavlov called it a “food center”.

Several subcenters responsible for food motivation are located in the hypothalamus (hypothalamus). In fed animals, electrical stimulation of the lateral sections of this area disinhibits the act of eating; Once they are damaged, the urge to eat completely disappears. Stimulation of the median nuclei of the hypothalamus inhibits food consumption, and their destruction leads to gluttony and obesity. Similar phenomena are observed during infectious processes or tumors affecting these areas of the brain.

The hypothalamus has extensive nerve connections with many parts of the brain. The process of excitation from the motivational centers of the hypothalamus spreads to these departments, due to which an indicative-exploratory reaction first arises, and then purposeful behavior. An ascending wave of excitation from the hypothalamic parts of the food center changes the functional state of the system that controls all stages of eating behavior: search, examination and absorption of food. Descending activating nerve impulses prepare the internal organs to receive and process it.

Domesticated dogs do not need to get food, like their wild ancestors - wolves. In the latter, food motivation usually alternates with aggression motivation, which can dominate during prolonged pursuit and killing of the victim. Therefore, in wild predators, the direction of behavior associated with obtaining food is determined by the involvement of centers of aggression. In dogs, elements of aggression often appear in isolation, not being associated with food activity.

The role of conditioned reflexes in the formation of food motivation is extremely large, but their action is manifested only under a certain state of the body. Thus, a well-fed dog will not respond to a conditioned signal by salivating and it is difficult for him to develop skills with food reinforcement.

It is known that under normal conditions, appetite reflects the body's needs for energy and plastic (construction) materials. How does the food center become aware of these needs? What determines the formation of states of hunger and satiety?

The presence in the brain, and primarily in the hypothalamus, of receptors that perceive the level of nutrients in the internal environment of the body has been established. States of hunger and satiety are characterized by changes in the composition of the blood (the content of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids), which are captured by central receptors. In accordance with this, the flow of nerve impulses to many brain centers that control food motivation changes. Signaling from stomach receptors plays a special role in its enhancement or suppression. The stomach, which is not filled with food, begins to contract at certain intervals. The period of physical activity is replaced by a period of rest. Against the background of stomach contractions, the hunger urge increases sharply, and the animals’ search for food becomes more active. After eating, the mechanoreceptors of the stretched walls of the stomach send signals that inhibit food motivation.

The food center and its receptors are influenced by many biologically active substances, including various hormones - insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, peptide hormones of the duodenum, sex hormones, etc.

Thus, food motivation is under the control of many humoral and nervous stimuli. Its strengthening or inhibition is determined not only by the body’s need for nutrients, but also by a number of external and internal conditions.

A large amount of material has been obtained on pharmacological effects on appetite. It has been established that the administration of opioids, norepinephrine, GABA, insulin, somatotropin (growth hormone), pancreatic polypeptide, male sex hormones (androgens) stimulates appetite and accordingly increases food consumption. Adrenaline, serotonin, cholecystokinin, bombesin, thyroliberin, calcitonin, corticoliberin, somatostatin, neurotensin, and female sex hormones (estrogens) have the opposite effect.

The mechanism of action of many of these substances on the formation of food motivation has not been sufficiently studied. Correcting appetite disorders should begin with identifying the cause of the disease. Often this reason can be completely eliminated by ordinary measures - improving the diet (restoring its balance, enriching it with vitamins), the correct regimen, and treatment of concomitant diseases. The selection of medications to correct appetite should be carried out by a doctor, and the use of pharmacological drugs to change normal appetite in order to influence the animal’s physique is extremely dangerous in terms of consequences.

Consideration of the peculiarities of the formation of food motivation would be incomplete without drawing the attention of dog handlers and dog breeders to the problem of specialized appetites.

Theories explaining the mechanisms of regulation of hunger and satiety are based on the idea of ​​the role of maintaining energy balance in the regulation of food motivation. Although it is largely correct, one cannot help but admit that very often a specialized reaction aimed at searching for and consuming certain nutrients dominates, and the vector of behavior depends on the body’s predominant need for them under given conditions. In accordance with this, it is customary to distinguish protein, carbohydrate, fat and other appetites. Particular attention is paid to salt appetite. Selective food preferences associated with the need for certain vitamins are also described. In some cases, the choice and consumption of any substances are not related to either the energy or plastic needs of the body. So, a dog suffering from worms begins to eat Chernobyl. This is an example of an instinctive defensive reaction that has become entrenched in the process of evolution of the species.

The mechanisms for regulating specialized appetites are extremely complex; congenital and acquired factors are closely intertwined. It is still unclear which preferences are inherited and which are developed during life. Obviously, the given example of dogs eating Chernobyl illustrates the first type of preferences, but with regard to other reactions of food choice, such clarity is lacking. Previously, it was believed that salt (sodium) appetite was innate. This position is currently being questioned. In any case, preference for salty foods largely depends on training. Apparently, even in cases where specialized appetite is determined by the type of nutrition inherent in a given biological species, it can undergo significant changes in accordance with the state of the body and environmental conditions.

Let's take the following example. If a dog is fed from a bowl in which it previously received bland food, it will begin to eat very salty food offered in this bowl, which is rejected when offered in another bowl. Undoubtedly, an innate reaction is to reduce the consumption of salty foods when chemoreceptors in the stomach and intestines are irritated. However, such a reaction can also manifest itself as a conditioned reflex in response to stretching of the walls of the stomach.

Specialized food choices are largely determined by established nutritional stereotypes. Imitation of parents and preference for food that animals received during the transition from milk feeding to independent feeding are of great importance. It should be noted that food preferences are not always completely adequate to the body's needs for nutrients - they may reflect other interests of the body (protection from poisoning, emotional reward, research, transportation of supplies, etc.). Food motivation may be based on drug or drug addiction, which is often used when training dogs to detect drugs.

The eating behavior of animals is characterized by a reaction that prevents the adverse effects of food on the body - neophobia. It manifests itself in the caution with which the animal treats unfamiliar food objects, even if they have an attractive smell and taste. At first, this food is consumed in small quantities, and if it does not cause a negative effect, neophobia is gradually inhibited.

The severity of neophobia is unevenly distributed among different animals in the population. In nature, as a rule, most of the population are “conservatives”, characterized by pronounced neophobia, and a smaller part are “scouts” with weakened neophobia. For domestic animals, human care allows them to largely avoid harm from insufficient conservation. Therefore, for example, quite a few young dogs can eat completely unexpected “products” upon first meeting them. Boxer Prince in his youth ate (always at the first contact with an object) a telephone directory, a pack of cigarettes, 400 rubles, a set of pastel paints, a hexachlorane pencil, a wonderful cameo and much more!

Of particular interest are reactions called conditioned reflex rejection (aversion). They manifest themselves in the refusal of food, the consumption of which caused a painful condition. Very often, aversions occur in response to completely benign food, the consumption of which coincidentally coincided with some disease. The resulting aversion to this food can persist for a very long time.

The following features are characteristic of conditioned reflex taste aversions. They are produced when the consumption of a certain food is combined with a painful condition (often a digestive disorder). Unlike conditioned reflexes produced to sound, light and other stimuli, taste aversions are formed even in cases where several hours pass between the action of the conditioned signal (new taste) and the unconditioned reinforcement (painful condition). It is important to note that in males the duration of aversion is significantly longer than in females.

Taste aversions begin to develop from the first hours of a puppy’s life. At the same time, at certain stages of its development, the nature of the development and extinction of aversion varies significantly, which is determined by many factors and, in particular, the degree of maturity of certain parts of the brain.

The following circumstance is interesting. It would seem that when developing and maintaining an aversion, only the relationship between the taste of a given food and the painful state that coincides with it matters. In reality, aversion also depends on the environment. It fades away much faster in rooms where the dog is kept constantly than in an unfamiliar environment. Apparently, in the first case, the food dominant has an inhibitory effect on the defensive one. Therefore, if a dog refuses a certain food, this reaction can be reduced by feeding it in the animal’s usual environment (and on a trip you need to take food that the dog likes).

The problem of taste aversions is important not only for the development of food rations that ensure optimal manifestation of higher nervous activity and, accordingly, the performance qualities of the dog. The possible formation of aversion to a certain type of food or anorexia - decreased appetite - must be remembered when introducing an animal to a new type of food and introducing various pharmacological drugs into the body. Many medications, along with the healing effect, lead to discomfort, a painful condition that is associated with eating. The subsequent refusal to eat can be mistaken for a metabolic disorder and appetite regulation. In reality, a typical conditioned reflex aversion is manifested here, after the extinction of which eating behavior is completely restored. This is probably the nature of many perversions of the appetite of lap dogs - during the period of introducing the puppy to different foods, he is intensively “stuffed” with various medications, without coordinating the feeding regimen, and then they are surprised that the grown dog does not eat meat, porridge, soup, etc. In order to avoid perversions of appetite, it is necessary to take into account that the aversion is weaker the more time has passed between the action of the conditioned signal (taste) and the negative reinforcement (drug intoxication). It is advisable to maximize the intervals between the last feeding and the administration of the medicine.

Using the example of the formation of food motivation, we examined some aspects of satisfaction biological needs organism, but did not touch upon one of the main problems of the physiology of higher nervous activity - elucidation of the mechanisms of reinforcement. Therefore, it is necessary to move on to a description of emotions, without which it is impossible to carry out purposeful behavior.

3.9. EMOTIONS

Biological needs that transform into motivation can be satisfied only when the latter is accompanied by the experience of pleasure or displeasure. Motivation and emotions are so closely related that it is customary to talk about motivational-emotional reactions. It would seem that they cannot be separated, but it has been experimentally established that they can be studied in isolation, since they are associated with different morphofunctional systems. This possibility has arisen only recently due to advances in neurophysiology.

In the past, the motivational-emotional sphere of an animal was judged by its behavior. In everyday life, people have long been accustomed to evaluate. the animal’s experiences through facial expressions, posture, and certain motor and vocal reactions. Involuntarily, such manifestations of behavior were compared with one’s own experiences. Charles Darwin left aside the analysis of the subjective aspect of emotions. Having shown that facial and gestural reactions are components of aggressive, defensive and other forms of behavior, he assessed them as adaptive mechanisms formed in the process of natural selection.

The discovery of emotional centers marked the beginning of a new era in the study of the inner world of animals. It turned out that by irritating individual brain structures with electrodes immersed in them, it is possible to cause positive or negative reactions. If the tip of the electrode is in the “reward zone,” the animal develops an instrumental conditioned reflex: it begins to independently press the pedal, which turns on the irritating current. When the tip of the electrode enters the “punishment zone,” the animal bounces off the pedal when the current is turned on and does not approach it in the future. It turned out that the urge to self-irritate the “reward zone” is stronger than hunger, and animals can stimulate it for hours, forgetting about food. In the process of self-stimulation, they can choose the intensity of the current and the rhythm of pedal presses that provide the highest level of positive reinforcement.

The state of the “reward zones” associated with the formation of a positive emotional state depends on the balance of biologically active substances in the central nervous system (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, opioids, etc.). The introduction of drugs into the body that change this balance can significantly affect the emotional sphere, which should be taken into account if you want to pharmacologically activate the dog’s behavior.

Above was information about the role of biologically active substances in preserving and retrieving a memorable trace. Apparently, the processes underlying memory are largely dependent on the emotions against which learning occurs, and therefore, many pharmacological drugs used to improve learning act on memory indirectly, changing the state of the emotiogenic systems of the brain. This is precisely what can explain the multidirectional influence of catecholamines and serotonin on learning during emotionally positive and emotionally negative reinforcement.

It is very important that, as experiments have shown, low and high levels of emotional stress have a negative impact on learning and retention of a skill. Its average level is most favorable, providing moderate brain activation. Against this background, emotions have a beneficial effect on the state of internal organs and sensory processes (vision, hearing, smell, etc.). When determining the desired level of stress on an animal, its age and individual characteristics must be taken into account. A certain hormonal background and the content of active substances in the internal environment of the body have a significant impact on the emotional state.

3.10. DISORDERS OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

The combination of neurosurgical interventions in certain parts of the brain and the conditioned reflex method has led to an understanding of many aspects of higher nervous activity. The analysis of its disorders expanded the understanding of the functioning of the brain in normal and pathological conditions. Although these interventions cause irreversible changes, the presence of compensatory processes in some cases mitigates the manifestations of behavioral pathology. Psychopharmacology allows you to make corrections in the behavior of an animal. Within the framework of this book, it makes sense to consider only temporary disorders of higher nervous activity (even if they are long-lasting) and the possibilities of eliminating them.

Under the influence of stress, an animal can develop long-term deviations from the norm both in behavior and in the vegetative sphere. They belong to the category of neuroses and are expressed in a violation of the orienting-exploratory reflex, in inadequate reactions to signals from the external environment, in memory defects, in poor learning, unstable manifestation of skills, insufficient spatial orientation, emotional shifts, as well as in pathological changes in the cardiovascular system. -vascular, digestive, endocrine and other systems of the body.

The concept of “experimental neurosis” was introduced by I.P. Pavlov based on an analysis of the behavior of dogs during floods. Subsequently, it was shown that a neurotic state in dogs can be caused by depriving them of sleep, by frequent changes in the stereotypes of conditioned reflexes, by the use of super-strong stimuli, and by a collision of opposite motivations (for example, food and defensive). One of the main manifestations of neurosis is a violation of the law of force, i.e. discrepancy between the magnitude of the response and the intensity of stimulation.

In experiments with the differentiation of complex complexes of conditioned reflexes, with the alteration of stable stereotypes, with the collision of food and defensive motivations, it was shown that overstrain of the mobility of nervous processes plays an important role in the development of a neurotic state. Using extremely strong stimuli, requiring an animal to solve a difficult problem, one can cause in it inadequate reactions of fear (phobias), circulatory disruption of conditioned reflex activity, phenomena of explosiveness of the excitation process, pathological inertia of nervous processes with obsessive movements. Many deviations from normal behavior are determined by the environment in which the dog encountered extreme stimuli.

The type of nervous activity characteristic of a given individual is essential for the development of neurosis. I.P. Pavlov identified the following types. Weak - with excessive inhibition and low performance limits of cortical cells, a tendency to passive defensive reactions. Unbalanced - with a predominance of excitation processes, aggressiveness. Alive (mobile) - with great mobility, balance and sufficient strength of nervous processes. Calm (inert) - with low mobility of nervous processes with sufficient strength and balance. This scheme is conditional, since among animals there are many representatives of mixed types.

Typological features of higher nervous activity are determined not only by heredity, but also by environmental conditions. By systematically working with a dog, you can improve its typological qualities. In addition, the nature of the puppy’s environment is of great importance. In an enriched environment and if it is possible to lead a relatively free lifestyle upon leaving the “nest,” signs of strong types more often appear. When puppies are kept in cages, the properties of the weak type may predominate in them, although genetically these puppies belonged to the strong type. Education can restore the original typological characteristics of the animal, spoiled by improper rearing at the beginning of life.

Pathological development of higher nervous activity was discovered in puppies that were raised from the 1st to the 7th-10th month of life in relative isolation. Their orienting-exploratory behavior was disrupted, a diffuse reaction to new objects was observed, increased motor activity was combined with a high level of fear, and they learned poorly.

In adult dogs whose development took place under normal conditions, susceptibility to neuroticism is determined mainly by hereditary factors. In animals of the weak type it occurs easily, in animals of the strong type it is difficult. In the latter case, disruption of higher nervous activity is possible only in extremely difficult and long-term situations. Against the background of a general illness or with a weakened functional state of the nervous system, neurosis develops more easily. An obsessive manifestation of fear has been described after the administration of drugs that have an inhibitory effect on the central nervous system.

In a puppy's life there are periods of increased sensitivity to difficult situations. Thus, at 3-4 months, puppies successfully solve the problem of bilateral choice, but due to overstrain of the nervous system, they often exhibit neurotic reactions. Therefore, it is necessary to provide developing animals with gentle conditions, and especially carefully protect them from stressors.

At any age, it is important to monitor the condition of the animal, give it rest and introduce difficult elements during training gradually. It is known that when exposed to super-strong stimuli, when a dog is treated roughly, or through ill-considered coercion, the dog develops a negative attitude towards the trainer and the environment in which the training takes place. A state close to neurotic (“pre-neurosis”) may develop, and in some cases, pronounced neurosis with a predominance of lethargy or agitation, inadequate response to commands, etc.

At the beginning of the study of experimental neuroses, the main attention was paid to processes in the cerebral cortex. In the last decade, attention has also been drawn to the role of subcortical structures in the development of pathology of higher nervous activity. It turned out that many manifestations of neurosis and pre-neurosis are determined by changes in the functioning of these structures. Since the hypothalamus is closely connected with the regulation of not only motivational processes, but also autonomic reactions, disruption of its activity is often accompanied by shortness of breath, palpitations, the appearance of trophic ulcers, and pathological changes in the functioning of the digestive system. In turn, these shifts can affect the state of the central nervous system and behavior. A significant role in this is played by a decrease in food motivation, leading to the manifestation of a number of somatic (bodily) disorders and difficulties in learning associated with food reinforcement.

The reactivity of the central nervous system depends on the state of the endocrine organs and, above all, on the phases of the reproductive cycle. Thus, against the background of a developing estrus in a bitch, conditioned reflex activity is first activated and then suppressed. In males, with strong sexual arousal, feeding and defensive behavior is inhibited, hypnotic phases may appear, and the development of conditioned reflexes is sharply disrupted. Such dominance of sexual activity cannot be attributed to manifestations of neuroticism, but against this background it can arise more easily than under normal conditions. Fluctuations in the excitability of brain neurons, instability of positive and disinhibition of inhibitory conditioned reflexes occur during pregnancy. In its second and partially in the third phases, stress resistance is increased, and previously manifested neurotic symptoms become less pronounced at this time.

There is a lot of data on changes in higher nervous activity with hypo- or hyperfunction of the reproductive, thyroid, parathyroid glands, pituitary gland and adrenal glands. Injections of hormones from these glands affect the development and maintenance of conditioned reflexes. Thus, long-term administration of the adrenocorticotropic hormone of the pituitary gland or the hormone of the adrenal cortex - cortisone - causes a neurotic state with a predominance of chaotic behavior. Such deviations, caused by a violation of internal inhibition, can persist for several months after the cessation of hormonal influence.

The nature of the influence of various hormones and other biologically active substances on behavior is determined by many factors, in particular, their dosage and the typological characteristics of the animal. Small doses can stimulate the development and implementation of conditioned reflexes, large doses can cause a breakdown of nervous activity with manifestations of motor excitation.

Treatment of neuroses and relief of pre-neurotic conditions are associated with serious difficulties. At the first unfavorable symptoms, it is necessary to reduce the load and stop training. Significant progress in the treatment of neuroses has been achieved thanks to the advances in psychopharmacology. In case of disruptions of higher nervous activity, a combination of bromine and caffeine drugs is traditionally used. Bromides enhance the inhibitory process and thereby normalize the balance of excitation and inhibition in the brain. There is evidence that in this case some structural changes occur in the nervous system, so it is extremely important to monitor the correct choice of dosages of this drug. Doses of bromide used in the treatment of neuroses in dogs with a weak type of nervous system should be minimal. Low doses should also be used in highly neurotic animals with a relative weakness of the inhibitory process and a predominance of excitation. In animals of a strong type with balanced nervous processes, even large doses of bromides may not have an effect on conditioned reflex activity. Such doses are usually used for significant arousal, weak doses - for hypnotic phase states. The effects of different bromide salts are the same, but the ammonium salt is absorbed more quickly and is therefore more effective than potassium and sodium bromides. In case of overdose, irradiation of the inhibitory process and deterioration in learning are observed. Long-term administration of these drugs in large doses causes poisoning (bromism), which is more pronounced in weak dogs.

Caffeine, included in a complex of therapeutic measures for neuroses, increases excitation and thereby has a beneficial effect on inhibition processes. In dogs of the weak type and in excitable animals of the strong type, an overdose of caffeine can be accompanied by depletion of cortical cells, the development of extreme inhibition, and the manifestation of hypnotic phases. The use of caffeine, either alone or in combination with bromides, should be based on careful dosage selection.

Neurochemical changes characteristic of neurotic conditions were studied. It turned out that as a result of the collision, the content of acetylcholine in the blood decreases, and when conditioned reflex activity is restored, it returns to normal. The content of catecholamines increases with the development of neurosis, and in dogs with pronounced motor excitation the level of norepinephrine increases, and in dogs with signs of inhibition - adrenaline. In accordance with this, when treating neuroses, drugs should be selected whose administration restores the balance of the adrenergic and cholinergic systems of the brain.

Neuroleptics have a calming and normalizing effect on behavior. Good results in the treatment of neuroses have been obtained with the use of chlorpromazine, which reduces the overall level of activity of the central nervous system. It eliminates the phenomena of stagnant inhibition, fear of open space, cyclical behavior, reduces the level of passive-defensive reactions, stimulates appetite (if food is refused), and relieves autonomic disorders. If neurotic symptoms are less pronounced, you can use drugs of the same series that have a milder effect - propazine, triftazine, trioxazine and others.

The group of minor tranquilizers includes meprobamate, chlordiaze oxide, diazepam, phenazepam. They have a beneficial effect on the implementation of already developed conditioned reflexes in dogs placed in a conflict situation (for example, a clash of food and defensive motivations). All tranquilizers reduce emotional stress such as fear and anxiety. Depressed animals become more active, more proactive, and their relationships with other dogs are restored. Elimination of fear can lead to an increase in aggressive reactions in dogs under the influence of sedative medications, which is important for watchdog and protective guard services. In this case, claims to a leading position in the group may arise. Overdoses of tranquilizers can make it difficult to develop new skills (memorization worsens), as well as cause a number of undesirable shifts in the formation and implementation of behavioral acts. The muscle relaxant effect of tranquilizers can reduce the strength and accuracy of a dog's movements. Daytime tranquilizers, such as gidazepam, are free from this deficiency.

In the treatment of neuroses, amizil and metamisil (anticholinergics) are used, which reduce the level of fear, relieve depression and improve the production of conditioned reflexes. An overdose of these drugs leads to serious intoxication.

The effectiveness of tranquilizers is most fully manifested in the stage of pre-neurosis. They correct emotional behavior, improve the development of skills, and eliminate autonomic disorders. However, in the stage of full-blown neurosis, their effect can be short-term and be replaced by deterioration in indicators of higher nervous activity. In laboratory conditions, a combination of tranquilizers with psychostimulants and antidepressants was used, which in some cases gave good results. We caution, however, dog breeders against self-prescribing these medications. Their choice and dosage can only be determined by a specialist, who will be guided in his decisions by many criteria.

3.11. CONCLUSION

The solution to problems of higher nervous activity is successfully developing and, presumably, we will continue to witness new discoveries in this rather complex area. Undoubtedly, every new achievement in understanding the motivational-emotional sphere and behavior of animals, including, of course, dogs, is of paramount applied importance. Thanks to advances in physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology, it is possible to make significant corrections in the development of animals used by humans for a variety of service purposes. The search for adequate effects on the animal’s body at different age periods, put on a scientific basis, makes it possible to improve its phenotype. An example here is the use of an enriched environment in which the puppy is placed in a environment that promotes brain maturation and therefore optimizes behavior later in life. Advances in the science of nutrition and digestion are also noteworthy, thanks to which optimal diets have been developed.

Particular attention should be paid to the problem of pharmacological effects on the animal’s body in order to improve its appearance and performance qualities. In laboratory conditions, it has been shown that phenomenal results can be achieved with the help of hormones and psychopharmacological drugs. Here, however, many surprises await us. Stimulating a healthy body with psychostimulants (caffeine, sydnocarb, etc.) leads to short-term success, but begins an imbalance that is often difficult to correct over many months and even years.

Another thing is the correction of disorders of higher nervous activity. Thanks to the development of psychopharmacology, it has become possible to normalize disrupted behavior. With the help of aminazine, it is possible to tame the most ferocious animal; minor tranquilizers have become firmly established in the arsenal of means for combating neurotic reactions. But we must not forget about the purely individual sensitivity of dogs to the effects of these drugs. Their unwise use can do more harm than good. Diseases caused by an overdose of substances that affect the state of the central nervous system often turn out to be much more severe than the illnesses that the treatment was aimed at eliminating. Therefore, in all cases related to the need to correct higher nervous activity, it is necessary to consult a specialist with a deep understanding of the internal mechanisms that ensure behavior.

3.12. Editor's Notes on the Use of Psychotropic Drugs in Dog Breeding

The chapter on behavior management was written by one of the best specialists in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity. As the reader can see, the author’s position regarding the use of pharmacological agents to artificially regulate the behavior of dogs is not only strictly scientific, but also humane.

The author is cautious about the use of drugs to correct the behavior of animals, both due to the insufficiency of modern knowledge for a targeted influence on the individual psyche, and for reasons of a humane nature (fear of the animal becoming disabled). Professor V.G. Cassil believes that a deep knowledge of the physiology of behavior in most cases is quite enough to do without the still imperfect pharmacological agents. Indeed, as is clearly shown in the chapter, skillfully using physiological techniques and knowledge, you can very effectively, no worse than many drugs, influence the behavior of an animal. I don’t know, for example, of a medicine that would better increase a dog’s sensitivity, attention, orienting reaction than a slight feeling of hunger, or act in a calming manner better than satiety.

By and large, a physiologist always looks at the problem of regulating body functions more deeply and thoroughly than a practitioner or doctor. The vulnerability of the position of a negative attitude towards the use of psychotropic drugs in dog breeding, apparently, is only in the fact that, despite almost the same arguments, medicine still uses them (psychotropic drugs today are among the most frequently used - the sales volume of psychotropic drugs in developed countries by 1990 approached $10 billion). In addition, the reality is that some dog breeders already use psychotropic drugs, and this creates inequality of opportunity and the need for knowledge of the pharmacology of psychotropic drugs to organize control over their use. It is also unlikely that the use of psychotropic treatment of dogs during their exploitation should be condemned. A working kennel, whose dogs must serve intensively, cannot refuse the opportunity to speed up training, relieve stress, increase the sensitivity of dogs, even if some of them break down faster. The only thing to be condemned is the illiterate use of the capabilities of modern psychopharmacology.

It should also be recognized that selection achievements in dog breeding have led a number of breeds (or lines within breeds) to actually consolidate psychopathology in the genotype of a significant group of animals. Indeed, pit bull terriers, to which the press has firmly assigned the epithet of “killer dogs,” differ from most breeds not so much in their exterior features as in their psyche (unbridled anger, insensitivity to pain, stubbornness, etc.). This may be considered a hereditary mental illness rather than a healthy natural behavior option. For a person who, for one reason or another, has become the owner of a pit bull, the use of psychotropic drugs may be necessary and the only humane method of controlling the behavior of his dog. The use of antidepressants can be a way out of a difficult situation for many owners of decorative indoor dogs with a vulnerable psyche. Apparently, it is no coincidence that the success of P. Neville’s book “Do Dogs Need Shrinks?”, 1992 (“Do Dogs Need a Psychiatrist?”), which became a bestseller in last years. This book and chapter written by V.G. Kassilem, different in many ways. In my opinion, the chapter is deeper and more accurate than Peter Neuville's book. Of course, this reflects not only the difference in the approaches of the authors, but also the difference in the problems facing domestic and foreign dog breeder readers. But the works of P. Neuville and V.G. Kassil is united by the humane approach and the priority of physiological methods of solving problems over pharmacological ones, which, however, are not excluded.

The temptation to use psychotropic drugs on a healthy animal as doping is quite great, and the standards of exhibitions and competitions are so vague and the chances of catching a violator are so small that one can only be surprised that the use of such methods has not yet become universal in our not very civilized conditions. I know for sure that dog breeders use painkillers, sedatives and stimulants as doping agents during dog shows. I have met completely illiterate trainers who specialize in dogs that are difficult to train (higher fees) and use a course of nootropics. A not very competent dog breeder sometimes takes a pharmacological reference book and selects from it psychotropic drugs with the desired effect, in the opinion of the dog breeder. In this case, preference is usually given to the most powerful drugs and completely forgotten about such rather mild and effective drugs as vitamins, adaptogens and other drugs, the use of which in most cases would be more justified due to the normalization of the functional state of the dog’s body and its nervous system. .

Brain cells are very sensitive to oxygen starvation, and therefore, in many cases, instead of saturating the internal environment of the body with foreign chemical compounds, it is better to provide the animal with exercise and good hematopoiesis. Only when physiological means of improving brain activity have been exhausted can one, for example, try antihypoxic drugs.

Conscious refusal to use psychotropic drugs on healthy animals is highly desirable. It requires a lot of educational work. Concealing information only leads to the fact that practitioners use the most crude techniques, the dramatic effect of which creates advertising for them and at the same time makes them the most dangerous in the wrong hands. The conviction of the need to refrain from the doping use of psychotropic drugs in dog breeding is all the more important since it is very difficult to establish appropriate effective control.

Control of the use of psychotropic drugs, in principle, can be based on recognizing the physiological signs of the action of these substances and on detecting traces and products of doping in the body. Biochemical test results are usually more reliable when the answer is positive than when it is negative. The latter can be obtained not only in the case of the doping purity of the animal, but also due to the limited capabilities of the detection technique (they were looking for the wrong thing, using the wrong method, not then, etc.). It is especially difficult to detect doping if it is indistinguishable from the natural components of the body’s biochemical composition. This applies to natural hormones and other regulators of nervous system functions, their precursors and rapidly metabolized “provocateurs” of a cascade of events leading to a doping effect by the time the original stimulus has already disappeared from the internal environment of the body.

Inadequately dilated pupils, surges in blood pressure, hyperemia of the mucous membranes, and other autonomic components of the effect of psychotropic drugs on a dog can draw the expert’s attention to the possibility of doping. In the absence of chemical control over the use of doping in dog breeding, in fundamental issues of breeding work, it is necessary to pay more attention to long-term observations of the animal, and repeated, unscheduled examinations of it.

Apparently, the problem of psychotropic doping is most acute in an industry that is unpleasant to most dog breeders, but actually exists - fighting and racing. Among other things, these types of competitions are usually associated with monetary stakes and the hard-heartedness of the owners (who love their dogs for victories and are offended by them for defeats). Here, equality of chances is possible either with permissiveness (everyone is equal, since everyone is allowed to do everything), or with the most stringent doping control. It may be necessary to introduce long-term holding of dogs before competitions in isolated kennels (short-term drugs will be eliminated), mandatory tests of urine, blood, etc. Due to the difficulty of detecting doping, it is probably necessary to legitimize the most severe punishments and ostracism of violators for using those methods that are prohibited. Severe punishment can enhance the deterrent effect of the possibility of being caught doping.

The streamlined phrase in the current regulations on dog shows, which states that “a dog breeder should not use methods to hide the animal’s deficiencies,” should be specified taking into account the characteristics of psychotropic doping stimulation and modern control methods. Otherwise, this puts, for example, special training, handling and specialized feeding of dogs with muscular deficiencies on the same level with psychotropic treatment of animals with defects in higher nervous activity.

Notes:

When we talk about the coincidence in time of conditioned and unconditional signals, we mean the somewhat advanced action of the first (the advance should be at least 0.6 s). If the signal and reinforcement completely coincide, or if the command is delayed, the conditioned reflex is not developed. This is a common reason for failures among novice trainers - the signal and unconditioned reflex reinforcement are given at the same time and the skill is not developed. The experiment demonstrated the possibility of forming a conditioned reflex when the order of action of the stimuli is reversed to the usual, i.e. the indifferent stimulus precedes the conditioned one and “covers” it. In this case, however, the resulting conditioned reflex is unstable, quickly fades away and can turn into an inhibitory one.

During training, first-order conditioned reflexes, developed and strengthened using positive (food, stroking, etc.) and negative (punishment) reinforcement of distant conditioned stimuli, serve as the basis for the further formation of various skills. For example, a whistle signals encouragement, and a clap signals punishment. With the help of these signals, the trainer controls the behavior of the animal in free movement over a considerable distance. Traditional commands “Okay!” and “Ugh!” are such signals. Naturally, the signal rewards and punishments themselves require periodic reinforcement according to the laws of conservation of conditioned reflexes.

"May 28, 1828 on the street German city A young man of about sixteen appeared in Nuremberg. He could barely walk, uttered inarticulate sounds and handed passersby a letter addressed to the commander of the dragoon squadron. The officer to whom he was brought read in the letter that its bearer Kaspar Hauser spent his entire life alone. Further, the hope was expressed that he could become a soldier. The requirements for the intelligence of a Prussian soldier were very small, but the young man seemed to the officer to be so underdeveloped that it was impossible to use him even as a recruit. Hauser was handed over to the city authorities, who became interested in him and declared him adopted by the city, entrusting him to the care of Dr. Daumer.

Kaspar Hauser did not speak and did not understand the speech addressed to him. He was afraid of light, but saw well in the dark and had a keen sense of smell. He did not take any food except bread and water. The conscientious Doctor Daumer seriously began studying the state and capabilities of the patient’s psyche, his upbringing and training. Kaspar didn’t know how to do anything, and as a small child, he had to be taught the most basic things: sit on a chair, hold a spoon, etc. The doctor taught him to eat porridge and some other dishes, and later to speak somehow. It turned out that the young man did not know who he was or where he came from. He spent his whole life in a dark shack, perhaps in a basement, on straw. When he slept, someone brought him a loaf of bread and a ladle of water. The water sometimes tasted bitter, and after drinking it, he quickly fell asleep, and woke up to find a clean shirt on. Several times he managed to see the person taking care of him, but his face was covered by a mask. There was a lot of childishness in Kaspar’s behavior: for example, he willingly played with the wooden horse he had been given as a gift. His judgments were extremely primitive. The young man showed neither desire nor ability to master work skills, and the only activity that seemed to arouse some interest in him was gardening. Kaspar's vocabulary was poor, his grammatical structure was simplified.

When Houser was able to talk about his past, a masked man made an attempt on his life. Interest in his personality intensified. He became famous in Europe, and some rich Englishman wanted to adopt him. But, having gotten to know Kaspar better, he abandoned this idea and returned the young man to Germany. On December 14, 1831, in the city of Anabakh, an unknown killer inflicted a fatal stab wound on him. On the grave of Kaspar Hauser there was an inscription carved: “Here lies the mystery of the century. His birth was shrouded in mystery, and his death was also mysterious.”

In the last century about Kaspar Hauser wrote a lot. At the same time, the lack of facts was more than compensated for by fiction. Most authors agreed that the many years of imprisonment and murder of the young man were politically motivated. One of the versions, according to the Brockhaus encyclopedic dictionary, comes down to the fact that the murdered man was most likely the son of the Grand Duke of Baden from his first marriage and, therefore, his heir. The duke's second wife, wanting to ensure the future of her son, doomed the direct heir to imprisonment and then to death. Isn't it a ready-made plot for a historical detective story?

But the story of Kaspar Hauser interests us only in one respect: it drew the attention of the general European public to the dependence of mental functions and the behavioral reactions of a person that reflect them on the environment, on the conditions of upbringing and training. This convinced us that the traits characteristic of the human personality, and in particular, thinking and speech, are not inherited. Only the ability to develop human intelligence, which means thinking and speech, is inherited. In this regard, one of the methods widely accepted in biology and psychology that allows one to differentiate innate, or instinctive, skills from those acquired during life, is called the Kasparhauser method.

Kasparhauser's method consists of observing the development and behavioral reactions of animals growing in conditions of isolation from their relatives. They have no one to teach them, nevertheless, their behavior may have something in common with individuals of the same species raised in ordinary conditions, surrounded by their own kind, and above all by their mother. Thus, it is possible to identify heritable forms of behavior, which naturalists consider as characteristic of a given species, based on instinct, or, as later said I.P. Pavlov, innate, or unconditioned, reflexes.

The first such experiment was apparently carried out by the French naturalist Frédéric Cuvier, the younger brother of the famous Georges Cuvier- founder of modern comparative anatomy and paleontology. Immediately after birth, the scientist separated the beaver from its mother and began feeding it with human breast milk. When he grew up, he was switched to plant food, and he peeled some of the willow twigs that were part of his diet from the bark and put it in the corner of the cage. Then they brought earth into the cage, and the animal began, as befits a beaver, to compact it with its tail and stick rods into it. There was no doubt that in the process of this work the little beaver was blindly guided by instinct ... "

Nikiforov A.S., Etudes about Reason, M., “Soviet Russia”, 1981, p. 47-50.

Behavior is determined by a combination of three main factors:

Biological properties of the body (heredity; neuropsychiatric diseases; physicochemical disorders in the environment);
a person’s personality as a set of individual mental characteristics (moral and legal consciousness, value orientations, attitudes, etc.);
external environment with its economic, social, political, cultural and other norms.

Excessive mental and physical stress that occurs in emergency situations, can reduce the effectiveness of behavior and activity up to complete disorganization. The so-called difficult conditions that arise on this basis can be expressed in stress, frustration, anxiety, and fear.

Stress (English: pressure, tension) is a special state of a person during the period of adaptation to new conditions of existence. Its mental expression can be increased anxiety, self-doubt, and overwork.

Frustration (Latin frustratio - deception, futile expectation) is an acute experience of an unsatisfied need, both biological (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.) and social. From the point of view of a violation in the sphere of behavior, frustration can appear at two levels: as a loss of volitional control (disorganization of behavior) or as a decrease in the degree of conditioning of consciousness by adequate motivation (loss of patience and hope).

Anxiety is tension, painful mental discomfort. Stimuli that were previously neutral increase anxiety. Intense anxiety reduces the possibility of logical assessment of perceived information and its correct processing.

Fear - a feeling of hopelessness, the inevitability of an impending disaster - causes increased physical activity and a panicked search for help.

Anxious-fearful arousal - this is the name given to the extreme expression of anxiety disorders. It is characterized by disorganization of behavior and the impossibility of purposeful activity.

Extreme situations are associated with mental trauma, which can cause mental illness, collectively called psychogenic. The clinical manifestations of such disorders are varied. The largest share belongs to neuroses and reactive psychoses.

Neuroses are a group of diseases that arise under the influence of mental trauma, accompanied by disturbances in well-being and somatovegetative functions, increased mental exhaustion with a fairly intact assessment of the environment and awareness of the fact of one’s painful condition.

Reactive psychoses are pronounced psychogenically caused disorders of a predominantly psychotic nature, arising in connection with the action of factors that threaten the life, well-being of the individual or are especially significant for him. These disorders occur due to severe emotional stress. There are observations when mental disorders after severe traumas arise after some time (delayed reactions) and do not go away for a long time after the end of the emotional trauma.

Depending on the clinical manifestations, reactive conditions are divided into acute and protracted.

Acute reactive states (affective-shock reaction) manifest themselves in the form of excitement or inhibition, up to stupor. Reactions with excitement occur against the background of a narrowed consciousness. People's behavior during this period is chaotic and disorderly. People's actions are meaningless, and sometimes even to their detriment. For example, during a fire, persons overwhelmed by such chaotic excitement may jump out of a window and die, although there may not have been an immediate threat to life.

After recovering from this state, patients do not remember well what happened and experience a state of general weakness, lethargy, and apathy. In case of affective-shock reactions with inhibition, partial or complete immobility (state of stupor) may occur. Individuals with such conditions have difficulty performing activities.

In conditions of threatening danger, a person experiences particular heaviness in his legs, his movements are slowed down. He is unable to act clearly and quickly to avoid danger. Sometimes in such situations a kind of numbness (stupor) sets in. However, persons who are in a state of partial or complete inhibition can quite correctly perceive and assess the situation around them.

Affective shock states, as already noted, arise in life-threatening conditions and pass when these circumstances disappear. Such patients are usually not observed in a hospital setting.

Another group consists of prolonged psychogenic reactions. They can occur after events that are of particular significance for the patient (death of loved ones, threat to further well-being, etc.). The most typical forms of such reactions are reactive depression and reactive paranoid.

The following examples illustrate the behavior of people in stressful situations, when certain mental disorders led to serious consequences.

The most typical state of agitation during an accident is an inadequacy of perception of the surrounding reality. In particular, there is a violation of the estimation of time intervals, which makes it difficult to understand the situation as a whole. An example would be this observation. During the flight along the route, the plane caught fire. The crew, in addition to the pilot, included two more people. The outcome of the situation: the pilot ejected, and the rest of the crew died, although they also had ejection units at their disposal.

During the investigation, it turned out that the commander, before ejecting, gave the command to leave the plane, however, according to him, he did not receive an answer, although he waited for several minutes. In fact, the time interval between the command and the ejection was only a few seconds. The remaining crew members were unable to prepare for ejection during this period of time. The fractions of a second were subjectively perceived by the pilot as minutes, which led to the death of two people.

Short-term stupor in life-threatening conditions is characterized by sudden numbness. At the same time, intellectual activity is preserved. The pilot, flying at an altitude of 8000 m, heard a sharp bang. He associated this sound with an explosion. This put him in a state of short-term stupor - he could not control the plane due to the ensuing stupor. During this time, the plane lost 3000 m of altitude. Realizing that the sound was caused by an engine failure, the pilot returned to normal and began to act in accordance with the situation.

When intentions for action have already been formed and begin to be realized, the appearance of unexpected, uncertain stimuli deals a “blow” to the foresight system. This “blow” can cause an affective state even in highly prepared people.

Deviant forms of behavior

Deviant behavior is relative because it is measured only by the cultural norms of a given group. For example, criminals consider extortion to be a normal way of earning money, but the majority of the population considers such behavior deviant. This also applies to certain types of social behavior: in some societies they are considered deviant, in others not. In general, forms of deviant behavior usually include criminality, alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, gambling, mental disorder, and suicide.

One of the typologies of deviant behavior recognized in modern sociology, developed by R. Merton in line with the idea of ​​deviance as a result of anomie, i.e. the process of destruction of the basic elements of culture, primarily in terms of ethical standards.

Merton's typology of deviant behavior is based on the idea of ​​deviance as a gap between cultural goals and socially approved ways of achieving them.

In accordance with this, he identifies four possible types of deviation:

Innovation, which presupposes agreement with the goals of society and the rejection of generally accepted methods of achieving them (“innovators” include prostitutes, blackmailers, creators of “financial pyramids”, great scientists);
ritualism associated with the denial of the goals of a given society and the absurd exaggeration of the importance of ways to achieve them, for example, a bureaucrat demands that each document be carefully filled out, double checked, filed in four copies, but the main thing is forgotten - the goal;
retreatism (or escape from reality), expressed in the rejection of both socially approved goals and methods of achieving them (drunks, drug addicts, homeless people, etc.);
a rebellion that denies both goals and methods, but strives to replace them with new ones (revolutionaries striving for a radical breakdown of all social relations).

Merton considers the only type of non-deviant behavior to be conformal, expressed in agreement with the goals and means of achieving them. Merton's typology focuses on the fact that deviation is not a product of an absolutely negative attitude towards generally accepted norms and standards. For example, a thief does not reject a socially approved goal - material well-being; he can strive for it with the same zeal as a young man concerned about his career. The bureaucrat does not abandon the generally accepted rules of work, but he follows them too literally, reaching the point of absurdity. At the same time, both the thief and the bureaucrat are deviants.

Some causes of deviant behavior are not social in nature, but biopsychic. For example, a tendency towards alcoholism, drug addiction, and mental disorders can be transmitted from parents to children. In the sociology of deviant behavior, there are several directions that explain the reasons for its occurrence. Thus, Merton, using the concept of “anomie” (a state of society in which old norms and values ​​no longer correspond to real relations, and new ones have not yet been established), considered the cause of deviant behavior to be the inconsistency of the goals put forward by society and the means that it offers for their achievements. Within the framework of the direction based on conflict theory, it is argued that social patterns of behavior are deviant if they are based on the norms of another culture. For example, a criminal is considered as a bearer of a certain subculture that is in conflict with the dominant type of culture in a given society. A number of modern domestic sociologists believe that the sources of deviation are social inequality in society, differences in the ability to satisfy the needs of different social groups.

There are relationships between various forms of deviant behavior, with one negative phenomenon strengthening the other. For example, alcoholism contributes to increased hooliganism. Marginalization is one of the causes of deviance. The main sign of marginalization is the breakdown of social ties, and in the “classical” version, economic and social ties are broken first, and then spiritual ones. As a characteristic feature of the social behavior of marginalized people, one can name a decrease in the level of social expectations and social needs. The consequence of marginalization is the primitivization of certain segments of society, manifested in production, everyday life, and spiritual life.

Another group of causes of deviant behavior is associated with the spread of various kinds of social pathologies, in particular the increase in mental illness, alcoholism, drug addiction, and the deterioration of the genetic fund of the population.

Vagrancy and begging, which represent a special way of life (refusal to participate in socially useful work, focusing only on unearned income), have recently become widespread among various types of social deviations. The social danger of social deviations of this kind is that tramps and beggars often act as intermediaries in the distribution of drugs, commit thefts and other crimes.

Deviant behavior in modern society has some features. This behavior is increasingly becoming risky and rational. The main difference between deviants who consciously take risks and adventurers is their reliance on professionalism, faith not in fate and chance, but in knowledge and conscious choice. Deviant risk behavior contributes to self-actualization, self-realization and self-affirmation of the individual.

Often deviant behavior is associated with addiction, i.e. with the desire to avoid internal socio-psychological discomfort, to change one’s socio-psychological state, characterized by internal struggle, intrapersonal conflict. Therefore, the deviant path is chosen primarily by those who do not have a legal opportunity for self-realization in the conditions of the existing social hierarchy, whose individuality is suppressed and personal aspirations are blocked. Such people cannot make a career or change their social status using legitimate channels of social mobility, due to which they consider generally accepted norms of order unnatural and unfair.

If one or another type of deviation acquires a stable character and becomes the norm of behavior for many, society is obliged to reconsider the principles that stimulate deviant behavior, or to reassess social norms. Otherwise, behavior that was considered deviant may become normal.

To prevent destructive deviation from becoming widespread, it is necessary:

Expand access to legitimate ways to achieve success and move up the social ladder;
observe social equality before the law;
improve legislation, bringing it into line with new social realities;
strive for adequacy of crime and punishment.

Form of social behavior

Just as temperature can indicate the health and unhealthiness of the body, so a social norm and its compliance can characterize social health. Social ill-being can be judged by deviations from social norms - ethical, legal, deviations of various types, including aggressive (causing physical and moral harm to another), selfish (misappropriation of what does not belong to oneself), social-passive, expressed in various forms of self-destructive behavior (alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, sexual promiscuity and prostitution, they also have the consequences of physical and spiritual destruction of the individual).

Social norms are instructions, requirements, wishes and expectations of appropriate (socially approved) behavior. Norms are certain ideal samples (templates) that prescribe what people should say, think, feel and do in specific situations. A norm is a measure of acceptable behavior of an individual or group that has historically developed in a particular society. These are some kind of boundaries. The norm also means something statistically average, or the rule of large numbers (“like everyone else”). For example, the length of active age may vary depending on the specific time and society.

Kinds:

1. Habits are established patterns (stereotypes) of behavior in certain situations.
2. Manners - external forms human behavior that receives positive or negative assessment from others. Manners distinguish the well-mannered from the ill-mannered, secular people from commoners. If habits are acquired spontaneously, then good manners must be cultivated.
3. Etiquette is a system of rules of behavior adopted in special social circles that make up a single whole. Includes special manners, norms, ceremonies and rituals. It characterizes the upper strata of society and belongs to the area of ​​elite culture.
4. Custom is a traditionally established order of behavior. It is also based on habit, but refers not to individual but to collective habits. These are socially approved mass patterns of actions that are recommended to be performed.
5. Tradition - everything that is inherited from predecessors. Originally this word meant “tradition.” If habits and customs are passed on from one generation to another, they become traditions.
6. Ritual is a type of tradition. It characterizes not selective, but mass actions. It is a set of actions established by custom or ritual. They express some religious ideas or everyday traditions. Rituals are not limited to one social group, but apply to all segments of the population. Rituals accompany important moments in human life.
7. Ceremony and ritual. A ceremony is a sequence of actions that have a symbolic meaning and are dedicated to the celebration of certain events or dates. The function of these actions is to emphasize the special value of the events being celebrated for the society or group. A ritual is a highly stylized and carefully planned set of gestures or words performed by persons specially chosen and trained for this purpose. The ritual is endowed with symbolic meaning.
8. Morals are special protected, highly respected mass patterns of action by society. Mores reflect the moral values ​​of society; violation of them is punished more severely than violation of traditions. These are customs that have moral significance. A special form of morals are taboos (an absolute prohibition imposed on any action, word, object). It was especially common in traditional society. In modern society, taboos apply to incest, cannibalism, desecration of graves or insults, etc.
9. Laws - norms and rules of conduct, documented, supported by the political authority of the state. By laws, society protects the most precious and revered values: human life, state secrets, human rights and dignity, property.
10. Fashion and hobbies. Infatuation is a short-term emotional addiction. The change of hobbies that have taken hold of large groups is called fashion.
11. Values ​​are socially approved and shared by most people ideas about what good is. Justice, patriotism, friendship, etc. Values ​​are not questioned; they serve as a standard, an ideal for all people. To describe what values ​​people are guided by, sociologists use the term value orientations. Values ​​belong to the group or society, value orientations belong to the individual. Values ​​are beliefs shared by many people about goals to strive for.
12. Beliefs - conviction, emotional commitment to any idea, real or illusory.
13. Code of honor. Among the rules governing people's behavior, there are special ones that are based on the concept of honor. They have ethical content and mean how a person should behave so as not to tarnish his reputation, dignity and good name.

By subjects: universal, society, group, collective.

By object: political, economic, aesthetic, religious, etc.

Method of provision: based on internal conviction, public opinion or coercion, on the power of the state. apparatus.

By function: norms of evaluation, guiding, controlling, regulating, punishing, encouraging.

According to the form of formation and fixation: rigidly fixed and flexible, or norms-expectations and norms-rules.

In the social behavior of people there are many undesirable deviations from social norms, in other words, deviations. Another sociological concept is associated with them - deviant behavior.

Only the conformist type of behavior is distinguished by the consistency of goals and means and is desirable and non-deviant. Innovation is characterized as the pursuit of a socially significant goal while rejecting legal means of achieving it. A similar situation arises in cases where achieving the desired goals is difficult or blocked for some reason. For example, the desire to be rich is often impossible to realize legally. Ritualism involves the renunciation of high cultural goals when they turn out to be inaccessible, while unconditionally following institutional norms. The justification for ritualism is based on statements like: “I am happy with what I have”, “Others are in a much worse situation than me”, “The higher you fly, the more painful it is to fall”... retreatism is chosen by people who have experienced an acute internal conflict between well internalized moral standards and the impossibility of achieving desired goals by generally accepted means. Deviation in this case manifests itself in the rejection of both goals and means. It is demonstrated by alcoholics, drug addicts, homeless people, tramps and other marginalized people. Rebellion or rebellion involves a course of action against prevailing social norms and leads to their replacement by others.

The nature of deviant behavior depends, firstly, on how a person is taught to respond to emerging difficulties: through creative or destructive actions, and secondly, on the way in which society stimulates creative actions of the individual. The main criterion for determining the nature of deviant behavior is its form of implementation, in particular the presence of an attribute of violence.

Destructive deviation cannot be identified only with crime (also called delinquent behavior). Crime is behavior that is criminally punishable, prohibited by law, and is only one form of this type of deviant behavior. For a long time in our society there has been an increase in negative deviant social behavior, certain types of which (drug addiction, corruption, alcoholism, suicide) threaten depopulation. At the same time, the duration of manifestation of the deviant nature of social behavior contributes to a change in the functional state of society. Society today itself reproduces destructive human behavior, those forms of it that contribute to a mismatch of interests between people, alienation, marginalization and other social pathologies.

Positive deviations are when they contribute to the progress of society, increase the level of its organization, and help overcome outdated, conservative or even reactionary standards of behavior. Therefore, in a post-industrial society, the main thing is not physical strength, but the ability to innovate.

In modern culture, social behavior presupposes not so much a person’s preservation of his status (which is typical for traditional culture), but rather his skillful and reasonable adaptation to a specific situation. What is most highly valued is not the literal observance of the rules, but the ability to break them if necessary. In this regard, the role of the individual increases sharply. The individual is forced, instead of fulfilling mandatory instructions and prohibitions of ritualized behavior, to creatively play with significantly more mobile norms. By creating social forms of his existence, a person can either establish himself in the world or destroy him. The choice of the future is possible both in the “ascending” direction of social improvement and along the “descending” path, revealing destructiveness. The main task for a person is seen to be to resist the destructive forces of the world.

Children's behavior patterns

The changes taking place in modern society contribute to the emergence of many problems associated with raising children. Unfortunately, every year the number of preschoolers whose aggressive and conflictual actions are surprising at best is growing. Inappropriate antisocial behavior, lack of interest in learning, inability to communicate children's team- all these are signs of a “difficult” child with deviant behavior.

Deviance is a deviation from the norm. When this term is used to describe a child’s behavior, it means that his actions do not fit into the generally accepted framework and go beyond established norms.

Each scientific discipline defines the concept of deviant behavior in its own way:

1. In social sciences, deviance is some social phenomena that pose a threat to the social and physical survival of a person in the immediate environment, a certain social environment. These phenomena disrupt the process of assimilation and reproduction of norms and values, and become an obstacle to self-development and self-realization in society.
2. In medicine, deviant behavior is considered from the point of view of neuropsychic health.
3. In psychology, deviant behavior in children is determined by an erroneous antisocial pattern of resolving conflict situations and complete ignorance of true reality, which leads to violation of accepted norms or harm to others and oneself.

Causes of abnormal child behavior

The reasons that cause deviations in a child’s behavior are so diverse and complex that it is almost impossible to single out one decisive one in each specific case. Most often, the background to deviant behavior is a complex of problems: social and biological factors, features of the child’s physiological and mental development, and the specifics of the environment.

Medical and biological reasons. This group of reasons is divided into three main subgroups:

Congenital;
hereditary;
acquired reasons.

Congenital causes are caused by intrauterine damage to the fetus during pregnancy. This could be: toxicosis, the consequences of drug intoxication, somatic and chronic infectious diseases of the expectant mother (especially at the beginning of pregnancy), her poor nutrition and unhealthy lifestyle (drinking alcohol or drugs, smoking).

Congenital causes influence the maturation of the nervous system, thereby influencing the individual characteristics of the baby and disrupting the mechanisms of voluntary regulation of behavior. As a result, the child’s natural mental development may slow down or change, which will aggravate age-related crises and lead to deviant behavior.

Hereditary causes are caused by damage to the genetic material: gene or chromosomal mutations, metabolic defects that affect the maturation of brain structures. This results in mental development disorders, physical defects, hearing or vision defects, and damage to the nervous system.

Hereditary characteristics the main characteristics of the nervous system are explained little man, on which the child’s temperament, fatigue and ability to work, the child’s sensitivity to the environment, the ability to quickly adapt and establish contacts depend.

Acquired causes arise during the life of the baby. Along with the influence of heredity, the inferiority of the nerve cells of the brain, which is caused by severe illnesses of the child at an early age and traumatic brain injury, is also of no small importance.

Acquired causes also include somatic and nervous diseases, chronic diseases with repeated relapses. Long-term illnesses often become sources of neuroses, developmental delays, and provoke disobedience and aggression. They contribute to a decrease in the mental ability to master certain activities and interfere with establishing contacts with peers. As a result, the child’s personality and behavior are formed in a pathological manner. And after this it manifests itself in the child’s emotional instability, weakening of his adaptive and protective mechanisms.

Social reasons

First of all, the social causes of deviant behavior in young children and adolescents include a dysfunctional family environment. The concept of “family dysfunction” includes various negative characteristics: intrafamily relationships, defects in its quantitative, structural and age-gender composition, connections of household members with various external social institutions (for example, with representatives of a kindergarten).

Dysfunctional families, in which conditions are created for an increased risk of deviant behavior in the child, are divided into the following types:

Numerous studies have shown that dysfunctional families are characterized by the following types of inadequate parenting:

Hidden neglect (parents perform their duties purely formally);
condoning neglect (adults do not criticize the child’s abnormal behavior in any way);
excessive severity and exactingness towards the baby;
emotional rejection;
overprotection and excessive unreasonable admiration for the child.

Unfavorable family environment and inadequate methods of education, lack of common language with parents, inability to establish relationships with others - all this can become a prerequisite for the manifestation of deviant behavior in the child preschool age.

Pedagogical reasons

Often, adults who demand discipline from a child and adherence to a culture of behavior stumble upon the preschooler’s question “Why?” You need to answer in a timely and reasoned manner. If adults could not or did not want to explain to the child the essence of a certain requirement, the result is the formation of a distorted understanding of the child about generally accepted norms. The discrepancy between the statements of adults and the actual violation by them of these statements is a negative example for a child.

Another pedagogical reason is the abuse of prohibitions. If adults exceed restrictive measures, it is quite possible for the child to have a back defensive reaction in the form of abnormal behavior.

When adults do not fully take into account the individual, age and psychological characteristics of the child, the likelihood of errors in assessing his capabilities increases. And this leads to conflicts and abnormal manifestations of behavior.

Psychological reasons

In children of primary preschool age, behavioral deviations are manifested by outbursts of anger. The child can react very violently to the restriction imposed by the parents: squeal, start kicking or suffocate. If parents manage to ignore the whims and demands of the baby, learn to distract him in moments of childish rage, such undesirable manifestations will be overcome.

However, it should be noted that up to 5 years of age, such deviations in the behavior of children are considered within normal limits.

In older preschool age, the child learns what a “struggle of emotions” is. He understands this as a contradiction between the perception of his “I” and the assessments of others. At this age, parenting mistakes can lead to the baby being consumed by his own emotions. And this, in turn, becomes the cause of deviant behavior.

Correction and prevention of deviant behavior in preschool children

The main problems of children with deviant behavior are their inability to control themselves and interact effectively with others.

In order to eliminate distortions in emotional response and existing behavioral stereotypes, and rebuild the child’s full-fledged contacts with peers, the following solutions have been identified:

1. Formation of the child’s interest in the people around him and the desire to understand them.
2. Consolidation of communication skills, basic knowledge about the rules of behavior.
3. Developing skills of adequate behavior.
4. Teaching the child to correctly evaluate himself and balance his emotional states.
5. Development of the ability to communicate in various situations through various forms.

Behavior correction methods should be based on organizing activities that are interesting to the child.

Since play is the leading type of activity for preschool children, for the development of the communicative and emotional sphere, as a rule, the following are used:

Communication and outdoor games;
acting out “difficult situations”;
rhythmic games with words;
playing music and dancing;
reading and discussing fairy tales.

The last point deserves special attention. After all, fairy tales are very closely related to games, and therefore fairy tale therapy is one of the directions in the correction and prevention of deviant behavior in preschool children. Fairy tales help children form the concepts of “good” and “evil,” reveal their creative potential, and teach them to correctly evaluate the actions of both their own and those of others.

For a preschool child, a fairy tale has an extraordinary attractive power. She allows him to freely fantasize and dream. At the same time, a fairy tale for a child is not only fantasy and fiction, but also a special reality that expands the boundaries of everyday life. In a fairy tale, you can encounter complex feelings and phenomena, and comprehend the adult world of experiences in a form accessible to children’s understanding.

In addition, young children have a highly developed identification mechanism. In other words, the baby easily unites himself with a fairy-tale character, most often choosing a positive hero. The reason for this is not that the baby understands the full depth of human relationships. It’s just that if you compare the hero with other characters, the position of the hero attracts the baby more. Thanks to this, the child learns moral values ​​and norms.

In addition to games and corrective activities, a child with deviant behavior needs a solid daily routine and proper nutrition, in monitoring the programs and films watched on TV. And parents need to be patient and understanding, and learn self-control.

Today's life is characterized by a revaluation of established values. And first of all, this concerns human relationships. Many pedagogical principles have been recognized as irrelevant, and new ones have not yet been fully formed. Some adults have an insufficient level of psychological and pedagogical culture, and children constantly become objects of not always successful teaching experiments. Ultimately, all this can lead to a wide variety of forms of deviant behavior in young children and, subsequently, adolescents.

Forms of personality behavior

When a person finds himself in an unpleasant conflict situation, he tries to eliminate the internal disharmony that has arisen. This applies to both intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts. But not everyone is able to adequately cope with the pressure of the opposite side. A person in a conflict situation can behave completely differently. There are five main strategies for dealing with conflict. They are based on a system called the Thomas-Kilman method. The system allows you to create your own conflict resolution style for each person. The style of behavior in a particular conflict is determined by the extent to which a team member wants to satisfy his own interests (acting actively or passively) - assertiveness and the interests of the other party (acting jointly or individually) - cooperation.

To describe the types of behavior of people in a conflict situation, K. Thomas proposed using a two-dimensional model of conflict regulation, the main dimensions of which are two independent parameters:

1) the degree to which one’s own interests are realized and one’s goals are achieved;
2) level of cooperation, taking into account the interests of the other party.

Let's take a closer look at these 5 behavioral styles:

Competition (competition) is the desire to achieve one’s interests to the detriment of another. Such a strategy necessarily involves a winner and a loser. A person using this strategy is very active and prefers to go to resolve the conflict in his own way. Such a conflict participant is not interested in cooperation with others and is capable of strong-willed decisions. The one who resorts to this strategy uses his volitional qualities to achieve the goal, and if his will is sufficiently well developed, then he succeeds. Rivalry can be effective if the person using it has some power. In a situation where a person does not have sufficient power and the appropriate status to implement it, the competitive style used in conflicts turns into an obvious “conflict habit”, causing alienation and reluctance to continue communication and even business relationships. With a competitive style, allies are won only when the style of behavior they use brings the desired, positive result - victory.

Accommodation is sacrificing one's own interests for the sake of another. A strategy for smoothing out contradictions, mainly by sacrificing one’s interests. The person does not try to defend his own interests and agree to do what the other participant does not want.

Compromise is a strategy for resolving disagreements and confrontation through mutual concessions. In this case, neither party will adhere to a solution that does not satisfy it. If a compromise is reached without careful consideration of other possible solutions, it may not be the optimal solution to the conflict.

Avoidance - lack of desire for cooperation and lack of tendency to achieve one's own goals. This strategy and its corresponding style of behavior in conflicts are implemented when a person does not defend his rights, does not cooperate with anyone to develop a solution to the problem, or simply avoids resolving the conflict. When avoiding or leaving a conflict, a person may be afraid of confrontation. By avoiding a real resolution of the conflict, he deprives himself of the opportunity to take part in the further development of the situation, but such behavior can lead to the growth of the problem.

In this case, the most typical forms of care are distinguished:

Silence;
- demonstrative removal;
- hidden anger;
- depression;
- ignoring the offender;
- transition to purely business relations;
- indifferent attitude;
- complete rejection of the relationship.

Often the avoidance style is considered an “escape” from problems and responsibility, rather than an effective way out of conflict.

Cooperation is the most productive strategy and style of behavior in conflicts, most often leading to resolution and a productive way out of the conflict with mutual satisfaction of the interests of the participants. However, the collaborative style is difficult to implement, requiring a lot of time and special training for the people using it. With this strategy, satisfying the interests of all participants in the conflict or conflict situation leads to the disappearance of the subject of the conflict and, accordingly, the risk of its consequences is minimized.

Many experts also highlight the strategy of suppression, which involves a tendency to suppress conflict in order to maintain relationships at any cost. In some situations, when confrontation over minor disagreements leads to excessive stress in relationships and can destroy business relationships, peace in the family, when the opponent is not yet ready to listen and understand, the strategy of suppressing the conflict is reasonable. Conflicts sometimes resolve themselves and “burn out” only due to the fact that friendly or business relationships continue to be maintained. Suppressing serious and significant conflicts that require discussion and resolution means that the main controversial issues are not addressed. If a person pretends as if nothing happened, puts up with what is happening so as not to disturb the peace, suppresses all negative emotions, remains silent - he uses various forms of suppression, authoritarianism and, as a result, manipulation to achieve the desired result.

The choice of individual strategies and behavior styles in conflict that are productive for each person, as well as the intention in accordance with the chosen behavior style of a set of influence tactics depends on:

From the personal properties of the conflicting party and its characteristic style of behavior;
- on the style of behavior of the participants involved in the conflict;
- on the nature of the conflict itself, its type;
- on the significance of the conflict for its participants. Topic: “Choice of behavior style in conflict. The Thomas-Kilman concept." Conflictology.

As part of this course work, a study was conducted among first-year PGSGA students of the Faculty of History. In this study, we identified in percentage terms which style of behavior in conflict is most popular in the first year. The study was conducted using Thomson's test among 20 students. Based on its results, we can conclude that 55% of respondents in conflict situations strive for a joint solution to the problem, which would allow both parties to benefit; 17% compete, trying to defend their interests. Another 17% resolve conflict through compromise. The remaining percentage comes from those who prefer to adapt or avoid controversial situations.

Thus, we can conclude that a person in a conflict situation can act in completely different ways. It all depends on the style of behavior that he adheres to when experiencing opposition from the opposite side. As has already been found out, we distinguish 5 main styles of behavior (according to K. Thomas). And, of course, the choice of styles and strategies depends on personal characteristics, on the nature of the conflict and on the significance of the conflict for its participants.

Development of forms of behavior

Behavior is the ability of humans and animals to change their actions under the influence of internal and external factors, a characteristic feature of the animal type of organization. The entire history of the development of the psyche and behavior of animals, according to this concept, is divided into a number of stages and levels.

Instinctive behavior is a set of genetically fixed innate manifestations of the external activity of animals. Instinctive behavior appears in all representatives of the same species in approximately the same forms and is aimed at ensuring the most important vital functions for the existence of the individual and the continuation of the species. Relative autonomy and relatively low variability of instinctive behavior are determined by stable connections formed during phylogenesis in the central nervous system (hereditarily fixed “action programs”). Therefore, instinctive behavior does not directly depend on the specific individual experience of the animal, although it develops in ontogenesis in combination and interaction with learning processes. In a number of cases, the signs of objects to which instinctive actions are directed are recorded in memory by imprinting. Instinctive actions, which make up instinctive behavior, consist of complexes of clearly coordinated instinctive movements and postures, as well as sound and other signals, secretory processes, thermoregulation phenomena, color changes and other processes occurring in a certain sequence. Thus, instinctive behavior is a complex holistic reaction of the entire organism.

Already at the early stages of development, observing the behavior of animals, we encounter individually variable forms of behavior, which, in contrast to instinctive actions, can be characterized as skills. By skills we mean such new reactions or actions that arise on the basis of training or individual experience and function automatically.

Since initially, as already noted, instinctive actions are diffuse, less differentiated in nature, and individually variable behavior has a very limited repertoire of reactions, skill and instinct do not diverge as much as later. In the course of further development, quantitative differences, accumulating, give a leap, and individually variable forms, becoming more and more sharply differentiated, stand out from the primary unity with instincts.

The intellectual behavior of animals is one of the manifestations of mental activity with its innate and acquired aspects. It is the highest result and manifestation of individual accumulation of experience, a special category of learning with its inherent qualitative features.

The source of an animal’s behavior can be programs, either embedded in its species experience and transmitted in hereditary codes (“instinctive” behavior), or formed in the direct experience of a given individual (individually variable or conditioned reflex behavior). Animals have no ability to assimilate someone else's experience and transfer it, learned by one individual, to another individual, much less transfer experience formed over several generations. Those phenomena that are described as “imitation” in animals occupy a relatively limited place in the formation of their behavior and are more likely a form of direct practical transfer of their own experience than the transfer of information that has accumulated in the history of a number of generations and would in any way resemble the assimilation of material or spiritual experience of past generations, which is characteristic of human social history.

These three features constitute the main features of animal behavior and fundamentally distinguish it from the conscious activity of humans.

Comparing the animal psyche with the human psyche allows us to highlight the following main differences between them:

1. An animal can act only within the framework of a situation that is directly perceived, and all the acts it performs are limited by biological needs, that is, motivation is always biological.

Animals don't do anything that doesn't serve their biological needs. The concrete, practical thinking of animals makes them dependent on the immediate situation. Only in the process of oriented manipulation is an animal able to solve problematic problems. A person, thanks to abstract, logical thinking, can foresee events and act according to cognitive necessity - consciously.

Thinking is closely related to broadcasting. Animals only give signals to their relatives about their own emotional states, while humans use language to inform others in time and space, conveying social experience. Thanks to language, every person uses experience that has been developed by humanity over thousands of years and which he has never directly perceived.

2. Animals are capable of using objects as tools, but not a single animal can create a tool. Animals do not live in a world of permanent things and do not perform collective actions. Even watching the actions of another animal, they will never help each other or act together.

Only man creates tools according to a well-thought-out plan, uses them for their intended purpose and saves them for the future. He lives in a world of permanent things, uses tools together with other people, takes on the experience of using tools and passes it on to others.

3. The difference between the psyche of animals and humans lies in feelings. Animals are also capable of experiencing positive or negative emotions, but only a person can sympathize with another person in grief or joy, enjoy pictures of nature, and experience intellectual feelings.

4. The conditions for the development of the psyche of animals and humans are the fourth difference. The development of the psyche in the animal world is subject to biological laws, and the development of the human psyche is determined by socio-historical conditions.

Both humans and animals are characterized by instinctive reactions to stimuli and the ability to gain experience in life situations. However, only a person is capable of appropriating social experience, which develops the psyche.

From the moment of birth, the child masters how to use tools and communicate skills. This, in turn, develops the sensory sphere, logical thinking, and shapes the individual’s personality. A monkey in any conditions will manifest itself as a monkey, and a person will only become a person if his development takes place among people. This is confirmed by cases of human children being raised among animals.

Forms of social behavior

Pedagogical requirement

This method consists of a pedagogical influence on the student’s consciousness in order to encourage him to positive activities or inhibit his negative actions and actions. According to A. Makarenko, without a sincere, convincing, ardent and decisive demand, it is impossible to begin educating the team.

The requirement influences the consciousness of students, activates their volitional qualities, rebuilds the motivational and sensory spheres of activity in a positive direction, contributing to the development of positive behavior skills. It should be expedient, understandable and feasible for students. They put it forward with the confidence that the student’s consciousness is prepared to perceive it. For this purpose, the essence of the requirement is explained to him, he is convinced of the need to fulfill it, and the benefits of its fulfillment. At the same time, they seek a positive reaction from the team to the requirement in order to have confidence that they will support the teacher and influence the student when for some reason he refuses to fulfill the requirement.

With a change in the student's behavior and upbringing, the requirement should increase for the best. If students are rewarded for the same performance in their studies, work and behavior, without increasing the requirements for them, this does not contribute to their growth, does not encourage them to work on themselves, because they become complacent with what they have achieved. Pedagogical requirements must precede the development of the student’s personality. She must be fair. If the student has realized the justice of the requirement, it is justified in his eyes, he will be more willing to fulfill it. A trifling, formal requirement, or a requirement that is the whim of a teacher, loses its educational significance and is perceived as unfair.

The wording of the requirement must briefly and clearly indicate who, where, in what volume, by what time, and by what means must fulfill it. This requirement instills personal responsibility in students and disciplines them. If it is formulated vaguely, unconvincingly, incorrectly, then its implementation will be irresponsible.

Demands are made in all areas of students’ lives and activities. It is impossible, for example, to demand from a student cleanliness and order in the classroom, but not pay attention to this in the workshop. Therefore, the school develops uniform requirements for students from the entire teaching staff. Daily compliance with such requirements by all team members creates a favorable moral and psychological atmosphere and increases the effectiveness of the educational process.

A requirement brings educational benefits if it is put forward systematically and consistently, and not occasionally. Then the pupils constantly make efforts to comply with the rules of behavior and do not allow deviations in behavior, even when no one reminds them of the need to comply with this requirement.

The pedagogical requirement is presented in direct or indirect form.

At the beginning of a teacher’s work with a group of children, when the pupils are not yet accustomed to it and the activity stimulated by the requirement is unknown to them, direct demand is the most effective. It should be clearly formulated and expressed in a calm, confident tone that does not raise objections (for example: “Petrov and Vasilenko are cleaning the classroom today”). Characteristic signs This form of requirement is positivity (we are talking about what students should do, and not about what they should not do) and instructiveness (not only the purpose of the activity is revealed, but also the method of its implementation).

With the development of the student body, the relationship between children and the teacher, as well as with the emergence of a negative or positive attitude among students towards the activities organized by the teacher, various forms of indirect demands are used. There are three groups of indirect requirements. The first is associated with the manifestation of a positive attitude of the teacher towards the student (request, trust, approval). The requirements of the second group do not reveal a clear attitude of the teacher towards the children, but are based on the already existing attitude of the pupil to the stimulated activity (advice, hint, conditional requirement, requirement in a playful form). The third group demonstrates the teacher’s negative attitude towards the student’s activities, towards the manifestation of certain of his qualities (condemnation, mistrust and threat). Indirect demands of the first group are positive, the second are neutral, and the third are negative.

A demand-request is made when a good relationship, trust and respect have been established between the teacher and the students, when the student seems to be fulfilling the requirement of his own free will. Such a requirement accustoms students to politeness, mutual assistance, and concern for others, that is, it develops qualities that they often lack. Demand-trust is characteristic of various tasks that cause the pet to experience a feeling of respect for him on the part of the teacher, whose opinion he values. Therefore, he himself is imbued with respect for the teacher and tries to carefully carry out his instructions. Demand-approval is used when a student has achieved certain success, and the teacher’s praise encourages him to improve his activities, causes a feeling of satisfaction with the results of this activity, and a sense of self-esteem. The hint requirement is aimed at achieving the desired result when a minor educational influence is required. Such a requirement could be a joke, a reproach, a look or a gesture addressed to one or more members of the team. A requirement-condition is put forward to students when, in order to perform the activity they want, they first need to do something else. At the same time, the types of activities are combined so that they flow from each other, so that there is a natural connection between them (“You will be fine with your studies, you will be able to study in the orchestra”). Using this form of demand, you should not turn something interesting for students into a “bribe.” The requirement-distrust is that the teacher removes the student from a certain type of activity for non-fulfillment or improper performance of his duties. The effectiveness of such a requirement depends on the authority of the teacher and on how much the student values ​​his trust and this type of activity. Demand-condemnation involves a negative assessment by the teacher of specific actions and actions of the student and is designed to inhibit undesirable actions and stimulate positive ones. Condemnation can be expressed in a group setting or to a student in private, and it can be reproach, reproach, or indignation. In the most drastic form there is a demand-threat, the student is informed that if the order is not followed, more serious educational measures will be taken against him. The threat must be justified, and in case of failure to comply with the requirements, it must be implemented.

Public opinion

At its core, this method is a collective requirement, because when discussing the student’s action, the team strives for him to realize his guilt. What needs to be discussed or criticized is not the child’s personality, but the action, its harmfulness to the team, society and the offender himself. The conversation should be such that the student himself names the reason for his action. During the discussion, ways to overcome shortcomings must be determined. With the help of public opinion, it is easier to convince a student of the error of his views or of inappropriate behavior than in an individual conversation. The student sees how classmates react to the advice of the teacher and team members, becomes convinced that no one supports his views, and begins to listen to the advice of the teacher.

When preparing to discuss student behavior, experienced teachers avoid interjecting too much into the conversation. When the team itself gives an assessment and makes a decision, the student takes it seriously, because he sees that the teacher did not turn the team members against him, they have their own opinion.

Discussion of the negative actions of the same students should not be too frequent, since their reaction to critical remarks is dulled, and other members of the team, seeing the lack of results, become disappointed in the possibilities of public opinion.

Highly appreciating the role of public opinion in the education of schoolchildren, V. Sukhomlinsky noted that it is not worth discussing in a group:

1) the child’s behavior, the cause of which is obvious or hidden abnormalities in the family (antisocial actions of parents, quarrels, scandals, disagreements between them). Since children understand the relationship between their behavior and family life, talking about it at school suppresses them;
2) behavior or individual actions that are objectively a protest against the rudeness and arbitrariness of elders, since the teenager in this case considers the condemnation an injustice against himself;
3) actions of adolescents that are the result of a mistake made by the teacher;
4) actions due to the fact that the teacher allowed bias in assessing the student’s knowledge;
5) an incorrect act, the explanation of which requires stories about the student’s deeply personal, friendly relationships with his peers or with an older or younger friend, since the push to frankness in this case will be experienced by the student as an incentive to betray, denounce a friend;
6) a bad act, the motives of which are related to the peculiarities of relationships in the family, which it is not yet time for children to know about and which cannot be explained to them.

Social thought should be aimed at those who look at it, it should be used carefully in working with students with increased emotionality. It is formed in advance, and not when it is necessary to discuss an action that occurred in a team. Its successful formation is carried out from uniform pedagogical requirements for students, a clear system student government and systematic work with student activists, constant unbiased analysis of the life and activities of schoolchildren in conflict situations through the prism of moral standards, encouraging students to express their own opinion and defend it with reason.

As V. Sukhomlinsky argued, the educational power of the team is directed onto a false path if the teacher has achieved an ostentatious, formal condemnation of the student by the team, when his classmates think one thing and say another, for fear of losing the favor of the teacher. Often in such situations there are talkers and demagogues who, speaking on behalf of the team, pretend that they are supposedly condemning a comrade, but they themselves are essentially mocking the teacher and the team. This corrodes the collective with hypocrisy, window dressing, and creates in a person the ability to say anything.

Exercises

This method consists of gradually creating conditions under which the student performs certain actions in order to develop the necessary and consolidate positive forms of behavior.

At school, the student daily practices in fulfilling the daily routine and the requirements of the school regime, in academic and labor activity. If in life and activity the student adheres to the requirements that force him to strictly fulfill his duties, he will constantly improve his positive behavior, he will develop the appropriate skills and habits.

Using the exercise method, the teacher must justify its necessity, take care of accessibility, systematicity, and a sufficient number of exercises to develop certain skills and behavioral habits.

Training

As a method of education, it is based on the requirement for the student to perform certain actions. The decisive factor in education is the student’s mode of life and activity. Its educational function is that the regime ensures constancy, continuity of effort, saves a person’s energy, teaches him to perform any work in a timely manner, and systematically and unswervingly adhere to established requirements. As A. Makarenko argued, the school regime fulfills its useful function only if it is accurate, pedagogically appropriate, general and specific.

The teaching method plays a special role in education. Often the student does not realize the importance and significance of the type of behavior proposed to him. In this case, he is required to behave properly, they guide him in the process of activity, making it more complicated. For example, in this way a student is taught to be polite, disciplined, read books and the like. If you constantly achieve what you want from a student, over time he will develop appropriate behavior skills, he will realize the correctness, validity, and necessity of the requirements, and will begin to fulfill his duties.

Order

The method also involves guiding the student in positive actions and deeds. For this purpose, the teacher, student government body or student body gives him a specific task, the implementation of which requires certain actions or actions. Using this method, the individual characteristics of students are taken into account. The assignment is selected in such a way that its implementation contributes to the development of the necessary qualities. For example, it is useful for disorganized students to be tasked with holding an event, in the preparation of which they need to show independence, initiative, and composure. Having received an assignment, the student must realize its importance for the team and for himself. It must be feasible. An uncomplicated task builds self-confidence, while an overwhelming one undermines confidence in one’s abilities. The teacher must not only give an assignment, but also teach the student to carry it out, help him complete the task.

Assignments can be permanent or occasional. It is advisable to give constants to students who have some experience in performing them, a developed sense of responsibility. Subsequently, the instructions become more complicated in content and execution methods.

The effectiveness of instructions as a method of education largely depends on the organization of control over its implementation. It is through control that forgetfulness is prevented. Lack of control breeds irresponsibility. Control can be individual on the part of the teacher, or carried out in the form of a report at a team meeting or a meeting of its activists. Carrying out assignments requires evaluation.

Creating nurturing situations

This method is used to shape social behavior. Each of these situations involves determining necessary conditions to implement what is planned by the teacher, thinking through their actions and behavior in a new situation, the emergence of new feelings in students due to the new pedagogical situation, which give rise to new thoughts, motives of behavior that encourage them to overcome shortcomings.

Techniques for creating educational situations can be creative (kindness, attention and care; manifestation of the skill and dignity of the teacher; activation of hidden feelings; awakening of humane feelings; manifestation of grief, strengthening self-confidence; trust; attraction to interesting activities), or inhibitory (parallel pedagogical action, order, affectionate reproach, hint, apparent indifference, irony, debunking, manifestation of indignation, warning, explosion).

Positive consequences in individual educational work with students come from manifestations of kindness, attention and care. They, as well as the help of adults or friends, evoke a feeling of gratitude in the pupil and create an atmosphere of mutual respect and trust. Warm feelings for the teacher and comrades subsequently spread to other people. Some students may have difficult relationships with their parents, experience a lack of family warmth, and self-care. With appropriate work by the teacher, such parents begin to treat their children differently, as a result of which their behavior improves.

Each student, being interested in a certain branch of knowledge, often turns to a teacher for help. A teacher who discovers her skills and knowledge, contributes to solving the problem, and gains authority in the eyes of the student.

Students are not indifferent to their position in the team and the attitude of adults and peers towards them. Everyone experiences their own position in the team in their own way, often hiding the content of these experiences. Observing students' behavior and talking with them and their parents makes it possible to find out what they value most. The pedagogical situation created by the teacher, which activates these thoughts and feelings, makes them leading and decisive, helps to form positive personality traits.

Some students do not believe in their own abilities. Often they themselves declare that they will not succeed because they are not capable of anything. Such students are often indifferent to teachers’ comments and grades, feel inferior, and become passive. To prevent this, it is important to mobilize their abilities and strengthen faith in their own strength. To do this, they create a pedagogical situation in which such a student could prove himself in some way and become convinced of his abilities. It is very important that his first successes are noticed by his comrades. Having felt their respect and interest in himself, he is filled with a sense of self-esteem, evaluates himself differently, his faith in his own strength strengthens, and a desire appears to behave differently, to become different.

The technique of trust is based on the belief that each person is endowed with certain positive qualities that can be relied upon and achieve significant success.

In individual work, they use the technique of attracting the student to an interesting activity that captivates him, in which he “forgets” about his negative inclinations, noble aspirations are born in him, and positive qualities are manifested. Childhood is characterized by a desire for activity, a desire to express oneself in something, to find an outlet for one’s energy. It is important to create appropriate conditions for the positive direction of such activities. For this purpose, the school runs various clubs (subject, sports, artistic, technical).

A. Makarenko often used the method of parallel pedagogical action, by which he meant an indirect influence on education through the team. Overcoming a negative character trait or behavior of an individual student is carried out not by directly addressing him, but by organizing the influence of the team on him. In this case, the teacher has claims against the team and demands from it an answer for the behavior of its members. Accordingly, the team influences the student, and he reacts to the opinion of the team.

Mindlessly following the “principle of parallel action,” in the words. Sukhomlinsky, educators forget that the team is not something abstract, but living people, individuals. The spiritual world, experiences, and beliefs of the collective are extremely complex. The educator's view of the collective as a forever "fit for use" instrument ignores the entire complexity of his spiritual world.

The essence of the false indifference technique is the ostentatious inattention, the indifference of the teacher to what the student is doing. The student is surprised that there is no response to his antics, since he did not expect this, and feels awkward and inappropriate of his behavior.

The student body consists of individuals who have certain negative character traits that manifest themselves in daily behavior. The teacher must notice such facts and respond to them, using the technique of condemning actions and deeds, views and beliefs. Teachers or staff members, in meetings or privately, judge students who behave inappropriately. The feeling experienced at the same time helps such schoolchildren to refrain from such actions in the future and fosters a sense of responsibility for their behavior.

IN pedagogical practice A. Makarenko showed high efficiency in the pedagogical method of explosion. Its essence lies in creating an appropriate pedagogical environment in which the personality is quickly and radically rebuilt. As K. Ushinsky noted, “a strong emotional shock, an extraordinary impulse of spirit, a high exaltation in one blow destroys harmful inclinations and ingrained habits, as if erasing, burning with its flame the entire previous history of a person in order to start a new one, under a new banner.”

Such psychological changes can only occur in a pedagogical environment that evokes new strong feelings in the student. The teacher must know the pet well in order to influence the main feelings (joy, sadness, shame, anger), so that he evaluates himself in a new way and is convinced of the need to behave differently. The suddenness of the teaching environment for the pet also plays an important role.

According to V. Sukhomlinsky, the explosion technique is suitable for exceptional situations; in a regular school it should be rare. As a result of its frequent use, children get used to different “explosions”; “nothing can change them.”

Forms of behavior of adolescents

Drunkenness is the constant and intemperate consumption of alcoholic beverages. Alcoholism is a disease that occurs as a result of the harmful habit of drinking alcohol frequently and in excessive quantities. Alcoholics become dependent on alcohol. If you suddenly deprive them of the opportunity to drink, this can cause withdrawal syndrome, which includes symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, anxiety, hallucinations, tremors, etc. Alcoholism impairs brain activity and memory, impairs physical abilities, and a person begins to commit unreasonable acts.

Alcoholism is considered adolescent when its symptoms appear before the age of 18. At this age, the disease is characterized by the rapid progression of the main symptoms, the presence of binges, drunkenness with large doses of alcohol, the breakdown of social connections and the development of psychosis. Teenage alcoholism is extremely difficult to treat.

Substance abuse and drug addiction

Substance abuse is a disease caused by dependence on psychoactive chemicals that are not officially classified as drugs. Over the past 20 years, substance abuse has become an epidemic. Hundreds of teenagers die from substance abuse every year.

Insect repellents and solvents are the most commonly used, but tranquilizer pills and caffeine are also used. Intoxication occurs instantly, with a change in the perception of the environment and one’s own body, and hallucinations appear.

Drug addiction is a chronic progressive disease caused by the use of narcotic substances. Drug use leads to mental and physical dysfunctions and can destroy a person’s normal life in a very short time. Drug addicts degrade as individuals; addiction pushes them to commit immoral acts.

Most often, teenagers try drugs out of curiosity. Some children are afraid that their peers will characterize them as weak, unfashionable and not modern. Many young people are not deterred even by the risk of contracting AIDS. A common reason for drug use among young people is the influence of a company that stands out for its permissiveness and which has been affected by the narcotic style of the times. Today, the alarming scale of drug distribution and use continues to grow. Drug addiction has entered schools and educational institutions and is widespread. Children are fraudulently involved in the distribution of drugs in schools.

Prostitution

Prostitution is the systematic activity of providing sexual services for payment. A large number of teenage prostitutes come from unstable and problematic families. Such teenagers have low self-esteem and do poorly at school. Girls often become prostitutes to survive when they run away from home. For them, prostitution becomes an opportunity to earn money. Children who become prostitutes sometimes seek to gain the attention and affection of adults. They think that prostitution is an adventure and a luxurious life. However, in reality, teenagers face serious dangers of street life. For example, they risk contracting AIDS through sexual contact or sharing a needle (many underage prostitutes become addicted to drugs).

Factors restraining prostitution include increasing living standards, strengthening and stabilizing the institution of family, debunking prostitution as an idle, prosperous and beautiful way of life, smoothing out social inequality, and developing a healthy attitude towards oneself in adolescents.

Suicidal behavior

Suicide is an act of suicide committed by a person in a state of severe mental distress or under the influence of mental illness. Such types of destructive behavior as drunkenness and drug use are also classified as suicidal behavior. During periods of economic downturns and rising unemployment, the number of suicides increases. Conflicts, stress, depression, an unhealthy family climate, and low social status can push people to commit suicide.

According to a report by the UN Children's Fund, the number of suicide attempts and completed suicides among young people and children has increased significantly in recent years. The peak age for suicide is between 16 and 19 years old. As a rule, the main reason is family dysfunction. These may be families that are outwardly successful, with good material income, but with broken relationships within the family. The second reason is problems at school, the third reason is problems in relationships with peers.

Most teenagers who contemplate suicide do not want to die. Suicide is seen as a way to get something (for example, attention, love, freedom from problems, from feelings of hopelessness). The motive for suicidal behavior may be an attempt to hurt another person, or, on the contrary, a person believes that by committing suicide, he will take the problem with him and make life easier for his family.

Deviant behavior due to sexual diseases

Sexual deviations can be classified as deviations in relation to the object of sexual desire (replacing a normal object): pedophilia, ephebophilia, gerontophilia, bestiality, fetishism, narcissism, etc.) and deviations in the way the desire is realized (sadism, masochism, exhibitionism, voyeurism). Below is an analysis of one of the sexual deviations - homosexuality.

Homosexuality is an individual's attraction to people of the same sex. Homosexuality almost always means a repressed crisis. There are very few happy people among homosexuals. The suicide rate among homosexual minors is 5-7 times higher than among their heterosexual peers. There is an assumption that homosexuality is formed as a result of an innate predisposition.

Children and adolescents are often lured into homosexual relationships through violence or deception. The range of actions that seduce and corrupt children is quite wide: attention to the nudity of children, showing the child’s genitals or encouraging him to do so, sexual games, showing pornographic postcards, offering sexual relations. These actions come not only from the mentally ill or criminals, but also from ordinary people who do not know how to establish relationships with peers or are not confident in their sexual capabilities. Involving minors in sexual relations carries with it criminal liability. There are sanctions for promoting homosexual behavior.

Offenses

An offense is a culpable unlawful act of a competent person that causes harm to society. According to the degree of public danger, offenses are divided into misdemeanors and crimes. A crime is a socially dangerous act provided for by the criminal code, committed by a sane person who has reached the age of criminal responsibility. A misdemeanor is an unlawful act that is characterized by a lesser degree of social danger than a crime.

There are relationships between various forms of deviant behavior, with one negative phenomenon strengthening the other. For example, drug addiction contributes to an increase in crime.

Form of behavior in society

Norms of human behavior in society, expressed as deviant, have four distinct forms:

Crime. In recent years, this figure has increased by 17%. Crime is largely due to the transition to market relations and a high level of competition, unemployment and low living standards, as well as psychological deviations. In addition, corruption in the legal and judicial-executive sectors is of no small importance, which allows, if you have enough wealth, to avoid responsibility for violating the law.
Alcoholism. Alcohol is an integral part of holiday feasts and ordinary friendly meetings. It is consumed to celebrate something, relieve pain, or simply relieve stress. People are accustomed to the fact that alcohol has become a part of their lives, and are not aware of its harmful effects on the individual and on society as a whole. According to statistics, 70% of crimes are committed while intoxicated, and drunk drivers are to blame for more than 20% of fatal accidents.
Addiction. Dependence on a psychotropic substance, which depletes the body and leads to its degradation. Unfortunately, despite the official prohibition of narcotic drugs, every tenth teenager has tried one or more types of drugs.
Suicide. Suicide is the deliberate desire to take one's own life because of problems that seem insoluble. According to world statistics, suicide is most common in highly developed countries, where there is high competition both in the business sphere and on the personal front. The age group most at risk is teenagers from 14 to 18 years old and people of retirement age.

Rules and norms of behavior are regulated by approved state laws and unspoken rules of society.

Sanctions for deviant behavior vary depending on the severity of the violation.

For example, murder or robbery falls under the article of violation of the criminal code, therefore, is punishable by imprisonment. Provocation or fight are administrative violations. As a punishment for the misdemeanor, the violator will be asked to pay a fine or perform civil work. Violations associated with habits (not washing the dishes after yourself, not cutting your nails, being late for an important meeting, lying) will cause social disapproval and further ignoring or contempt.

Congenital Behaviors

Innate forms of behavior in animals and humans include unconditioned reflexes, instincts, biological motivations and emotions.

Physiological properties of unconditioned reflexes. Unconditioned reflexes arise in response to direct stimulation of a certain receptive field and do not require special conditions. Stimuli that cause a specific reflex reaction are called unconditioned stimuli. They can be different and originate from the outside or internal environment of the body. Unconditioned reflexes are carried out according to the principle stimulus - response - reverse afferentation (about the result of the action).

Unconditioned reflexes are formed and implemented according to a rigid genetic program. Most of them appear immediately after the creature is born (for example, the beak reflex in birds, the sucking reflex in mammals, etc.). Some unconditioned reflexes (for example, sexual reflexes) are formed after birth as part of the morphofunctional maturation of the nervous, endocrine and other systems.

The arcs of unconditioned reflexes close at various levels of the central nervous system. The central part of the unconditioned reflex arc has a multi-level structure, i.e. consists of several branches that pass through various levels of the central nervous system - the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, stem centers. The highest part of the arc passes through the cerebral cortex and is the cortical representation of a certain unconditioned reflex.

Unconditioned reflexes are specific in nature, i.e. they are specific to representatives of a particular species. As a result, they are also called species reflexes. Unconditioned reflexes are very stable; they are stored not only during the life of a given animal, but also throughout the existence of the species to which this animal belongs. With the help of unconditioned reflexes, a relatively constant connection of the organism with the environment is achieved. Often the strength of the corresponding reaction to a particular stimulus is the same. Unconditioned reflexes have specific receptive fields and can be evoked when they are exposed to adequate stimuli (for example, unconditioned reflex salivation in natural conditions is observed only when stimuli act on the mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue, which are a specific receptive field for the salivary reflex).

Classification of unconditioned reflexes. Several classifications of unconditioned reflexes have been proposed depending on the nature of the stimulation, predetermine the biological role, level of control of the central nervous system, etc. Thus, unconditioned reflexes are divided into motor (locomotor, static, statokinetic, etc.), vegetative, or visceral (food, sexual, respiratory, vascular, etc.), orientational (reflexes like “what is this?”), protective, etc.