Spain in the Middle Ages population language. Brief history of Spain. The most important events of the 20th century

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2. Arab rule

5. Impact on culture

Conclusion

Bibliography

reconquista war spanish arabic

Introduction

In the 8th century, the territory of modern Spain was captured by the Arabs, who almost unhindered occupied the entire Iberian Peninsula, excluding only the irreconcilable Asturias. Eight centuries passed from the moment King Rodrigo fell under the Damascus blade until the Catholic sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella raised the cross over Granada. This eight-hundred-year expulsion of the Arabs from the Iberian Peninsula is called in history the Reconquista - the Reconquest.

1. Conquest of Spanish lands

The Spanish Middle Ages were a cruel era of almost continuous wars of reconquista, bloody civil strife, peasant uprisings. The reconquest of the lands captured by Muslims, begun back in the 8th century by the Visigothic-Roman population of Spain, was called the “reconquista.” The almost eight-hundred-year struggle with the Moors was not only a chain of military campaigns, but also a broad colonization movement associated with the consolidation and economic development of the conquered territories. This complex, contradictory, and not yet fully comprehensively studied process determined the features of the development of feudalism on the Iberian Peninsula, influenced the way of life of the people, and contributed to the growth of national self-awareness. Fierce battles and the atmosphere of military tension in which Spanish society developed did not prevent intensive communication with the conquerors in the field of economics and culture.

Special population groups arose: Mozarabs (Arabized Spaniards), that is, Christians who lived in the territory occupied by the Moors and retained their religion, laws and customs; on the other hand, the Mudejars (who were allowed to remain), that is, Muslims who submitted to the Christians, but also followed their religion and customs. A significant group of the population in Christian and Muslim cities were Jews. The peoples of the Iberian Peninsula found themselves drawn into the orbit of high Arab culture, many of the features of which were then adopted by Spanish society. This influence was more direct in areas not openly associated with religious views: in architecture, music, dance, ornament, costumes, in some everyday skills, in technology, medicine, astronomy.

Back in the 10th century, Arab Spain turned into a cultural center not only of the Muslim world, but also of Europe. Enormous successes have been achieved in the fields of philosophy, medicine, poetry, music, architecture, and applied arts. And in subsequent centuries, Moorish Spain remained the main focus of the dissemination in Europe of the great works of ancient and Arab philosophical thought, one of those bridges that connected the spiritual life of the East and West.

The centuries-old reconquista consolidated the fragmentation of the country with a clear localization of historical regions. In the 13th century, called the era of great conquests by Spanish historiography, the decisive role belonged to Castile, occupying the desert plateau of the Central Meseta; The Kingdom of Aragon included Catalonia, Valencia and the Balearic Islands from the 12th century. Even within this union, all parts were different: the harsh mountainous Aragon with its persistent feudal institutions and archaic traditions and the prosperous coastal regions of Catalonia and Valencia, advanced Mediterranean trading centers facing the Languedoc and Italy. In the southern part of the peninsula, in Andalusia, with its facade open to Africa, the Moorish artistic civilization dominated. Its last stronghold was the Emirate of Granada.

By the time the Arabs invaded the peninsula, the concept of “Spain” did not exist. Here at that time the kingdom of the Visigoths was located. Back in the 4th century, the Visigoths adopted Christianity, although not of the canonical kind, but of the Arian sense, where the human nature of Christ came to the fore. The last ruler of this mysterious people was the ill-fated King Rodrigo.

Ancient Spanish romances brought to us a dramatic story of love and betrayal, as a result of which the Visigothic kingdom fell and Spain found itself in the power of the Arabs for eight centuries. This happened, of course, because of a woman who, as they say in folk Spanish romances, was called La Cava. She was the daughter of the ruler of Ceuta, the powerful Count Julian. It was with her that the Visigothic king Rodrigo fell in love.

Burning with passion, Rodrigo lost his head so much that he committed a very unroyal act: having lured the beauty into a trap, he took her by force. Sobbing bitterly, La Cava told her father everything, and he vowed to take revenge on Rodrigo. At night, he secretly opened the gates of the guard fortress on Gibraltar to the Arabs, and their army poured into Spain. Rodrigo fell in the first battle. The chronicles tell a slightly different story about what happened. It is known that the unlucky King Rodrigo reigned for only a year: from 710 to 711. Before him, the king of the Visigoths was a certain Vititsa, who before his death bequeathed the kingdom to his son Agila, unloved by the Visigothic nobility. Dissatisfied feudal lords rebelled and proclaimed Rodrigo king. A civil war actually began in the country. This is where the Arabs enter the scene, having long encroached on the fertile lands of Andalusia. The Arab caliphate, centered in Damascus, was powerful. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, which increasingly expanded its possessions. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Arabs had conquered all of northwestern Africa, the indigenous population of which were warlike Berber tribes. A supporter of the Crown Prince of Agila, Don Julian, commandant of the Ceuta fortress, which actually controlled the Strait, which is now called the Strait of Gibraltar, entered into a conspiracy with the Arab and Berber military leaders. No one then imagined that the consequences of a simple military agreement would be so catastrophic. The allies were offered to defeat Rodrigo's army, and as a reward receive the treasury of the city of Toledo.

In the spring of 711, an Arab army of seven thousand under the command of Tariq entered the European continent. It crossed on ships provided by Julian, since the Arabs did not have their own fleet at that time. The rock on which Tariq landed received his name: Gibraltar means “Tarik’s mountain”... But then something incomprehensible happened: Aguila suddenly invited Rodrigo to join forces in the fight against a common enemy. Having moved the army south to help the royal army, Aguila himself evaded command and for some reason chose to remain in the north.

Between July 19 and July 26, 711, a battle took place, the Battle of Guadaleta. Rodrigo was completely defeated. The flanks of his army were led by the brothers of the late King Vititsa - Agila's uncles. They couldn't withstand the blow. Rodrigo was killed, according to some sources, in this battle, according to others - in the next one.

Meanwhile, the Arabs, on light horses, and mostly on mules, fulfilling the terms of the treaty of alliance, moved straight to Toledo. From 711 to 718 they occupied almost all of Spain. Christian uprisings sometimes broke out. The refugees brought the sad news to the Pope: Christianity on the Iberian Peninsula had come to an end.

How did a Christian state, in just a few years, find itself almost completely under Muslim rule, and many of its residents exchanged religion without much hesitation?

The caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty were far from Islamic fanaticism. By the time of the capture of Spain, Islam was a very young religion - not even a century had passed since the death of the Prophet Mohammed. Lovers of the joys of life, patrons of free secular poetry and various sciences, the Umayyads were not aggressive towards the peoples of the occupied territories. They did not seek to forcibly convert the inhabitants of the conquered lands into Muslims.

A few decades after the conquest of Spain, the Umayyad dynasty fell. It was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty. The capital of the caliphate was moved from Damascus to Baghdad. The escaped Umayyad Abdarrahman I took possession of Cordoba and in 756 proclaimed himself ruler of the independent Emirate of Cordoba.

In foreign policy, the Arabs of that era were not inclined to bloodshed on occupied lands: everything came down to more or less regular fleecing. Residents were subject to tribute, which, in essence, was the main economic goal of Arab military campaigns. The Islamic poll tax turned out to be much lighter than the Visigothic nobility levied on local population. Women, children and other socially vulnerable elements were automatically exempted from taxes. And most importantly, all those who converted to Islam had equal rights with the winners and did not pay any tribute. In addition, the commandments of Mohammed, in the opinion of the Roman and Visigothic aborigines, were not much different from the commandments of Christ.

However, one small region in the north remained unconquered - this was Asturias.

The Vascons are another people on the territory of modern Spain who did not succumb to the victorious Muslim conquest. The Vascons were the ancestors of the Basques, semi-wild inhabitants of the Pyrenees mountains.

2. Arab rule

At that time, Spain, conquered by the Arabs, was called Al-Andalus or Andalusia. The capital of Andalusia was Cordoba. It was ruled by an emir subordinate to the caliph in Damascus.

Local leaders wanted to secede from Cordoba and become independent emirs in Toledo or Zaragoza. Christian uprisings, and then there is the difficult international situation: either the Vikings are attacking Seville from the sea, or the Franks are attacking the Pyrenees.

After the terrible devastation of Seville by the Vikings in 845, the Emir of Cordoba, Abdarrahman II, made a decision: to build a fleet capable of protecting Andalusia from attacks from the sea. Soon the Arab fleet of Spain became one of the strongest in Europe. Alas, for many centuries he gave birth to a new disaster in the Christian world - Saracen piracy. The Arabs everywhere made Christian captives lifelong slaves in galleys. Later, during the Reconquista, the growing Christian monasteries took upon themselves the work of ransoming the unfortunate. To this day, when passing by the Toledo Cathedral of San Juan de los Reyes, you can see garlands of rusty shackles on its walls. Each such chain testifies to a freed prisoner.

Another threat to the Arabs was the heterogeneity of the Arabs themselves, the secret and overt confrontation between the Syrians, Yemenis, and Berbers. The Emir of Cordoba did not manage to sit in his place for long. All that was heard was: the emir was recalled, deposed, executed, expelled, killed right in the mosque... Naturally, the emir’s special anger was caused by the unification of his Muslim conspirators with Christians. Here everyone was punished indiscriminately.

One of these punitive expeditions was the campaign of Arab troops on the territory of modern France. The operation, initially directed against the Duke of Aquitaine, who had offended the emir, was distinguished by unprecedented cruelty. The Arab army advanced along the route Zaragoza - Pamplona - Ronseval - Bordeaux - Poitiers - Tours.

Villages and cities burned. Murders, looting and all kinds of outrages became commonplace. The emir's army was almost near Paris. France could be the caliph's next acquisition in Damascus.

And then the Frankish commander Charles Martell appears. In 732, a grandiose battle took place near Poitiers, a real battle of nations, where the emir’s troops were defeated and driven back by the Franks, and the emir himself was killed. And although the Arabs more than once made campaigns against Christians, they never again managed to advance so far into Europe, much less gain a foothold there for a long time.

In 736, the rebel Basques temporarily expelled the Arabs from Pamplona. In 750, the Christian king Alfonso I, as a result of a series of victories, recaptured all of Galicia. Sixteen years later, Christians successfully repulse a Muslim cavalry raid near Alava.

But the year 778 unexpectedly showed how difficult the situation was in the Pyrenees and how legendary the Battle of Roncesvalles was. The French epic, created in the 11th-12th centuries, tells about the campaign of the Frankish emperor Charlemagne against the Spanish Moors, about the heroic death of Charles’s nephew, the noble Count Roland, in the Roncesvalles Gorge of the Pyrenees and about Charles’s terrible revenge on the treacherous Saracens for his death. The events described are most directly related to the Reconquista: Christians are trying to oust Muslims from European territory. The heroic epic presents us with a bloody conflict between two religions, two worldviews and, ultimately, the same clash between East and West.

The Arab governor of Zaragoza, Suleiman ibn Arabi, came in 777 with an embassy to the Frankish king Charles. Suleiman asked Charles for help in the fight against the Cordoba emir Abdarrahman I. The Zaragoza governor swore by Allah that, as a reward for his support, the gates of Zaragoza would be opened without a fight - he just had to immediately set out on a campaign. Karl moved south.

The pass overgrown with dense forest in the Pyrenees Mountains and the Roncesvalles Gorge passed the king's paladins safely - the mountain spurs were deserted. Only in Pamplona did Charles’s soldiers meet people. They were semi-wild Basques, silently observing the foreign army. The gates of Zaragoza were closed. The embarrassed Suleiman continued to swear that they would certainly be opened, they just had to lay siege to the city and wait until it ran out of food and water. Days passed after days, but Zaragoza did not give up. Finally, intelligence reported to Charles that the Emir of Cordoba had moved a large army against Zaragoza.

Charles ordered to seize Suleiman and put him in chains, and send his sons as hostages with a convoy to France. After which he turned his army around and rushed back to the Pyrenees. The French soldiers had already set foot on the green hills of Gascony, but the lagging convoy, commanded by the king's favorite nephew, Roland, was still missing. A day later, a worried Karl ordered the horses to be turned around. In the Roncesvalles Gorge, called the “Valley of Death” by chroniclers, a terrible sight opened up to the French. Empty overturned wagons, horses dying under the rubble of rocks and piles of dead bodies, mutilated and naked. Among them they found the body of Count Roland. It was clear that he and his companions repelled the attack to the last, back to back. Nearby lay Roland's richly decorated horn, covered in blood, which he was supposed to blow in case of danger. The robbers, who took everything, for some unknown reason did not touch him. And Suleiman’s sons were not found among the dead.

3. The height and end of the reconquista

XIII and XIV centuries - the height of the Reconquista. The Christian population of the Iberian Peninsula increasingly recognizes itself as Spaniards, Catholics and loyal subjects of kings. We can say that during this period the reconquest becomes a conscious, purposeful movement, the task of which is the final ousting of Muslims from Europe. Orders of knighthood begin to play a significant role in the defense of newly conquered areas.

The events of that era included many exploits, treason, betrayal, manifestations of extreme cruelty and fanaticism; all of this left its bloody mark on the history of the Reconquista.

In 1292, for six months, the Spaniards besieged the fortress of Tarifa on the Mediterranean Sea. In the end, the Arabs, exhausted by hunger, were forced to surrender. The knight Alonso Perez Guzman, nicknamed the Good - El Bueno, volunteered to defend the fortress in case of new attacks. His name thundered throughout Spain, but for this he paid a truly exorbitant price.

In 1340, the fortress of Tarifa was again besieged. This time from the Moroccan side. On October 30, Christian troops clashed with the enemy on the Rio Salado (Salt River). One of the largest battles of the Reconquista took place here, in which the Moors were completely defeated.

On August 21, 1415, Portuguese troops took Ceuta almost without a fight - the very fortress from which the capture of the Iberian Peninsula began seven hundred years ago. And in 1487 it was Malaga’s turn.

Rome, meanwhile, demands from the Christian rulers of Spain more stringent measures against infidels in the newly conquered territories. But the Spanish sovereigns hesitate - it simply seems unnatural to them to oppress a good half of their subjects. But everything changes with the accession of Fernando of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, who went down in history under the name of the Catholic kings. Their marriage in 1469 united the two largest kingdoms of Christian Spain. From that time on, the Spanish kings finally ceased to be “kings of three religions.” From now on they represent only one faith and are completely subordinate to Rome.

In 1487, King Fernando besieges Malaga. The siege and capture of this major port is an endless series of brave forays, heroic attacks and equally brave resistance.

The Emir of Granada, Boabdil, provided unexpected military and economic assistance to Christians, hoping in this way to protect himself in the future. But he didn’t know the Catholic kings well.

Four years after the fall of Malaga, this couple, in which Isabella played the leading role, began to prepare for a campaign against the last stronghold of Islam - Granada. Preparations took the entire year 1491. The Emirate of Granada, caught in a hostile circle of Christians, was doomed. The Christian rulers borrowed money for the military campaign from the terrified Jews, imposing unaffordable taxes on the synagogues, or even simply robbing them completely. In 1491, a protracted siege began, during which Queen Isabella shared with the soldiers all the hardships of camp life. Her appearance on horseback under the walls of the besieged city caused howls of delight. The Queen vowed not to change her shirt until the Castilian flag flew over Granada. Days passed, and the snow-white royal shirt gradually acquired a grayish-yellow color. In January 1492, Boabdil, the last emir of Granada, left the Alhambra weeping. He left through an inconspicuous door in the back wall of the fortress. This door can still be seen today. It was locked from the moment the inconsolable emir crossed its threshold.

From the heroic Mount Tariq on Gibraltar to the sad Sigh of the Moor near Granada - the circle is closed. An era has ended.

To the panicky flight of the Moors and Jews, to whom the Catholic kings set a strict condition: to leave the country within three months. The Jews, by the way, were expelled somehow at the same time, having fallen under the hot hand. The first wave of exiles was followed by a second, a third: Moriscos, Mudejars, Crosses - all those without whom Andalusia was orphaned. At the same time, “brilliant poetry, astronomy, and architecture, which had no equal in Europe, were doomed to destruction,” Federico Garcia Lorca would say several centuries later. The Inquisition and an unprecedented scale awaited the country ahead. mass repression. In the significant year of the capture of Granada, along with the end of the Reconquista, the formation of the Spanish people and the Castilian language was completed: 1492 was also the year the first Spanish grammar was published. The country was finally united. America was discovered, since Columbus nevertheless set off on his great voyage from the provincial port of Palos, recruiting a team to visit prisons. Ahead were colonial gold and the Spanish Golden Age...

4. The influence of the Reconquista on the Unity of the People

In the first centuries of the Reconquista, the Spanish people, as such, did not yet exist. It was an Ibero-Romano-Gothic population. As a people endowed with unique national characteristics, the Spaniards were formed precisely in the process of the Reconquista. The fight against a common enemy strengthened and united them, and left an imprint on their character type. Almost all travelers to Spain noted the freedom of the Spaniards from class prejudices. In general, the distinction between peasants, artisans and knights was not as obvious in Spain as in other countries of medieval Europe. The reasons should be sought precisely during the Reconquista, when all layers of society fought with Muslims on equal terms, and cities and peasant communities that found themselves on the border and were forced to guard this border received special rights and freedoms enshrined in the codes of laws - fueros. Peasants free from feudal dependence formed independent unions - begetria. The free and rebellious spirit of the Begetria laid the foundations for an independent national character.

For unification, a certain common banner, a single shrine was needed. That is why the discovery in the 9th century of the relics of St. James - Santiago, in Galicia, in the town of Compostela, is so important in the history of the Reconquista. Saint James becomes the banner of the Reconquista. The peaceful apostle receives the nickname “Santiago Matamoros,” that is, “Santiago the Slayer of the Moors.” He is still considered the patron saint of Spain.

Santiago de Compostela was raided. The Arabs destroyed the church dedicated to Santiago, but did not desecrate the tomb itself, and did not even touch the monk who guarded it. The attackers treated the Christian shrine with respect. True, the bells were removed from the bell tower and transported on the shoulders of Christian slaves to Cordoba to be melted down into lamps for the famous mosque. When King Fernando III of Castile finally took Cordoba on June 29, 1236, the lamps cast from the bells were sent back to Santiago on the shoulders of Muslim slaves.

To this day, the pilgrimage route from France runs to Santiago de Compostela. The first pilgrims walked along it, leaning on a staff and singing songs about the death of the brave Count Roland.

Another banner of the Reconquista was Sid the Warrior, who led the fight against the Moors in the 11th century. RuyDiaz de Bivar, or Cid Campeador, the hero of the Spanish epic “The Song of Cid,” is a real person. With his exploits in the war against the Muslims, he glorified Spanish weapons. Both the epic and folk romances pay tribute to him, describing him as a man of honor, a fighter for justice, an invincible warrior-hero. The real Sid was not such a paragon of virtue as the imagination of storytellers portrays him. While defending Christianity, he nevertheless willingly served both the Spanish kings and the Muslim emirs. However, the growing self-awareness of the people, who increasingly felt themselves to be a single nation, simply needed a hero-symbol, a shining example to follow.

5. Impact on culture

It would be a deep mistake to believe that war and hostility are the only conditions for the coexistence of peoples on the Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages. Here, despite everything, during the stay of the Arabs, an extremely harmonious way of life developed, and the richest Andalusian culture was born.

Almost the entire population was bilingual: they spoke El Romance and colloquial Arabic. Many knew classical Arabic, Latin, and Hebrew. Arabs, Jews, and Spaniards communicated freely, traded, and entered into marriage alliances. This continued for centuries, almost until the very end of the Reconquista. In this Spain it would be absurd to talk about purity of blood and show religious intolerance.

In addition to Christians, Muslims and Jews, the Muwallads lived here - Christian Spaniards who converted to Islam. Mozarabs are Spanish Christians who live in the Arab Emirates and Caliphate, but have retained their religion while adopting Arab culture and language. Mudejars are Arabs who remained in Spanish territories after the reconquest, retaining their faith, but becoming carriers of not so much purely Arab, but rather Arab-Spanish, Andalusian culture. Finally, the Moriscos are Arabs or muwallads who, after the final expulsion of the Arabs from Spain, adopted Christianity. Cultures mixed, peoples mixed.

For an example, let's go back a little, to the beginning of the 10th century, to Cordoba, where Emir Abdarrahman III came to power with blue eyes and light brown hair. He broke his formal dependence on Baghdad by declaring the creation of the independent Caliphate of Cordoba in 929. This will be a great kingdom. What is one Cordoba mosque worth? The University of Cordoba was also highly respected. People came here to study from France, England, and Germany. Cordoba was famous throughout the world for its libraries. The library of Caliph al-Hakam II consisted of at least four hundred thousand volumes. Here, in Cordoba, was born the poet Ibn Hazm, author of "The Necklace of the Dove", one of best books about love. The famous philosopher Averroes, translator of Aristotle into Arabic, who also left works on physics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, religion and law. The cities of Seville and Granada with the luxurious Moorish palace of the Alhambra were beautiful and rich.

The different groups of the population generally existed in harmonious balance. A cathedral, a mosque, a synagogue - this is the normal cityscape of Granada or Toledo. During the reconquest, Catholics, however, were inclined to open their cathedrals in mosques and synagogues. And yet, the Castilian kings, starting with the enlightened sovereign Alfonso the Wise, for a long time called themselves “kings of three religions.” The monarch, returning from a campaign, was greeted by the people who poured out to meet him in three languages: Arabic, Spanish, and Hebrew.

A famous school of translators was created in Toledo, which enriched Europe with the works of Averroes and Avicenna.

Conclusion

The Reconquista led to profound changes in the socio-economic, political and spiritual life of the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula. The seizure of most of the conquered land by the warlike nobility and the Catholic Church sharply increased the power of the spiritual and secular feudal lords. The influence of the church increased enormously.

But, despite the enormous role played by the church in the reconquista process, the ideological influence of Catholicism on the life of Spanish society was not very strong. One of the reasons for this was prolonged contact with secular Arab culture. At the same time, it was the centuries-old struggle with the Moors that largely determined the fact that in Spain Catholicism in the Middle Ages was perceived primarily as a national and political force. Fighting for the “holy faith,” the Spaniards saw this as a national task of liberating their native country from the yoke of foreigners, and not the implementation of lofty mystical ideals.

Bibliography

1. Altamira y Crevea R. History of Spain. M., 1951. T.1.

2. Varyash O.I. Two essays on the Iberian Reconquista 2 Middle Ages. M., 1996. Issue. 59.

3. Korsunsky A.R. History of Spain 9-13 centuries. M., 1976.

4. Kudryavtsev A.E. Spain in the Middle Ages. L., 1937.

5. Socio-political development of the Iberian Peninsula under feudalism. M., 1985.

6. Watt W.M., Kakia P.Muslim Spain. M., 1976.

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Population

The population of Spain as of January 1 of the year was 43.97 million people, including 3.69 million (8.4%) foreigners.

Such data was published by Spanish media with reference to State Institute statistics. As the media note, if previously Spain was one of the European countries where few foreigners lived, now in terms of this indicator it is second only to Germany and Austria, where the percentage of foreigners is 9% and 8.7%, respectively. Spain is already ahead of France (8%) and all other European countries.

The number of foreigners living in Spain has especially increased in recent years, due to a sharp influx of immigrants into the country. Thus, in Spain in 1996 there were only 542.3 thousand people, which is seven times less than at present.

The majority of foreigners in Spain are (in descending order) Moroccans, Ecuadorians, Romanians and Colombians.

The population of Spain for quite a long time was about 40 million people, which was due, in particular, to the lowest birth rate in Europe. As experts note, the growth of the country's population is caused, first of all, by the influx of immigrants - they come to Spain in search of work, since the country has a labor shortage.

As experts note, the influx of immigrants allows Spain to maintain growing rates of economic growth and a system of social guarantees.

In Spain, where an increase in the share of the foreign population has been noted since the year, the number of immigrants from third countries increased in the period from 1 to January 1 of the year from 1.1 million to 3.7 million people (8.4% total number population).

The largest foreign residents in Spain are Moroccans, Ecuadorians, Romanians and Colombians.

When calling the inhabitants of Spain Spaniards, they mean the entire people, the entire population of this country. However, on the territory of Spain there are historical areas inhabited by other ethnic groups. The population of Spain is 43.97 million; about 3/4 are Spaniards, other ethnic groups are Catalans (about 6 million people), Galicians (about 3 million people) and Basques (about 800 thousand people).

About 200,000 Moroccans live in Spain. In terms of total population, Spain ranks fifth among European countries. Urban population – 76.7% (1996). The average population density is about 78 people per square meter. km.

Language

The official language of the Spanish state is Spanish (Castilian, castellano). Spanish, formed on the basis of the Castilian dialect, is the official language of the country. But there are also other official languages spoken in national autonomies. In the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, as well as in the Balearic Islands, they speak the Catalan language and its dialects, in Galicia - the Galician language, in the Basque Country and Navarre - the Basque language. Spanish, Catalan and Galician languages belong to the Romance group (which also includes Italian, French, Portuguese, Romanian). The Basque language is unlike any other language in the world, which gives rise to various versions of the origin of this people (in particular, the widespread version is that the Basques are immigrants from the Caucasus and relatives of Georgians).

Religion

The country's constitution guarantees freedom of religion. Spain is a Catholic country. The vast majority of the country's population consider themselves practicing Catholics. Roman Catholicism is professed by 98%, other faiths are Protestantism, Judaism, Islam.

Madrid. Cathedral of Equal Apostles Mary Magdalene
Palma de Mallorca. Christmas arrival. Puerta Pintada No 9 (Calle San Miguel esquina Olmos) 07001 Palma de Mallorca. Archimandrite Macarius (Rosello). Dean. Tel.: +34 6 78 45 38 23; Hegumen Seraphim (Pavlov)
Barcelona. Parish in honor of the Annunciation Holy Mother of God. Archpriest Vladimir Abrosimov Tel.: +34 93 422 39 65; +34 6 87 210 629
Tenerife. Parish in honor of the Presentation of the Lord on the island of Tenerife
Altea. Parish in the name of the Archangel Michael, 163rd km of the N-332 road - Altea (Alicante). Archpriest Nikolai Soldatenkov provides care. Contact: Deacon Vladimir Zhukov. Tel.: +34 6 46 342 852. Website: http://arkhangelmikhail-spain.com/
Alicante. The parish of Simeon the New Theologian and St. Innocent of Moscow (Ss Simeon y Inocencio). C/ Tucumán, 7. (Antiguo Colegio Salesiano) 54 03001- Alicante. Liturgy schedule: every Sunday at 10:30. Priest Hosios Ferrer. Tel.: +34 966 350 752; +34 649 630 999. Blog: http://iglesiaortodoxaenalicante.blogspot.com/ Parish bulletin: http://boletinsanserafindesarov1.blogspot.com/
Malaga(Benalmadena). The arrival of the Ascension of the Lord. Priest Andrei Kordochkin provides care. Responsible layperson: Boris Baklanov. Urb. Cascada de Camojan residencial, Las Merinas, casa Marvik, 29600, MALAGA
Oviedo. Community. Provided by priest Andrei Kordochkin
Las Palmas- Gran Canaria. Community of the Canary Islands. In the temple of Ermita Espiritu Santo, in the city center on the street of the same name, near the cathedral, Las Palmas - GRAND CANARIA Tel.: +34 665 564 565. http://ortodoxcanarias.livejournal.com/

Geographical position

Spain is a state in the extreme southwest of Europe, occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic and Pitius Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.

Schematically, it has a shape reminiscent of a stretched bull skin. Spain is a bridge between two continents, Europe and Africa, and a barrier separating two seas: the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Spain borders in the west with Portugal (border length 1214 km), in the north with France (623 km) and Andorra (65 km), in the south with Gibraltar (1.2 km). Spain is washed in the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea, in the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and in the north by the Bay of Biscay (Cantabrian Sea). A distance of only 14 km, the width of the Strait of Gibraltar, separates Spain from Africa.

Spain owns the Balearic and Canary Islands, as well as 5 sovereign zones in Northern Africa on the coast of Morocco, in the territory of the former Spanish Morocco with the cities of Ceuta and Melilla. Spain has a long-standing territorial dispute with Britain over the issue of Gibraltar.

The total length of the border is 1903.2 km, the length of the coastline is 4964 km. The total area of Spain is 504,782 square meters. km (land area – 499,400 km²). It is the fourth largest European country after Russia, Ukraine and France.

The name Spain (Hispania), which the Romans gave to the country, comes from Hispalis (Seville). Another theory is that the name Spain is of Celtic origin and means "entrance" or "key".

History of Spain

Ancient Spain

In ancient times, Spain was inhabited by Iberians, in the 5th – 3rd centuries. BC. The Celts settled here. The Celts invading from the north mixed with the Iberians, forming the Celtiberian population.

5000 BC The beginning of agriculture on the Iberian Peninsula.

2500 BC The inhabitants of the Los Millares settlement process metal; they believe in afterlife. This Neolithic settlement may have housed 2,000 people.

1800 – 1100 BC In the southeast of Spain, the developed agricultural culture of El Argar flourishes.

1200 BC The inhabitants of Menorca (Talaiot culture) create three types of stone buildings: taulas, talayots and navetas.

By the 12th century. BC. The Phoenicians landed on these lands, they were replaced by the Greeks, and then the Carthaginians. In the 2nd millennium BC. The Phoenicians and Greeks founded their colonies on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, while the central part of the territory was inhabited by Iberian and Celtic tribes.

Around 1100 BC The Phoenicians found Gadir (now Cadiz).

The Bronze Age treasure, found in 1963 in Villena, near Alicante, includes 66 objects made of gold and silver - bowls, vessels and jewelry. It dates back to 1000 BC.

775 BC The Phoenicians establish colonies on the coast near Malaga.

700 BC The rise of the semi-legendary kingdom of Tartessos. Phoenician deities were also worshiped in ancient Spain. The fertility goddess Ishtar was especially revered. A bronze image of the goddess from the 8th century was found. BC. from a Phoenician colony.

Around 600 BC The Greeks founded colonies on the northeast coast of Spain. Greek colonists brought with them new technologies, such as the potter's wheel. Their wonderful ceramics were a role model. A black-figure amphora from the 6th century was found. BC. depicting the labors of Hercules. In the early Iron Age, iron was used only in everyday life; later weapons made from this metal also appeared. Dagger from Burgos, 6th century. BC.

300 BC "The Lady from Elche" This stone bust of a woman from the 4th century. BC. - an excellent example of Iberian art. Its mysterious beauty bears traces of Greek influence.

Early Middle Ages

The Reconquista began almost immediately. The first independent kingdom in Spain was the Kingdom of Asturias, and to this day every eldest son of a Spanish king receives the hereditary title of Prince of Asturias.

Middle Ages

Christian Spain unites under the rule of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile.

Castile and Aragon united into one kingdom and completed the liberation of the country from the Moors. Since the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon, Spain has been a single state. The struggle for freedom ended only in the year when the Catholic Kings Ferdinand and Isabella received the keys to Granada from the hands of the last Arab emir in Spain.

Since then, Spain has become a unified state. She also began to build her empire based on the discoveries of Christopher Columbus.

Golden age

In the 16th century absolutism took hold. At the beginning of the 16th century. The Spanish colonial empire emerged (based on colonial conquests in America). The Spanish Empire reached its peak in the 16th century. with the expansion of colonies in South and Central America and the capture of Portugal in the city, Charles of the House of Habsburg, who inherited the Spanish throne, becomes, under the name of Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, on which “the sun never sets.”

From the middle of the 16th century. Spain's economic decline began. Charles V's son Philip II moves the capital from Toledo to Madrid. Death

The history of Spain should begin with decoding the name of the country. It has Phoenician roots and means “shore of the hyraxes,” that is, the habitat of the herbaceous mammals that inhabited the Iberian Peninsula.

These lands were hardly ever empty. People have inhabited them since time immemorial. This is due to a favorable climate, access to the sea, and a wealth of resources.

First tribes

The history of Spain is connected with many ancient peoples. They occupied various parts of the future state. It is known that the Iberians settled in the southern territories, and the Celts were interested in the northern lands.

The central part of the peninsula was inhabited by mixed tribes. In ancient sources they were called Celtiberians. Greeks and Phoenicians settled on the coasts. The Carthaginians conquered the lands with particular activity. But as a result of several wars they were ousted by the Romans.

From Roman to Arab rule

The colonization of lands by the Romans began in the 3rd century BC. It was possible to completely conquer all the tribes only in 72 BC. From this moment the history of Roman Spain began. It dragged on for almost five centuries. During this time, many ancient structures were built. Some amphitheaters and triumphal arches have survived to this day.

It was during this period that the culture of Spain was especially enriched. The famous Roman philosopher Seneca and Emperor Trajan were born on these lands. Christianity came here in the 3rd century.

At the end of the 4th century, Roman Spain ceased to exist. Having captured Rome, the Visigoths came here. In 418 they organized their own state on these lands. The successor of the Roman Empire, Justinian, was able to regain the southern lands. This is how Byzantine Spain existed in the 6th-7th century.

Endless internal strife among the Visigoths led to the decline of their state. One of the contenders for the throne decided to ask the Arabs for help. So in the 8th century, a new people arrived on the peninsula.

The Arabs quickly seized power. They did not plan to make radical changes to the way of life of the local population. The inhabitants of the peninsula have preserved their religion, culture, and traditions. But they still adopted some elements of the East, for example, the love of luxury. The architectural structures of that era are reminiscent of the rule of the Arabs.

Reconquista

The inhabitants of the peninsula could not come to terms with the fact that they were ruled by the Moors. They waged a constant struggle to reclaim their lands. In history, this long period was called the Reconquista. It began in the 8th century, when the Arabs were defeated for the first time at the Battle of Covadonga.

During this time, such state associations as the Spanish Mark (modern Catalonia), Navarre, and Aragon were created.

The Arabs managed to conquer significant territories and firmly gain a foothold on the peninsula at the end of the 10th century, when the vizier Almanzor came to power. With his death, the Moorish state lost its unity.

The Reconquista achieved its greatest success in the 13th century. The Christians united against the Arabs and were able to defeat them in several decisive battles. Subsequently, the Moors had to flee to the mountains. Their last refuge was fortified Granada. It was conquered in 1492.

After the defeat of the Arabs, the Golden Age of Spain begins.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Isabella and Ferdinand are considered the most significant personalities of Spain. She inherited the throne of Castile from her brother and married the heir of Aragon. A dynastic marriage united the two largest kingdoms.

In 1492, the Spaniards not only finally got rid of the Moors, but also discovered New world. It was at this time that Columbus carried out an expedition and founded the Spanish colonies. The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries began, in which the state played an important role. It was Isabella who agreed to sponsor Columbus's expedition. For this she pawned her jewelry.

The rulers of Spain decided to invest in a risky venture that elevated the state on the world stage. Those countries that were afraid to take risks regretted their mistake for a long time, and Spain reaped the benefits from the formed colonies.

Habsburg Spain (beginning)

The grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand was born in 1500. He is known as Charles the First as King of the Spanish lands, and as Charles the Fifth became Holy Roman Emperor.

The king was distinguished by the fact that he preferred to independently resolve all issues of the state. He arrived in Castile from Burgundy. From there he brought his yard. This initially outraged the locals, but over time Charles became a true representative of Castile.

The history of Spain at that time is associated with numerous wars against Protestantism, which developed in Germany and France. In 1555, the emperor's troops were defeated by German Protestants. According to the peace treaty, a new Christian church was legalized in Germany. Charles could not accept such a shame and three weeks after signing the document, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son Philip II. He himself retired to a monastery.

Last Habsburgs

Philip II continued the history of the country. Spain during his reign was able to stop the Turkish invasion. She was victorious at the naval Battle of Lepanto in 1571. The battle went down in history not only due to the victory of the combined Spanish-Venetian fleet, but also due to the last use of rowing ships. It was in this battle that the future writer Cervantes lost his arm.

Philip did everything to strengthen the monarchy in the state. But he failed to keep the Netherlands under his control. In 1598, the northern lands gained independence through a revolution.

However, a little earlier, Philip managed to annex Portugal. This happened in 1581. Portugal was under the Spanish crown until the mid-17th century. The country constantly tried to secede from Spain, using any methods to do so.

Under the next rulers, the political influence of the state on the world stage gradually fell, and the state's possessions were reduced. The next step down was the Thirty Years' War. The Habsburgs of Spain and Austria, as well as the German princes, joined forces to fight the Protestant coalition. It included England, Russia, Sweden and other countries. The myth of the invincibility of the Spanish army was destroyed by the Battle of Rocroi. In 1648, the parties concluded the Peace of Westphalia. It had dire consequences for Spain.

The last representative of the Habsburgs died in 1700. Charles II had no heir, so the throne went to the Bourbons from France.

War of the Spanish Succession

Spain's participation in wars continued into the 18th century. Philippe of Bourbon, who was the grandson of Louis the Fourteenth, King of France, ascended the throne. This did not suit Great Britain, Austria, and Holland. They feared that the future Spanish-French state would become a strong enemy. The war has begun. According to the peace treaties of 1713-1714, Philip renounced the French throne, retaining the Spanish throne. Thus, France and Spain would not be able to unite. In addition, Spain was deprived of its possessions in Italy, the Netherlands, Minorca and Gibraltar.

The next king was Charles the Fourth. He was greatly influenced by the favorite Godoy. It was he who persuaded the king to move closer to France. In 1808, Napoleon kept Charles IV and his son Ferdinand in France by force so that Joseph Bonaparte could rule in Spain. There were uprisings in the country, and a guerrilla war was waged against Napoleon's troops. When European countries overthrew the emperor, power in Spain passed to Ferdinand the Seventh. After his death, civil wars resumed in the country, contradictions appeared and intensified between the peoples of the state on the basis of culture and language. This was Spain during the Enlightenment. At this time, modernization reforms were carried out government controlled. The rulers were distinguished by their despotic methods and desire for enlightenment.

In the 19th century, the country experienced five major revolutions. As a result, the state became a constitutional monarchy. During the same period, it lost almost all of its colonies in America. This had a negative impact on the economic situation, since the largest sales market disappeared and the amount of taxes received was reduced.

Francoist Spain

At the beginning of the 20th century, the king's power was significantly weakened. In 1923, as a result of a military coup, General de Rivera seized power in the country for seven years. After the elections of 1931, King Alphonse XIII had to abdicate the throne and go to Paris. A republic appeared on the world map.

From that time on, a fierce struggle began between the Republicans, who were supported by Soviet Union, and the fascists, who fed forces from Italy and Germany. The Republicans lost the fight, and from 1939 the Franco dictatorship was established in the country.

Francoist Spain adhered to neutrality in World War II. But this was only formal. In fact, the country supported Germany. That is why in the post-war period it was in international isolation. By 1953, she was able to achieve the lifting of sanctions. Reforms were carried out in the country, thanks to which foreign investment poured in. The development of industry and tourism began in Spain. This period is usually called an economic miracle. It continued until 1973.

But supporters of leftist views continued to be persecuted in the country. They were accused of separatism. Hundreds of thousands of people disappeared without a trace.

Recent history

After his death, Franco bequeathed to transfer power into the hands of Juan Carlos, who was the grandson of Alfonso the Thirteenth. The history of Spain changed in 1975.

Liberal reforms were carried out in the country. The 1978 Constitution allowed for greater autonomy for some regions of the state. In 1986, the country joined NATO and the EU. The activities of the separatist organization ETA of a terrorist nature remain a serious unresolved problem.

A radical group was created in 1959. Its activities are aimed at gaining independence for the Basque Country. The Arana brothers, who lived in the 19th and 20th centuries, became ideologists. They claimed that Spain had turned their lands into its colony. Nationalist parties began to form. When Franco came to power, the autonomy of the Basque Country was abolished, and their native language was banned. In the sixties of the last century, the Basques were able to regain schools teaching in their own language.

Representatives of ETA advocate the creation of a separate state of Euskadi. During the history of its existence, its representatives made attempts on the lives of gendarmes and officials. The most famous crime is the planned murder of Luis Blanco, who was Franco's successor. Explosives were placed over the place where his car was passing, and an explosion occurred on December 20, 1973. The politician died on the spot. In the seventies and eighties, negotiations were held between the government and ETA, which briefly led to a truce. Today the organization has officially abandoned the armed struggle and entered politics. Its former members run for office and gain positions in government.

Modern role of the monarch

King Juan Carlos I has great authority on the world stage. Although his powers in the country were very limited, he participated in various important political processes. Thanks to his authority, today Spain remains a stable state with a developed economy.

He was born in 1938 in Italy. His early years were spent in Italy and Portugal. He was able to receive his education in his homeland. Franco appointed him as his successor back in 1956. Juan's father, the Count of Barcelona, opposed this.

In 2014, the king decided to abdicate the throne in favor of his son Felipe. He stated that he was ready to rule, he was young and capable of carrying out the necessary transformations in the country. Despite his abdication, he still holds the title of king.

Since 2014, Philip VI has been considered the monarch of Spain. Little is known about his activities yet. He has to resolve the issue with Catalonia, which held an illegal referendum on secession from the state in 2017.

Culture

If we talk about the culture of Spain, it is worth noting that the entire country is historical museum, which is washed by seas on three sides.

Of the many architectural monuments, the following buildings in Madrid are worth highlighting:

Bishop's Chapel - the temple is located in Madrid, made in the Gothic style.
Monastery of Descalzas Reales - built in the 16th century, famous for its collection of works of art.
The Royal Palace is an example of palace architecture from the 17th century. It is surrounded by parks and gardens. It preserves the utensils of past centuries, which were used by the monarchs of the state.
The fountain of the goddess Cibeles is the symbol of Madrid.

Thirty kilometers from Madrid is Alcala de Henares, the city in which Cervantes was born. The house where the writer lived has been preserved there. In addition to churches and monasteries, the city also has a university from the 15th century.

Barcelona is worth mentioning separately. The historic center, designed in Gothic style, has remained virtually untouched from the time when the city was the capital of Catalonia.

On the territory of modern Israel. They founded the city of Cadiz, which was then called Gadir or Gader. This city became the center of the Phoenician colonies.

Subsequently, the Phoenicians, being skilled sailors, reached Africa and founded the state of Carthage there with the capital of the same name (the territory of modern Tunisia). The inhabitants of Carthage continued to develop new lands, including the Iberian Peninsula. After 680 BC Carthage became the main center of Phoenician civilization, and the Carthaginians established a trade monopoly in the Strait of Gibraltar.

The Greeks settled on the east coast, their city-states were located on the territory of modern Costa Brava.

At the end of the First Punic War, Hamilcar and Hannibal subjugated the south and east of the peninsula to the Carthaginians (237-219 BC). Then the Carthaginian military leader Hamilcar created the Punic Empire and moved the capital to New Carthage (Cartagena). New Carthage becomes the center of development of the Iberian Peninsula.

After the defeat of the Carthaginians, whose troops were led by Hannibal, in the Second Punic War in 210 BC. e., the Romans came to the Iberian Peninsula. The Carthaginians finally lost their possessions after the victories of Scipio the Elder (206 BC).

But for almost two centuries, the Celtiberians resisted the Roman Army in the central and northern parts of the peninsula. The Basque tribes that inhabited the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula were never conquered, which explains their modern distinct language dialect, which has nothing in common with the Latin group of languages.

Roman period in the history of Spain

Gradually, the Romans conquered the entire Iberian Peninsula, but they succeeded only after 200 years of bloody wars. Spain became the second most important center of the Roman Empire after Italy itself. She gave the first provincial consul, the emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius the Great, the writers Martial, Quintilian, Seneca and the poet Lucan.

Spain fell completely under the influence of the Romans. Local languages were forgotten. The Romans built a network of roads in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. In large centers of Roman Spain, such as Tarraco (Tarragona), Italica (near Seville) and Emerita (Merida), theaters, arenas and hippodromes were built, bridges and aqueducts were erected. There was active trade in metals, olive oil, wines, wheat and other goods through the seaports. Not only trade flourished, industry and agriculture stood on high degree development. The population was very large (according to Pliny the Elder, under Vespasian there were 360 cities here).

Christianity penetrated into Spain very early and began to spread, despite bloody persecution. Christian church had a good organizational structure even before the baptism of the Roman Emperor Constantine in 312.

From the second half of the 5th century. n. e. until 711-718

On the territory of Spain - the feudal state of the Visigoths. They defeated Rome in 410, in the 5th century. captured most of the Iberian Peninsula. At the beginning of the 8th century. the Visigothic state was conquered by the Arabs, who created a number of feudal states on its territory

Arab domination

But Spain was also under the yoke, only the Arab one, which, starting from the 8th century, lasted more than 700 (!) years, with 718 year to 1492 the year when the last Arab stronghold in Spain fell - the Emirate of Granada. And apparently, the Arab yoke for the peoples of Spain (being, of course, also a national tragedy, only it lasted not 230, but 700 years) at the same time served as a powerful incentive for the struggle for national revival and the creation of a strong, united Spanish state.

Reconquista

The Spaniards fought continuously against the Arab conquerors starting in 718. Their “Battle of Kulikovo” was a battle in the Covadonga River valley in Asturias back in 718, when local militia led by Pelayo defeated a detachment of Arabs.

From that time on, the so-called “ Reconquista" - i.e., the war to recapture Spanish lands from the Arabs. It was during the Reconquista, which lasted 700 (!) years, the Spanish kingdoms of Aragon, Castile and others arose, which later, in their common interests of joint struggle against the Arabs, voluntarily united as a result of the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon 1479 into a unified Spanish state. And already 13 years after that, in 1492 year, the Arab yoke in Spain was over.

16th century

The Spaniards, united in the fight against a common enemy into a single state, at the same time carried out colonial conquests in America and created a vast and prosperous Spanish Empire by the middle of the 16th century. The heyday of the Spanish Empire under Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand V. However, the influx of gold from overseas did not contribute to the development of the country's economy; numerous Spanish cities remained primarily political, but not trade and craft centers. The policies of the ruling circles increasingly suppressed the development of trade and crafts, exacerbating the economic and then political lag of Spain from the countries of Western Europe. From the middle of the 16th century. under King Philip II - economic decline, wars with England, loss of maritime dominance. Beginning of the period of the "House of Austrian Kings" (1516).

17th century

By the end of the 17th century, the country's economy and state apparatus fell into complete decline, cities and territories were depopulated. Due to a lack of money, many provinces returned to barter trade. Despite extremely high taxes, the once luxurious Madrid court found itself unable to pay for its own maintenance, often even for royal meals.

XVIII century

1701-1714

The struggle of European dynasties for the Spanish throne. War of the Spanish Succession. It began after the death in 1700 of the last Spanish Habsburg. In 1701, France placed Louis XIV's grandson Philip V of Bourbon on the throne of Spain; Austria, Great Britain, Holland, Prussia and others (“Coalition”) opposed it.

Major battles:

1704 - under Hochstedt

1709 p at Madiplaka

1712 - under Denen

1713-1714

End of the War of the Spanish Succession. Peace of Utrecht and Rastatt (1714). The main result of the war was the strengthening of England's maritime and colonial power. The end of the “House of Austrian Kings” period. Spain and its colonies were left to Philip of Bourbon in exchange for his and his heirs' renunciation of their rights to the French throne. The Habsburgs (Austria) received Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and Italy. Great Britain received Gibraltar and the city of Mayon on the island of Menorca, as well as the right to import black slaves into the American possessions of Spain (“asiento right”) and a number of possessions in North America from France. In the 18th century The monetary unit of Spain -1 peseta, equal to 100 centimes, was introduced into circulation.

In the middle of the 18th century A number of important reforms were carried out in the country. Taxes were lowered, the state apparatus was updated, and the rights of the Catholic clergy were significantly limited.

Further transformations led to positive results. In Catalonia and some port cities, the development of manufacturing began, and trade with the colonies flourished. But due to the complete economic decline of the previous period, the development of industry and transport in the country was possible only by the state and required large loans.

19th century

During the 19th century, starting with 1808 years, Spain experienced five (!) revolutions, which followed almost with the frequency of a courier train: after 6, 11, 11 and 12 years, one after another, until the revolution 1868-1874 years. During this period, the Spaniards developed five draft Constitutions, of which four were adopted and worked. The first, the so-called Cadiz Constitution"was adopted in 1812.

Five unfinished revolutions:

1. Revolution of 1808-1814

Merged with the struggle against the French occupiers.

The most important events: - a popular uprising in March 1808 in the city of Aranjuez, where the imperial court was located, which spread to Madrid. Result: resignation of Prime Minister M. Godoy and abdication of Charles IV (King Carlos the Elder of Spain) in favor of his son Ferdinand (King Ferdinand VII); - entry of French troops into Madrid on March 20, 1808, capture of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by the French;

A meeting in Bayonne in June-July 1808 of representatives of the nobility and high administration (“Bayonne Cortes”), which recognized Joseph Bonaparte as the king of Spain and adopted the Bayonne Constitution. The constitution was proposed by Napoleon I and defined Spain as a constitutional monarchy with a powerless Cortes;

The armed struggle of the people and the remnants of the regular army against foreign invaders;

The creation of government bodies (juntas) in the liberated territories and, in September 1810, the Central Junta;

Convocation on September 24, 1810 on the island. Leon of the Constituent Assembly of Spain, which moved on February 20, 1811 to the city of Cadiz (“Cadiz Cortes”). The Cadiz Cortes operated until September 20, 1812. They adopted the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 and a number of democratic anti-feudal laws (freedom of speech and press, destruction of the rights and privileges of lords, etc.). The constitution was in force from 1812-4814. in territory unoccupied by the French. Proclaimed Spain a constitutional monarchy;

The victory of the counter-revolution after the defeat of the armies of Napoleon I by the allied forces, the return of King Ferdinand VII from French captivity in 1814 and the restoration of the absolute monarchy.

2. Revolution 1820-1823

Occurred 6 years after the first revolution. Major events:

The speech of the people under the leadership of the leader of the party of left liberals ("exaltados") Riero y Nunez in January 1820 in Cadiz;

In March 1830, the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 was restored;

In March - April 1820, the formation of the constitutional Government of the party of right-wing liberals (“moderados”), which carried out a number of reforms;

In August 1822, power was transferred to the exaltados government, and a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which was not implemented;

September 30, 1823 - capitulation of the constitutional Government; - On October 1, 1823, King Ferdinand VII restored the absolute monarchy.

3. Revolution 1834-1843

Occurred 11 years after the second revolution under the 4-year-old daughter of Ferdinand VII, Queen Isabella and regent Maria Christina. King Ferdinand VII died in 1833.

Major events:

In October 1833, the manifesto of the regent Maria Christina on the preservation of absolutist orders after the death of the king;

In January 1834, the government of "moderados" was formed;

Popular uprisings under the slogan of restoring the Cadiz Constitution of 1812;

In September 1835, the formation of a government of the bourgeois-liberal Progressive Party, which began selling off church lands;

In June 1837, the convening of the Constituent Cortes and their adoption of a new Constitution, which retained the king’s right of veto;

At the end of 1837, the progressives were removed from power;

In October 1840, the progressives came to power again (the government of General B. Espartero);

In July 1843, a counter-revolutionary coup led by General Narvaez (Duke de Valencia, head of the Moderados party, head of several governments in the following years until 1868) Restoration of Queen Isabella II, who was 13 years old, to the throne. In fact, until 1851

Military dictatorship of Gen. Narvaez.

4. Revolution 1854-1856

It happened again under Queen Isabella II 11 years after the third revolution.

Major events:

June 28, 1854 military uprising and forced appointment by Queen Isabella II of the progressive General B. Espartero as prime minister;

In November 1854, the convening of the Constituent Cortes. Adoption of laws on “depreciation” (sale of lands of the church, monasteries, state, peasant communities);

On April 13, 1856, Queen Isabella II dismissed Prime Minister B. Espartero. In response, uprisings began and were suppressed;

Formation of the new government of O'Donnell (Count of Lusensky, Duke of Tetouan, head of the "Liberal Union"

The party of right-wing liberals, founded in 1854. An opponent of the deepened revolution, prepared a counter-revolutionary coup (1856). Dissolution of the Constituent Cortes, restoration of the Constitution of 1845 and other pre-revolutionary laws;

Queen Isabella II's restoration of absolute monarchy

5. Revolution 1868-1874

Occurred again under Queen Isabella II 12 years after the fourth revolution.

Major events:

Emigration of Queen Isabella II;

February 11, 1869, convening of the Constituent Cortes, which adopted a constitution introducing democratic freedoms;

On November 16, 1870, Amadeus of Savoy, a representative of the dynasty of rulers of Savoy, kings of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and kings of the united Kingdom of Italy, was elected to the throne. Republican uprisings, the emergence of Spanish groups of the First International;

June 1873 - meeting of the new Constituent Cortes, which developed a draft of a new Republican Constitution. Left Republican F. Pi i Margal (1824-1901) was elected Prime Minister

Revolutionary democrat, utopian socialist;

July 1873 - anti-government uprisings with the active participation of anarchists-Bakuninists under the slogan of fragmenting the country into small cantons. Fall of the Pi-i-Margal government;

December 29, 1874 - a new coup, the monarchy was restored, Alfonso XII (son of Queen Isabella II) was proclaimed king of Spain.

Despite the fact that each of these revolutions ultimately ended in the defeat and restoration of the absolute monarchy, the sacrifices and hardships endured by the people could not be in vain: civil legal awareness certainly grew in society, and the vector of its democratic development appeared and increased.

Defeat in the war with the United States and the loss of almost all Spanish colonies was perceived in Spain as a national catastrophe. 1898 the year brought the Spaniards an acute sense of national humiliation. The reasons for the military defeat were immediately related to the economic, social and political problems of the country's development. IN late XIX- early 20th century A number of labor laws were adopted, which introduced in Spain the most basic standards of labor legislation in European countries.

XX century

During the First World War, Spain maintained neutrality, but its economy suffered seriously.

After the overthrow of King Alfonso XIII of Spain in the last revolution in 1931, the royal family emigrated to Italy. A Republic was proclaimed in Spain, then a civil war began, which ended in 1939 with the capture of Madrid by rebels and the establishment of a lifelong dictatorship Francisco Franco.

Franco became, for various reasons, a sovereign dictator with unlimited powers. As far as is known, he then had benevolent feelings towards the monarchy in general and towards royal family in particular, he did not show it at all. Rather, it’s the other way around. Franco ruled harshly, single-handedly, and competitors, even defeated ones, were, to put it mildly, undesirable for him. To govern the country, he did not even need partners (especially from monarchist circles). However, later, just 8 years later, in 1947, Franco takes an unexpected and unconventional step. He announces a new, non-gradational form of government for the country, officially defining Spain as “ Kingdom under an unoccupied throne»

Moreover, Franco himself was then only 58 years old, he was the recognized leader of the nation (“Caudillo”), his power was stable, and he had no intention of giving it up to anyone,

Franco brings closer to himself the grandson of the deposed King Alfonso XIII, Prince Juan Carlos (born in 1938, parents are the son of King Alfonso XIII, Juan de Bourbon and the granddaughter of the English Queen Victoria, Maria de Bourbon y Orleans). In 1948, the prince moved permanently to Spain, later studying at the Academy of the Ground Forces, Air Force and Navy, as well as at the University of Madrid. In 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sofia, the daughter of the Greek King Paul I and Queen Federica.

Finally, in July 1969, Franco solemnly proclaimed Juan Carlos Prince of Spain (without, of course, renouncing his powers as dictator).

Thus, Franco not only strengthened his personal power after the end of World War II and the collapse of the ideas of fascism (when anti-fascist sentiment sharply increased in society), but also, and what is much more important! - consistently and ahead of time prepared for himself a successor who (given the mentality of the Spanish people) immediately became unattainable for any possible contenders for power both during this period and after the death of Franco.

It is well known from the history of many countries that after a strong ruler, and especially an illegitimate dictator, there usually comes a very Time of Troubles struggle for power, bringing great misfortune to the country and people. Franco did not act like many dictators like him, who acted on the principle: “After me, at least sweat!” and did not allow any candidates for successor next to them, but showed great statesmanship, true concern for his people and the future of the country.

Apparently, this is why, despite all the cruelties and injustices of his regime, Spaniards in our time rarely speak badly of him. They do not discuss this period and prefer not to talk about it. However, the monument to Franco, erected back then on the former Avenue Generalissimo, and now Castellan Avenue in Madrid, still stands.

In Spain, until very recently, coins of those years with Franco’s profile were in use. Moreover, about 50 km from Madrid there is a place called “EL ESCORIAL”. There is a super-giant pantheon complex with Franco's grave and the graves of both his fascist supporters and his Republican opponents. Both of them. Now it is a place of pilgrimage for tourists.

Thanks to Franco, Spain, being a country with a totalitarian fascist regime, not only developed relatively well economically in the difficult pre-war period, not only relatively bloodlessly followed its historical path as an ally of German fascism between the Scylla of Germany and Charybdis of the USSR with its Western allies during the Second World War, but even after the death of the dictator, it was able to smoothly transition to the democratic path of its development, although in form a monarchy was again established in the country, although not absolute, but constitutional.

And the monarchs are no longer the same as they used to be. Juan Carlos, who replaced Franco, is a comprehensively educated person with democratic convictions and a modern thinker. This is, so to speak, an “enlightened monarch.”

And Franco, having been in power continuously for 36 years as a “Caudillo,” that is, the sole leader and leader of the nation, died quietly in his bed in 1975 at the age of eighty-three.

In November of the same 1975, according to Franco’s will, Prince Juan Carlos was proclaimed King of Spain. This happened 44 years after the overthrow of his grandfather, King Alfonso XIII, from the throne.

Already in April 1977, trade unions and left-wing political (including communist) parties were legalized in Spain, diplomatic relations with Russia (USSR) were restored, and a cooperation agreement was concluded between the United States and Spain. December 1978 the new constitution came into force in 1982 year, Spain was admitted to NATO, and in 1985 became a member of the European Community

Thus, just 10 years after the end of the brutal and long military-fascist dictatorship, Spain carried out its “perestroika” without any special storms and shocks and turned into a prosperous democratic state in Europe.

The most important events of the 20th century

1931-1939

Democratic revolution of the socialist type.

Major events:

December 9, 1931 - adoption of the Constitution of the Republic; - 1933 - creation of the fascist party “Spanish Phalanx” (from the second half of the 50s called the “National Movement”);

January 1936 - creation of the Popular Front;

February 16, 1936 - victory of the Popular Front in the elections, agrarian reform, large banks and enterprises are placed under state control; - July 17-18, 1936 - Franco’s military-fascist rebellion;

March 1939 - fall of the Republic, establishment of Franco's dictatorship.

1947

Spain is declared a "Kingdom of the Vacant Throne."

1953

Spanish-American agreements on US military bases in Spain July 1969 Franco proclaimed King Alfonso XIII's grandson Juan Carlos Prince of Spain. Juan Carlos studied in Portugal in 1946, and in Spain since 1948. From 1955 to 1960 he was a student at the Academy of Ground Forces, Navy and Air Force, in 1960-1962. studied at the University of Madrid. Since 1962 he has been married to Princess Sofia, daughter of the Greek King Paul I and Queen Federica. The wedding ceremony in Athens was attended by 137 kings, queens, princes and princesses from different countries peace.

1975

Death of Franco. After the death of Franco, Prince Juan Carlos was proclaimed King Juan Carlos of Spain in November 1975. 1. The scope of the anti-fascist movement. Democratization political life countries.

April 1977 Legalization of trade unions and left-wing political parties (including the communist one), dissolution of the National Movement party (Spanish Phalanx). Replacement of the 1953 Spanish-American Treaty on Military Bases with a Treaty of Cooperation between Spain and the United States, restoration diplomatic relations from the USSR.

December 1978

Entry into force of the new Constitution.

March 1979

Parliamentary elections, victory of the Union of Democratic Center party.

1982

Adoption of Spain into NATO: In October 1982, victory in the parliamentary elections of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party.

1985

Admission of Spain to the EEC.

XXI Century

Well, what is Spain like today? This is a country with a government structure in the form of a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king. The legislative body is a bicameral parliament (Cortes). The population is about 40 million people, 68% live in cities. Nationalities: Spaniards (about 75%), Catalans, Basques, Galicians. The country has 50 main administrative units - provinces, which are included in 17 autonomous historical regions, the so-called "autonomies". These include: Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country, Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, Extremadura, Leon, Galicia, Castile and some others.

Detailed history of Spain

History of ancient Spain

The first historical information about Spain

The first historical information about Spain is provided by foreigners, since the original population of the peninsula, which we know from the remains of material culture that have reached us, did not leave evidence recorded in writing that would allow a more complete interpretation of the material finds.

The lack of accurate information about the ancient history of Spain does not allow us to reconstruct the course of events of that distant era.

It is believed that already in the 18th century. BC. Spain waged wars with. However, until the 12th century. BC, when, according to very plausible data, Cadiz was founded by the Phoenicians, it is impossible to outline any plausible chronological outline.

More or less accurate dating of events related to the history of Spain becomes possible only from the 11th century. BC. However, the first written evidence that talks about Spain dates back only to the 6th century. BC. These are the few and meager texts of Carthaginian and Greek authors that barely shed light on the events early history Iberian Peninsula. By the 5th and 4th centuries. BC. include evidence from Greek historians and travelers, fragmentary and beyond explanation. Much more complete are later sources dating back to the last two centuries BC. and the first centuries of our era, based on more ancient writings that have not reached us.

In the same way, in the Bible, in various books of the Old Testament, an area called Tarshish or Tarsis is mentioned, which many researchers consider one of the regions of Spain (the southern part of Andalusia - the Guadalquivir Valley or the Murcia region).

Iberians

The territory of Spain has been inhabited since ancient times.

Already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Iberian tribes appeared in the south and east of Spain. It is not known exactly where they came from; some hypotheses connect their ancestral home to North Africa. These tribes gave the peninsula its ancient name - Iberian.

The Iberians lived in fortified villages, were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and hunting. They had metal tools made of copper and bronze. In those ancient times, the Iberians already had their own written language.

The ancient people who created the history of another country well known to us - Georgia, also bore the name Iberians. There is still debate about whether there is a connection between the Spanish and Georgian Iberians.

Amazing similarities can be observed in the historical destinies of different countries! The Iberians created ancient history and another country well known to us - Georgia. It turns out that the eastern Georgian Iberian tribes lived on the territory of what is now Spain, who formed the basis for the formation of the Georgian people. And the ancient name of Spain “Iberia” (as, by the way, the modern name of the leading Spanish airline) is an ancient and Byzantine name. Eastern Georgia (“Kartli”).

Kartli, in turn, was a historical region in Eastern Georgia in the valley of the Kura River and from the 4th century BC was called the “Kartlian Kingdom of Iberia”. Here is more information about the two Iberias.

Since the end of the 10th century AD, Iberia-Kartli, with its capital in Tbilisi, formed the core of a single Georgian state, which in 1801 joined Russia. This is the connection between times and peoples.

Celtiberians

Later the Celts came to Iberia. The Celts preferred to wage war and herd livestock rather than engage in agriculture.

The Celts and Iberians lived side by side, sometimes uniting, but more often fighting each other. Gradually, the peoples merged and created the Celtiberian culture, famous for its belligerence. It was the Celtiberians who invented the double-edged sword, which was later adopted by the Roman army and often used against its own inventors.

The union of Celtiberian tribes had its own capital - Numantia.

Turdetans

And in Andalusia at the same time there was a state of Tartessus. It is still unknown exactly where the inhabitants of Tartessus, the Turdetans, came to Spain from. They were over high level development than the Iberians, although close to them.

Phoenicians

Around 1100 BC e. The Phoenicians sailed here. They scurried around the colonies of Melaka, Gadir (Cadiz), Cordoba and many others. They named the country where the Turdetans lived Tarshish. Perhaps it is this rich area of "Tarshish" that is mentioned in the Bible.

Carthaginian colonization

Not only the Iberians and Celts lived on the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. The fertile lands of Spain also attracted other peoples. The first people whose activities in Spain have evidence recorded in writing were the Phoenicians. The date of their first appearance in Spain is not precisely known. There is an assumption that the Phoenicians around 1100 BC. e. founded Cadiz, at that time called Agadir or Gadir.

There is no doubt that the Phoenicians in the 8th and 7th centuries. BC e. traveled along the coast of Spain, exploring the lands of the peninsula; The descriptions and routes of these raids are called peripluses.

There are statements by ancient scientists who lived in the 1st century. BC e., that Greek historians owe the first reports about Spain to the Phoenicians.

In Spain, the Phoenicians mainly sought to conduct trade and exploit the mines. They settled in certain areas and founded cities, trading posts and warehouses there. Sometimes their strongholds were located near native settlements, sometimes in uninhabited places. For this purpose, they chose mainly islands or capes close to the coast, where there were convenient natural harbors. Situated in such places, the settlements were easy to defend. The Phoenicians erected their fortresses there, arranged warehouses and sanctuaries.

The most important Phoenician colonies were Melcarthea (Algeciras), Malaka (Malaga), Erythia (Sankti Petri), Sexi (Hate), Abdera (Adra), Hispalis (Seville), Agadir or Hades (Cadiz), Ebusa (Ibisa), etc. The Phoenicians called the entire Iberian Peninsula Span, or Spania (“unknown”, remote, country).

The Phoenician colonies in Spain, in the process of rapid development, achieved a certain political and administrative independence from the metropolis. The center of these colonies was Cadiz. The Phoenicians initially limited themselves to barter trade only; then they introduced money into Spain, minted in many Phoenician colonies.

After the decline of the Phoenician metropolis, its power was inherited by the Phoenician colony on the northern coast of Africa - Carthage. Already in the 7th century. BC e. Carthage became a major trading center and achieved dominance over the other fraternal colonies of the Phoenicians in the West. The Carthaginians established a trade monopoly in the Strait of Gibraltar.

The Phoenicians on the Iberian Peninsula had to deal with the Greeks. The main settlement of the Greeks was Emporion, or Emporia (“market”), located in what is now Castellon de Empurias (province of Girona). The Spanish territory over which they dominated was called Hesperia, or Iberia, by the Greeks.

In the VI century. BC e. Carthage's influence increased significantly. The ancient Phoenician colonies of Spain were absorbed and made directly dependent on Carthage. The Carthaginians traded with the Tartessian federation in the Guadalquivir River valley, but made no attempt to conquer it.

For a long time, Carthage maintained peaceful relations with the rising Rome; both sides entered into trade treaties and, to a certain extent, shared dominance over the Mediterranean.

However, in the end, a war broke out between them in Sicily, in which the Romans won, ousting the Carthaginians from there. This was the First Punic War (264–241 BC).

After this, a new stage of Carthaginian colonization of the Iberian Peninsula began. It can be seen as the systematic subjugation of the country. The Carthaginians sought to turn the peninsula into a springboard for subsequent wars with Rome. Thus, the Carthaginian colonization was provoked by the Romans.

Senate of Carthage in 237 BC entrusted the capture of Spain to the talented commander and politician Hamilcar from the aristocratic family of Barkidiv, who was at the head of the military party.

In an extremely short time, Hamilcar captured the southern part of the peninsula, between the Guadalquivir and Guadiana rivers.

This was the beginning of the Carthaginian state in Spain.

The best lands of Spain - its southern and eastern shores - became Phoenician possessions; new cities were founded there. In 227 BC. e. General Hasdrubal founded the city of Cartagena on the coast of the Iberian Peninsula near the only good harbor on the southern coast, thus ensuring control over the rich mineral deposits of the Southeast.

Cartagena became the capital of the new state and the largest colony of the Carthaginians on the territory of modern Spain.

This city, standing on the shore of a convenient bay and surrounded by inaccessible hills, immediately turned into one of the most important trading centers of the entire western coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

Not far from the city, mining began from silver mines, which brought huge profits. Some of them were sent by Hasdrubal to Carthage, the other part went to create and strengthen the mercenary army.

From the Iberian Peninsula, Carthage received more and more income every year.

Carthaginian rule in Spain was firmly established, and the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula seemed a strong springboard for an advance on Rome.

Rome took retaliatory action. The small Iberian city of Saguntum decided to fall under Roman rule in the face of the threat of attack by the Carthaginians.

The Roman Senate was at first hesitant, but later, in 220, decided to accept Saguntum under the protectorate of Rome in order to be able to control Spain.

Hamilcar's son Hannibal in 220 BC. attacked Saguntum, a city under the protection of Rome. In the ensuing Second Punic War, the Carthaginian troops, led by Hannibal, in 210 BC. uh, they were defeated. This paved the way for the establishment of Roman dominance in the peninsula. In 209 the Romans captured Cartagena, marched through the entire territory of Andalusia and in 206 forced the surrender of Gadir.

Thus, after a series of defeats, dominance in the Iberian Peninsula gradually began to pass to Rome.

Roman domination

Visigothic period in the history of Spain

Arab domination

Reconquista

During the entire period of Muslim rule in Spain, Christians waged a continuous centuries-long war against them, which was called the Christian Reconquista (translated as “reconquest”). The Reconquista was started by part of the Visigothic nobility under the leadership of Pelayo. In 718, the Muslim advance was stopped at Covadonga.

In the mid-8th century, Asturian Christians, led by Pelayo's grandson, King Alfonso I, took advantage of the Berber uprising to occupy neighboring Galicia. Conquests continued under Alfonso II (791-842).

The advance of the Arabs into Europe was stopped by the Franks in the north-west of Spain by the Franks, whose king was then Charlemagne. The Franks created the Spanish March in the northeast of the peninsula (the border territory between the possessions of the Franks and Arabs), which broke up in the 9th-11th centuries into the counties of Navarre, Aragon and Barcelona (in 1137 Aragon and Barcelona united into the kingdom of Aragon).

North of the Duero and Ebro, four groups of Christian states gradually formed:

in the north-west Asturias, Leon and Galicia, which were later united into the kingdom of Castile;

the Basque country, together with the neighboring region, Garcia, was proclaimed the Kingdom of Navarre,

a country on the left bank of the Ebro, Aragon, an independent kingdom since 1035;

arose from the Spanish mark of the Margraviate of Barcelona, or Catalonia.

In 1085, Christians captured Toledo, and then Talavera, Madrid and other cities fell under Christian rule.

At the Battle of Merida (1230), Extremadura was taken from the Arabs; after the Battle of Jerez de Guadiana (1233), Cordoba was recaptured, and twelve years later - Seville.

The Portuguese kingdom expanded almost to its present size, and the king of Aragon conquered Valencia, Alicante and the Balearic Islands.

The Reconquista resulted in the Spanish peasants and city dwellers who fought alongside the knights receiving significant benefits. Most of the peasants did not experience serfdom; free peasant communities arose on the liberated lands of Castile, and cities (especially in XII-XIII centuries) received greater rights.

Muslims moved in thousands to Africa and to Grenada or Murcia, but these states also had to recognize the supremacy of Castile. The Muslims who remained under Castilian rule gradually adopted the religion and customs of the victors; many rich and noble Arabs, having been baptized, joined the ranks of the Spanish aristocracy. By the end of the 13th century, only the Emirate of Grenada remained on the peninsula, forced to pay tribute.

In 1340, Alfonso XI won a brilliant victory at Salado, and four years later, with the conquest of Algeziras, Grenada was cut off from Africa.

In 1469, the marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile took place, the union of the Castilian and Aragonese crowns marked the beginning of the Kingdom of Spain. However, the political unification of Spain was completed only at the end of the 15th century; Navarre was annexed in 1512.

In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella established an ecclesiastical court - the Inquisition, designed to protect the purity of the Catholic faith.

In 1492, with the support of Isabella, Columbus made his first expedition to the New World and founded Spanish colonies there. Ferdinand and Isabella move their residence to Barcelona.

In the same 1492, Granada was liberated. As a result of more than 10 years of struggle by the Spaniards, the Emirate of Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula, fell. The conquest of Granada (January 2, 1492) ends the Reconquista.

History of Spain in the 16th and first half of the 17th century.

After the end of the Reconquista in 1492, the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal, was united under the rule of the Spanish kings. Spain also belonged to Sardinia, Sicily, the Balearic Islands, the Kingdom of Naples and Navarre.

In 1516, Charles I ascended the throne. On his mother’s side, he was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and on his father’s side, he was the grandson of Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg. From his father and grandfather, Charles I inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany, the Netherlands and lands in South America. In 1519, he achieved his election to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and became Emperor Charles V. Contemporaries, not without reason, said that in his domain “the sun never sets.” At the same time, the Aragonese and Castile kingdoms, connected only by a dynastic union, remained politically divided throughout the 16th century: they retained their class-representative institutions - the Cortes, their legislation and judicial system. Castilian troops could not enter the lands of Aragon, and the latter was not obliged to defend the lands of Castile in the event of war. Within the Kingdom of Aragon itself, its main parts (especially Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Navarre) also retained significant political independence.

The fragmentation of the Spanish state was also manifested in the fact that until 1564 there was no single political center; the royal court moved around the country, most often stopping in Valladolid. Only in 1605 did Madrid become the official capital of Spain.

Economically, the individual regions had little connection with each other. This was largely facilitated by geographical conditions: mountainous landscape, lack of navigable rivers through which communication between the north and south of the country would be possible. The northern regions - Galicia, Asturias, the Basque Country - had almost no connection with the center of the peninsula. They carried on brisk trade with England, France and the Netherlands through the port cities of Bilbao, A Coruña, San Sebastian and Bayonne. Some areas of Old Castile and Leon gravitated towards this area, the most important economic center of which was the city of Burgos. The southeast of the country, especially Catalonia and Valencia, were closely connected with Mediterranean trade - there was a noticeable concentration of merchant capital here. The interior provinces of the Castilian kingdom gravitated towards Toledo, which for ancient times was a major center of crafts and trade.

The young king Charles I (V) (1516-1555) was brought up in the Netherlands before ascending the throne. He spoke Spanish poorly, and his retinue and entourage consisted mainly of Flemings. In the early years, Charles ruled Spain from the Netherlands. The election to the imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire, the journey to Germany and the expenses of the coronation required enormous funds, which placed a heavy burden on the Castilian treasury.

Seeking to create a “world empire,” Charles V, from the first years of his reign, viewed Spain primarily as a source of financial and human resources for pursuing imperial policy in Europe. The king's widespread involvement of Flemish confidants in the state apparatus, absolutist claims were accompanied by a systematic violation of the customs and liberties of Spanish cities and the rights of the Cortes, which caused discontent among wide sections of the burghers and artisans. The policy of Charles V, directed against the highest nobility, gave rise to mute protest, which at times grew into open discontent. In the first quarter of the 16th century. the activities of opposition forces concentrated around the issue of forced loans, which the king often resorted to from the first years of his reign.

In 1518, in order to pay off his creditors, the German bankers Fuggers, Charles V managed with great difficulty to obtain a huge subsidy from the Castilian Cortes, but this money was quickly spent. In 1519, the king, in order to receive a new loan, was forced to accept the conditions put forward by the Cortes, among which were the following demands:

so that the king does not leave Spain,

did not appoint foreigners to government positions,

did not leave the collection of taxes to them.

However, immediately after receiving the money, the king left Spain, appointing the Fleming Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht as governor.

Revolt of the urban communes of Castile (comuneros)

The king's violation of the signed agreement was a signal for the uprising of urban communes against royal power, called the revolt of the communes (1520-1522). After the king's departure, when the deputies of the Cortes, who had shown excessive compliance, returned to their cities, they were met with general indignation. In Segovia, artisans—clothmakers, day laborers, washers, and wool carders—revolted. One of the main demands of the rebel cities was to prohibit the import of woolen fabrics from the Netherlands into the country.

In the summer of 1520, the armed forces of the rebels, led by the nobleman Juan de Padilla, united within the framework of the Holy Junta. The cities refused to obey the governor and prohibited his armed forces from entering their territory.

In the spring and summer of 1520, almost the entire country came under the control of the Junta. The Cardinal Viceroy, in constant fear, wrote to Charles V that “there is not a single village in Castile that does not join the rebels.” Charles V ordered the demands of some cities to be met in order to split the movement.

In the fall of 1520, 15 cities withdrew from the uprising; their representatives, meeting in Seville, adopted a document on withdrawal from the struggle, which clearly showed the patriciate’s fear of the movement of the urban lower classes. In the autumn of the same year, the cardinal-vicar began open military action against the rebels.

Taking advantage of the hostility between the nobility and the cities, the Cardinal Viceroy's troops went on the offensive and defeated the troops of Juan de Padilla at the Battle of Villalar (1522). The leaders of the movement were captured and beheaded. For some time, Toledo held out, where Juan de Padilla’s wife, Maria Pacheco, operated. Despite the famine and epidemic, the rebels held firm. Maria Pacheco hoped for help from the French king Francis I, but in the end she was forced to seek salvation in flight.

In October 1522, Charles V returned to the country at the head of a detachment of mercenaries, but by this time the movement had already been suppressed.

Simultaneously with the uprising of the Castilian communeros, fighting broke out in Valencia and on the island of Mallorca. The reasons for the uprising were basically the same as in Castile, but the situation here was aggravated by the fact that city magistrates in many cities were even more dependent on the grandees, who turned them into an instrument of their politics.

Economic development of Spain in the 16th century

The most populous part of Spain was Castile, where 3/4 of the population of the Iberian Peninsula lived. As in the rest of the country, land in Castile was in the hands of the crown, the nobility, the Catholic Church and spiritual knightly orders. The bulk of the Castilian peasants were personally free. They held the lands of spiritual and secular feudal lords in hereditary use, paying a monetary qualification for them. In the most favorable conditions were the peasant colonists of New Castile and Granada, who settled on lands conquered from the Moors. Not only did they enjoy personal freedom, but their communities enjoyed privileges and liberties similar to those enjoyed by the Castilian cities. This situation changed after the defeat of the Comuneros revolt.

The socio-economic system of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia differed sharply from the system of Castile. Here in the 16th century. The most brutal forms of feudal dependence were preserved. The feudal lords inherited the property of the peasants, interfered in their personal lives, could subject them to corporal punishment and even put them to death.

The most oppressed and powerless part of the peasants and urban population of Spain were the Moriscos - descendants of the Moors who were forcibly converted to Christianity. They lived mainly in Granada, Andalusia and Valencia, as well as in rural areas of Aragon and Castile, were subject to heavy taxes in favor of the church and state, and were constantly under the supervision of the Inquisition. Despite persecution, the hardworking Moriscos have long grown such valuable crops as olives, rice, grapes, sugar cane, and mulberry trees. In the south, they created a perfect irrigation system, thanks to which they received high yields of grain, vegetables and fruits.

For many centuries, transhumance sheep breeding was an important branch of agriculture in Castile. The bulk of the sheep flocks belonged to a privileged noble corporation - Mesta, which enjoyed special patronage from the royal power.

Twice a year, in spring and autumn, thousands of sheep were driven from north to south of the peninsula along wide roads (cañadas) laid through cultivated fields, vineyards, and olive groves. Tens of thousands of sheep, moving across the country, caused enormous damage to agriculture. Under pain of severe punishment, the rural population was forbidden to fence their fields from passing herds.

The place enjoyed enormous influence in the country, since the largest herds belonged to the representatives of the highest Castilian nobility united in it. At the beginning of the 16th century, they achieved confirmation of all the previous privileges of this corporation, which caused significant damage to agriculture.

The tax system in Spain also hampered the development of capitalist elements in the country's economy. The most hated tax was alcabala - a 10% tax on every trade transaction; in addition, there was also a huge number of permanent and emergency taxes, the size of which increased all the time throughout the 16th century, absorbing up to 50% of the income of the peasant and artisan.

Spain was the first country to experience the impact of the price revolution. During the 16th century, prices increased 3.5-4 times. Already in the first quarter of the 16th century. There was an increase in prices for basic necessities, and above all for bread. It would seem that this circumstance should have contributed to the growth of agricultural marketability. However, the system of taxes (maximum grain prices) established in 1503 artificially kept low prices for bread, while other products were rapidly rising in price. This led to a reduction in cereal crops and a sharp drop in grain production in the mid-16th century. Since the 30s, most regions of the country imported bread from abroad - from France and Sicily. Imported bread was not subject to the law on taxes and was sold at 2-2.5 times more expensive than grain produced by Spanish peasants.

The conquest of the colonies and the unprecedented expansion of colonial trade contributed to the rise of handicraft production in the cities of Spain and the emergence of individual elements of manufacturing production, especially in cloth making. In its main centers - Segovia, Toledo, Seville, Cuenca - manufactories arose. A large number of spinners and weavers in the cities and surrounding areas worked for the buyers. At the beginning of the 17th century, the large workshops of Segovia numbered several hundred hired workers.

Since Arab times, Spanish silk fabrics, famous for their high quality, brightness and color fastness, have enjoyed great popularity in Europe. The main centers of silk production were Seville, Toledo, Cordoba, Granada and Valencia. Expensive silk fabrics were little consumed on the domestic market and were mainly exported, as were brocade, velvet, gloves, and hats made in the southern cities: At the same time, coarse, cheap woolen and linen fabrics were imported to Spain from the Netherlands and England .

In 1503, Seville's monopoly on trade with the colonies was established and the Seville Chamber of Commerce was created, which exercised control over the export of goods from Spain to the colonies and the import of goods from the New World, mainly consisting of gold and silver bullion. All goods intended for export and import were carefully registered by officials and were subject to duties in favor of the treasury.

Wine and olive oil became the main Spanish exports to America. Investing money in colonial trade gave very great benefits (the profit here was much higher than in other industries). In addition to the Seville merchants, merchants from Burgos, Segovia, and Toledo took part in colonial trade. A significant part of merchants and artisans moved to Seville from other regions of Spain, primarily from the north. The population of Seville grew rapidly: from 1530 to 1594 it doubled. The number of banks and merchant companies increased. At the same time, this meant the actual deprivation of other areas of the opportunity to trade with the colonies, since due to the lack of water and convenient land routes, transporting goods to Seville from the north was very expensive. The monopoly of Seville provided the treasury with huge revenues, but it had a detrimental effect on the economic situation of other parts of the country. The role of the northern regions, which had convenient access to the Atlantic Ocean, was reduced only to the protection of flotillas heading to the colonies, which led their economy to decline at the end of the 16th century.

The development of the main branch of Spanish industry - the production of woolen fabrics - was hampered by the export of a significant part of the wool to the Netherlands. In vain, Spanish cities demanded to limit the export of raw materials in order to lower their price on the domestic market. Wool production was in the hands of the Spanish nobility, who did not want to lose their income and, instead of reducing wool exports, sought the publication of laws allowing the import of foreign cloth. 1

Despite the economic growth of the first half of the 16th century, Spain remained generally an agrarian country with an underdeveloped internal market; certain areas were locally closed economically.

Political system

During the reigns of Charles V (1516-1555) and Philip II (1555-1598), central power was strengthened, but the Spanish state was politically a motley conglomerate of disunited territories. The management of individual parts of this huge state reproduced the order that had developed in the Aragon-Castilian kingdom itself, which formed the political core of the Spanish monarchy. At the head of the state was the king, who headed the Castilian Council; There was also an Aragonese Council that governed Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia. Other Councils were in charge of territories outside the peninsula: the Flanders Council, the Italian Council, the Council of the Indies; These areas were governed by viceroys, appointed, as a rule, from representatives of the highest Castilian nobility.

The strengthening of absolutist tendencies in the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries led to the decline of the Cortes. Already in the first quarter of the 16th century, their role was reduced exclusively to voting new taxes and loans to the king. Increasingly, only city representatives began to be invited to their meetings. Since 1538, the nobility and clergy were not officially represented in the Cortes. At the same time, in connection with the massive relocation of nobles to the cities, a fierce struggle broke out between the burghers and the nobility for participation in city government. As a result, the nobles secured the right to occupy half of all positions in municipal bodies. In some cities, for example in Madrid, Salamanca, Zamora, Seville, a nobleman had to be at the head of the city council; The city mounted militia was also formed from nobles. Increasingly, nobles acted as representatives of cities in the Cortes. This indicated the strengthening of the political influence of the nobility. True, the nobles often sold their municipal positions to wealthy townspeople, many of whom were not even residents of these places, or rented them out.

The further decline of the Cortes was accompanied in the middle of the 17th century. depriving them of the right to vote taxes, which was transferred to city councils, after which the Cortes ceased to be convened.

In the XVI - early XVII centuries. large cities, despite significant advances in industrial development, largely retained their medieval appearance. These were urban communes, where the urban patriciate and nobles were in power. Many city residents who had fairly high incomes purchased “hidalgia” for money, which freed them from paying taxes, which fell heavily on the middle and lower strata of the urban population.

The beginning of the decline of Spain

Charles V spent his life on campaigns and almost never visited Spain. Wars with the Turks, who attacked the Spanish state from the south and the possessions of the Austrian Habsburgs from the southeast, wars with France due to dominance in Europe and especially in Italy, wars with his own subjects - the Protestant princes in Germany - occupied his entire reign. The grandiose plan to create a world Catholic empire collapsed, despite Charles's numerous military and foreign policy successes. In 1555, Charles V abdicated the throne and handed over Spain, along with the Netherlands, colonies and Italian possessions, to his son Philip II (1555-1598).

Philip was not a significant person. Poorly educated, narrow-minded, petty and greedy, extremely persistent in pursuing his goals, the new king was deeply convinced of the steadfastness of his power and the principles on which this power rested - Catholicism and absolutism. Sullen and silent, this clerk on the throne spent his entire life locked in his chambers. It seemed to him that the papers and instructions were enough to know everything and manage everything. Like a spider in a dark corner, he weaved the invisible threads of his politics. But these threads were torn by the touch of the fresh wind of a stormy and restless time: his armies were often beaten, his fleets sank, and he sadly admitted that “the heretical spirit promotes trade and prosperity.” This did not stop him from declaring: “I prefer not to have subjects at all than to have heretics as such.”

Feudal-Catholic reaction was raging in the country; the highest judicial power in religious matters was concentrated in the hands of the Inquisition.

Leaving the old residences of the Spanish kings of Toledo and Valladolid, Philip II set up his capital in the small town of Madrid, on the deserted and barren Castilian plateau. Not far from Madrid, a grandiose monastery arose, which was also a palace-burial vault - El Escorial. Severe measures were taken against the Moriscos, many of whom continued to practice the faith of their fathers in secret. The Inquisition fell especially fiercely on them, forcing them to abandon their previous customs and language. At the beginning of his reign, Philip II issued a number of laws that intensified persecution. The Moriscos, driven to despair, rebelled in 1568 under the slogan of preserving the caliphate. Only with great difficulty did the government manage to suppress the uprising in 1571. In the cities and villages of the Moriscos, the entire male population was exterminated, women and children were sold into slavery. The surviving Moriscos were expelled to the barren regions of Castile, doomed to hunger and vagrancy. The Castilian authorities mercilessly persecuted the Moriscos, and the Inquisition burned “apostates from the true faith” in droves.

The economic decline of Spain in the second half of the 16th and 17th centuries.

In the middle of the XVI - XVII centuries. Spain entered a period of prolonged economic decline, which first affected agriculture, then industry and trade. Speaking about the reasons for the decline of agriculture and the ruin of the peasants, sources invariably emphasize three of them: the severity of taxes, the existence of maximum prices for bread and the abuses of the Place. Peasants were driven from their lands, communities were deprived of their pastures and meadows, this led to the decline of livestock farming and a reduction in crops. The country was experiencing an acute shortage of food, which further inflated prices.

In the second half of the 16th century. In Spain, the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the largest feudal lords continued to increase.

A significant part of the noble estates enjoyed the right of primogeniture; they were inherited only by the eldest son and were inalienable, that is, they could not be mortgaged or sold for debts. Church lands and the possessions of spiritual knightly orders were also inalienable. Despite the significant debt of the highest aristocracy in the 16th-17th centuries, unlike England and France, the nobility retained its land holdings and even increased them by purchasing domain lands sold by the crown. The new owners eliminated the rights of communities and cities to pastures, seized communal lands and plots of those peasants whose rights were not properly formalized. In the 16th century the right of primogeniture extended to the possessions of the burghers. The existence of majorates removed a significant part of the land from circulation, which hampered the development of capitalist tendencies in agriculture.

While agricultural decline and grain plantings declined throughout the country, industries associated with colonial trade flourished. The country imported a significant portion of its grain consumption from abroad. At the height of the Dutch Revolution and the religious wars in France, real famine began in many areas of Spain due to the cessation of grain imports. Philip II was forced to allow even Dutch merchants who brought grain from the Baltic ports into the country.

At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. economic decline affected all sectors of the country's economy. Precious metals brought from the New World largely fell into the hands of the nobles, and therefore the latter lost interest in the economic development of their country. This determined the decline of not only agriculture, but also industry, and primarily textile production. Already at the beginning of the 16th century. in Spain there were complaints about the destruction of crafts, about the massive ruin of artisans.

It would be possible to reduce the cost of production by introducing protectionist duties, reducing prices for agricultural products and raw materials within the country, banning their export. Despite repeated requests from cities to reduce the export of wool, it constantly increased and almost quadrupled from 1512 to 1610. Under these conditions, expensive Spanish fabrics could not withstand competition with cheaper foreign ones, and Spanish industry lost markets in Europe, in the colonies, and even in its own country. Trading companies in Seville, starting from the middle of the 16th century, began to increasingly resort to replacing expensive Spanish products with cheaper goods exported from the Netherlands, France, and England. The fact that until the end of the 60s, i.e. during the period of its formation, when it especially needed protection from foreign competition, the commercial and industrial Netherlands were under Spanish rule also had a negative impact on Spanish manufacturing. These areas were considered by the Spanish monarchy as part of the Spanish state. The duties on wool imported there, although increased in 1558, were two times lower than usual, and the import of finished Flemish cloth was carried out on more favorable terms than from other countries. All this had the most disastrous consequences for Spanish manufacture; The Spanish merchants withdrew their capital from manufactures, since participation in the colonial trade in foreign goods promised them great profits.

By the end of the century, against the background of the progressive decline of agriculture and industry, only colonial trade continued to flourish, the monopoly of which continued to belong to Seville. Its highest rise dates back to the last decade of the 16th century. and by the first decade of the 17th century. However, since Spanish merchants traded mainly in foreign-made goods, gold and silver coming from America hardly stayed in Spain. Everything went to other countries in payment for goods that were supplied to Spain itself and its colonies, and were also spent on the maintenance of troops. Spanish iron, smelted on charcoal, was replaced on the European market by cheaper Swedish, English and Lorraine iron, in the production of which coal began to be used. Spain now began to import metal products and weapons from Italy and German cities.

Northern cities were deprived of the right to trade with the colonies; their ships were entrusted only with guarding caravans heading to and from the colonies, which led to the decline of shipbuilding, especially after the Netherlands rebelled and trade along the Baltic Sea sharply declined. The death of the “Invincible Armada” (1588), which included many ships from the northern regions, dealt a heavy blow. The population of Spain increasingly flocked to the south of the country and emigrated to the colonies.

The state of the Spanish nobility seemed to do everything to disrupt the trade and industry of their country. Enormous sums were spent on military enterprises and the army, taxes increased, and public debt grew uncontrollably.

Even under Charles V, the Spanish monarchy made large loans from foreign bankers the Fuggers, to whom, in order to repay the debt, they were given income from the lands of the spiritual knightly orders of Sant Iago, Calatrava and Alcantara, whose master was the King of Spain. Then the Fuggers got their hands on the rich mercury-zinc mines of Almaden. At the end of the 16th century, more than half of the treasury's expenses came from paying interest on the national debt. Philip II declared state bankruptcy several times, ruining his creditors, the government lost credit and, in order to borrow new amounts, had to provide Genoese, German and other bankers with the right to collect taxes in individual regions and other sources of income, which further increased the leakage of precious metals from Spain .

The outstanding Spanish economist of the second half of the 16th century, Tomas Mercado, wrote about the dominance of foreigners in the country’s economy: “No, they couldn’t, the Spaniards couldn’t calmly look at the foreigners prospering on their land; the best possessions, the richest majorates, all the income of the king and nobles are in their hands.” Spain was one of the first countries to embark on the path of primitive accumulation, but the specific conditions of socio-economic development prevented it from following the path of capitalist development. The huge funds received from the robbery of the colonies were not used to create capitalist forms of economy, but were spent on unproductive consumption of the feudal class. In the middle of the century, 70% of all income from the post treasury came from the metropolis and 30% came from the colonies. By 1584, the ratio had changed: income from the metropolis amounted to 30%, and from the colonies - 70%. The gold of America, flowing through Spain, became the most important lever of primitive accumulation in other countries (and primarily in the Netherlands) and significantly accelerated the development of the capitalist structure in the bowels of feudal society there. In Spain itself, which began in the 16th century. the process of capitalist development came to a halt. The disintegration of feudal forms in industry and agriculture was not accompanied by the emergence of a capitalist mode of production. This was the main reason for the economic decline of the country.

If the bourgeoisie not only did not strengthen, but was completely ruined by the middle of the 17th century, then the Spanish nobility, having received new sources of income, strengthened economically and politically. It lived exclusively by robbing the people of its country and the peoples of the provinces and colonies dependent on Spain. Within it there was no such group as the English “new nobility” or the French “nobility of the robe”.

Spanish absolutism

As the trade and industrial activity of cities declined, internal exchange decreased, communication between residents of different provinces weakened, and trade routes became empty. Weakening economic ties exposed the old feudal characteristics of each region, the medieval separatism of the cities and provinces of the country was resurrected.

Under the current conditions, Spain has not developed a single National language, there were still distinct ethnic groups: Catalans, Galicians and Basques spoke their own languages, distinct from the Castilian dialect, which formed the basis of literary Spanish. Unlike other European states, the absolute monarchy in Spain did not play a progressive role and was unable to provide true centralization.

Foreign policy of Philip II

The decline soon became evident in Spanish foreign policy. Even before ascending the Spanish throne, Philip II was married to the English Queen Mary Tudor. Charles V, who arranged this marriage, dreamed not only of restoring Catholicism in England, but also, by uniting the forces of Spain and England, to continue the policy of creating a worldwide Catholic monarchy. In 1558, Mary died, and the marriage proposal made by Philip to the new Queen Elizabeth was rejected, which was dictated by political considerations. England, not without reason, saw Spain as its most dangerous rival at sea. Taking advantage of the revolution and the war of independence in the Netherlands, England tried in every possible way to ensure its interests here to the detriment of the Spanish ones, not stopping at open armed intervention. English corsairs and admirals robbed Spanish ships returning from America with a cargo of precious metals and blocked trade in the northern cities of Spain.

Spanish absolutism set itself the task of crushing this “heretical and robber nest”, and if successful, taking possession of England. The task began to seem quite feasible after Portugal was annexed to Spain. After the death of the last representative of the reigning dynasty in 1581, the Portuguese Cortes proclaimed Philip II their king. Together with Portugal, the Portuguese colonies in the East and West Indies also came under Spanish rule. Reinforced by new resources, Philip II began to support Catholic circles in England that were intriguing against Queen Elizabeth and promoting a Catholic, the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart, to the throne in her place. But in 1587, the plot against Elizabeth was discovered, and Mary was beheaded. England sent a squadron to Cadiz under the command of Admiral Drake, who, breaking into the port, destroyed the Spanish ships (1587). This event marked the beginning of an open struggle between Spain and England. Spain began to equip a huge squadron to fight England. The “Invincible Armada,” as the Spanish squadron was called, sailed from La Coruña to the shores of England at the end of June 1588. This enterprise ended in disaster. The death of the "Invincible Armada" was a terrible blow to the prestige of Spain and undermined its naval power.

Failure did not prevent Spain from making another political mistake - to intervene in civil war simmering in France. This intervention did not lead to an increase in Spanish influence in France, nor to any other positive results for Spain. With the victory of Henry IV of Bourbon in the war, the Spanish cause was finally lost.

Spain's fight against the Turks brought more victorious laurels. The Turkish danger looming over Europe became especially noticeable when the Turks captured most of Hungary and the Turkish fleet began to threaten Italy. In 1564 the Turks blockaded Malta. Only with great difficulty was it possible to save the island. In 1571, the combined Spanish-Venetian fleet under the command of Charles V's illegitimate son, Juan of Austria, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto, stopping further maritime expansion Ottoman Empire. However, the winners failed to reap the benefits of their victory; even Tunisia, captured by Don Juan, again fell to the Turks.

By the end of his reign, Philip II had to admit that almost all his extensive plans had failed, and the naval power of Spain had been broken. The northern provinces of the Netherlands broke away from Spain. The state treasury was empty. The country was experiencing a severe economic decline.

Spain at the beginning of the 17th century.

With the accession of Philip III (1598-1621) to the throne, the long agony of the once powerful Spanish state began. The poor and destitute country was ruled by the king's favorite, the Duke of Lerma. The Madrid court amazed contemporaries with its pomp and extravagance, while the masses were exhausted under the unbearable burden of taxes and endless extortions. Even the Cortes, obedient in everything, to whom the king turned for new subsidies, were forced to declare that there was nothing to pay, since the country was completely ruined, trade was killed by the alcabala, industry was in decline, and the cities were empty. Treasury revenues were declining, fewer and fewer galleons loaded with precious metals arrived from the American colonies, but this cargo often became the prey of English and Dutch pirates or fell into the hands of bankers and moneylenders, who lent money to the Spanish treasury at huge interest rates.

Expulsion of the Moriscos

The reactionary nature of Spanish absolutism was expressed in many of its actions. One of the clearest examples of this is the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain. In 1609, an edict was issued according to which the Moriscos were to be expelled from the country. Within a few days, under pain of death, they had to board ships and go to Barbary (North Africa), carrying only what they could carry in their arms. On the way to the ports, many refugees were robbed and killed. In the mountainous regions, the Moriscos resisted, which accelerated the tragic outcome. By 1610, over 100 thousand people were evicted from Valencia. The Moriscos of Aragon, Murcia, Andalusia and other provinces suffered the same fate. In total, about 300 thousand people were expelled. Many became victims of the Inquisition and died during the expulsion.

Spain and its productive forces were dealt another blow, hastening its further economic decline.

Foreign policy of Spain in the first half of the 17th century

Despite the poverty and desolation of the country, the Spanish monarchy retained its inherited claims to play a leading role in European affairs. The collapse of all the aggressive plans of Philip II did not sober up his successor. When Philip III came to the throne, the war in Europe was still ongoing. England acted in alliance with Holland against the Habsburgs. Holland defended its independence from the Spanish monarchy with arms in hand.

The Spanish governors in the Southern Netherlands did not have sufficient military forces and tried to make peace with England and Holland, but this attempt was thwarted due to the excessive claims of the Spanish side.

Queen Elizabeth I of England died in 1603. Her successor, James I Stuart, radically changed England's foreign policy. Spanish diplomacy managed to draw the English king into the orbit of the Spanish foreign policy. But that didn't help either. In the war with Holland, Spain could not achieve decisive success. The commander-in-chief of the Spanish army, the energetic and talented commander Spinola, could not achieve anything in conditions of complete depletion of the treasury. The most tragic thing for the Spanish government was that the Dutch intercepted Spanish ships from the Azores and waged a war with Spanish funds. Spain was forced to conclude a truce with Holland for a period of 12 years.

After the accession of Philip IV (1621-1665), Spain was still ruled by favorites; The only new thing was that Lerma was replaced by the energetic Count Olivares. However, he could not change anything - the forces of Spain were already exhausted. The reign of Philip IV marked the final decline in Spain's international prestige. In 1635, when France directly intervened in the Thirty Years, Spanish troops suffered frequent defeats. In 1638, Richelieu decided to strike Spain on its own territory: French troops captured Roussillon and subsequently invaded the northern provinces of Spain.

But there they encountered resistance from the people. By the 40s of the 17th century. Spain was completely exhausted. The constant strain on finances, the extortion of taxes and duties, the rule of an arrogant, idle nobility and fanatical clergy, the decline of agriculture, industry and trade - all this gave rise to widespread discontent among the masses. Soon this dissatisfaction burst out.

Deposition of Portugal

After Portugal joined the Spanish monarchy, its ancient liberties were left intact: Philip II sought not to irritate his new subjects. The situation changed for the worse under his successors, when Portugal became the object of the same merciless exploitation as the other possessions of the Spanish monarchy. Spain was unable to hold on to the Portuguese colonies, which passed into Dutch hands. Cadiz attracted Lisbon's trade, and the Castilian tax system was introduced in Portugal. The silent discontent growing in wide circles of Portuguese society became clear in 1637; this first uprising was quickly suppressed. However, the idea of setting aside Portugal and declaring its independence did not disappear. One of the descendants of the previous dynasty was nominated as a candidate for the throne. The conspirators included the Archbishop of Lisbon, representatives of the Portuguese nobility, and wealthy citizens. On December 1, 1640, having captured the palace in Lisbon, the conspirators arrested the Spanish viceroy and proclaimed Joan IV of Braganza king.

History of Spain in the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries.

Deep economic decline in the history of Spain at the end of the 16th and 17th centuries. led to the collapse of its political hegemony in Europe. Defeated on land and at sea, almost completely deprived of its army and navy, Spain found itself eliminated from the ranks of the great European powers.

However, by the beginning of modern times, Spain still retained extensive territorial possessions in Europe and huge colonies. She owned the Duchy of Milan, Naples, Sardinia, Sicily, and the Southern Netherlands. It also owned the Canary, Philippine and Caroline Islands and significant territories in South America.

In the middle of the 17th century. The Spanish throne remained in the hands of the Habsburgs. If at the beginning of the 17th century. The outer shell of the former powerful power was still preserved, but during the reign of Charles II (1665-1700) decomposition and decline engulfed all spheres of the Spanish state. The degradation of the Spanish monarchy was reflected in the personality of Charles II himself. He was physically and mentally underdeveloped, and never learned to write correctly. Unable to rule the state on his own, he was a toy in the hands of his favorites - the Spanish grandees and foreign adventurers.

In the second half of the 17th century. Spain also lost its independence in international politics, becoming dependent on France and Austria. This was due to the dynastic connections of the Spanish court. One of the sisters of Charles II was married to Louis XIV, the second - to the heir to the Austrian throne, Leopold I. The consequence of this was a fierce struggle between the Austrian and French groups at the Spanish court, especially since due to the childlessness of Charles II, the question of the future heir to the throne was acute. In the end, the French party won, and Charles II bequeathed the throne to his French nephew, who in 1700 was crowned Philip V (1700-1746). The transfer of the Spanish throne to the Bourbons caused a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the Austrian Empire and France, which escalated into the pan-European War of the “Spanish Succession” (1701 -1714).

The territory of Spain became the arena of military operations of rival powers. The war further exacerbated the internal crisis of the Spanish state. Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia took the side of the Austrian Archduke, hoping with his help to preserve their ancient privileges. According to the Peace of Utrecht (1713), Philip V was recognized as the king of Spain, subject to the renunciation of rights to the French throne. Spain lost a significant part of its possessions in Europe: Northern Italy went to Austria, Minorca and Gibraltar to England, Sicily to Savoy.

History of Spain 18th century

History of Spain late XVIII - early XIX centuries

First bourgeois revolution in Spain (1808-1814)

The beginning of the first bourgeois revolution in Spain

On March 17, 1808, crowds of people attacked the Godoy Palace in the countryside royal residence of Aranjuez. The favorite fled, but Charles IV had to abdicate in favor of his son Ferdinand VII. Napolnon, having lured first Ferdinand VII and then Charles IV to the French border city of Bayonne, forced them to abdicate the throne in favor of his brother Joseph Bonaparte.

By order of Napoleon, a deputation of representatives of the Spanish nobility, clergy, officials and merchants was sent to Bayonne. They composed the so-called Cortes of Bayonne, which drafted the Constitution of Spain. Power passed to Joseph Bonaparte, and some reforms were proclaimed.

The Spanish did not accept the constitution imposed by the French. They responded to French intervention with all-out guerrilla warfare. “...Napoleon, who - like all the people of his time - considered Spain a lifeless corpse, was very unpleasantly surprised when he became convinced that if the Spanish state was dead, then Spanish society was full of life, and in every part of it the forces of resistance were overflowing.”

Immediately after the French entered Madrid, an uprising broke out there: on May 2, 1808, the city's residents entered into an unequal battle with an army of 25,000 under the command of Marshal Murat. There were battles on the streets of the city for more than a day, the uprising was drowned in blood.

In July 1808, the French army was surrounded by Spanish partisans and capitulated near the city of Bailena. Joseph Bonaparte and his government hastily evacuated from Madrid to Catalonia.

In November 1808, Napoleon led the invasion of the country by a 200,000-strong French army. But the partisan movement at that time swept the entire country. People's War- Guerrilla - was widespread.

During the ensuing war against the invaders, local authorities were created - provincial juntas. They implemented some revolutionary measures: taxes on large property, indemnities from monasteries and the clergy, restrictions on the feudal rights of lords, etc.

In September 1808, during the revolution, a new government of the country was created - the Central Junta, consisting of 35 people.

Napoleon's army continued its offensive. It captured most of Spain, including Seville, where the Central Junta met, which was forced to move to Cadiz, the last city not occupied by the French. However, the occupiers failed to extinguish the flames of the guerrilla war.

Constitution of 1812

In September 1810, new unicameral Cortes were convened in the city of Cadiz. They included many progressive figures who contributed to the development of the constitution adopted in 1812.

The new constitution was based on the principles of popular sovereignty and separation of powers. The power of the monarch was limited to unicameral Cortes, which were convened on the basis of fairly broad suffrage. Men over 25 years of age took part in voting, with the exception of domestic servants and persons deprived of their rights by court.

The Cortes had the highest legislative power in the country. The king retained only the right of a suspensive veto: if the bill was rejected by the monarch, then it was returned to the Cortes for discussion and, if confirmed at two subsequent sessions, it finally came into force. The king nevertheless retained significant power: he appointed senior government officials and senior officers, declared war with the approval of the Cortes, and made peace.

Reforms of the first bourgeois revolution

The Cortes also adopted a number of decrees:

feudal duties were abolished

Church tithes and other payments to the church were eliminated,

the sale of part of the church, monastery and royal estates was announced.

At the same time, communal property was liquidated and the sale of communal lands began.

Restoration of absolutism

In connection with the beginning of Napoleon's conquest in Russia in 1812, a significant part of the army stationed in Spain was sent there. Taking advantage of this, Spanish troops inflicted a series of crushing defeats on the French in 1812, and they were forced to completely leave the territory of Spain in November 1813.

Napoleon attempted to maintain his influence over Spain through Ferdinand VII, who was a prisoner of war in France. Napoleon invited him to return to Spain and restore his rights to the throne in exchange for a promise to maintain friendly relations with France. However, the Cortes refused to recognize Ferdinand as king until he swore allegiance to the 1812 constitution.

Ferdinand, returning to Spain, gathered around him supporters of the restoration of absolutism. Taking on the role of head of state, he issued a manifesto declaring the constitution of 1812 invalid and all decrees of the Cortes annulled. The Cortes were dissolved, and the liberal ministers who were part of the government they created were arrested. In May 1814, Ferdinand VII arrived in Madrid and announced the final restoration of the absolute monarchy.

The Inquisition was again completely restored, monastic, church and large secular land property was returned to the former owners.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1820 -1823.

Prerequisites for the revolution

The feudal-absolutist order, restored in 1814, hampered the development of capitalist relations in industry and agriculture. In Spain, the alcabala (medieval tax on trade transactions), internal customs duties, and state monopolies were preserved; Numerous workshops continued to exist in the cities.

In the village, more than 2/3 of the cultivated land was in the hands of the nobility and the church. The system of majorates guaranteed the maintenance of the feudal lords' monopoly on land.

The lack of progress in the economy caused sharp discontent among wide circles of the bourgeoisie, the liberal nobility, the military, and the intelligentsia. The economic weakness of the Spanish bourgeoisie and its lack of experience in political struggle led to the fact that the army began to play a special role in the revolutionary movement in the first decades of the 19th century. Patriotic officers began to realize the need for profound changes in the life of the country.

In 1814-1819 Secret societies of the Masonic type arose in the army environment and in many large cities. The participants in the conspiracies, among whom were officers, lawyers, merchants, and entrepreneurs, set themselves the goal of preparing a pronunciamiento (a coup d'état carried out by the army) and establishing a constitutional monarchy.

The beginning of the revolution

The impetus for the start of the revolution in Spain was the difficult and unsuccessful for Spain war for the independence of the Spanish colonies in Latin America. Cadiz became the training center for pronunciamiento, in the vicinity of which troops intended to be sent to Latin America were stationed.

On January 1, 1820, a revolt in the army began near Cadiz, led by Lieutenant Colonel Rafael Riego. Soon, troops under the command of A. Quiroga joined Riego’s detachment. The goal of the rebels was to restore the constitution of 1812.

The news of Riego's uprising and campaign across Andalusia, in which most of his army died, shook the entire country.

At the end of February - beginning of March 1820, unrest began in largest cities Spain.

On March 6-7, people took to the streets of Madrid. Under these conditions, Ferdinand VII was forced to announce the restoration of the constitution of 1812, the convening of the Cortes, and the abolition of the Inquisition. The king appointed a new government consisting of moderate liberals - "moderados".

The so-called observation army was created, which included the troops that rebelled in the south of the country in January 1820. It was headed by Rafael Riego.

The left wing of the liberals, the “enthusiastic” (“exaltados”), enjoyed predominant influence in the “surveillance army.” The Exaltados demanded a decisive struggle against supporters of absolutism and the consistent implementation of the principles of the 1812 constitution. They enjoyed the support of wide circles of the urban population.

The revolution also found a response in the countryside, where the outbreak of unrest brought the agrarian question to the forefront of the political struggle.

The "Moderados" won the elections to the Cortes, which opened in Madrid in June 1820.

The “moderados” policy favored the development of industry and trade: the guild system was abolished, internal customs duties and monopolies on salt and tobacco were abolished, and freedom of trade was proclaimed. The Cortes decided to liquidate religious orders and close some monasteries. Their property became the property of the state and was subject to sale. Majorates were abolished - from now on the nobles could freely dispose of their land. Many impoverished hidalgos began to sell them.

In June 1821, the Cortes passed a law abolishing seigneurial rights. The law abolished the legal and administrative power of the lords. However, Ferdinand VII refused to approve the law abolishing seigneurial rights, using the suspensive veto granted to the king by the 1812 constitution.

The "Moderados" did not dare to violate the royal veto. The law abolishing seigneurial rights remained on paper.

"Moderados" opposed the intervention of the masses in the political struggle. Already in August 1820, the government disbanded the “surveillance army” and in October limited freedom of speech, press and assembly.

The dissatisfaction of many Spaniards with the indecisiveness of the government in its fight against the counter-revolution led to the discrediting of the “moderados.” At the same time, the influence of the “exaltados” increased, with which they pinned hopes for the continuation of revolutionary changes.

At the beginning of 1822, the Exaltados won the elections to the Cortes. Rafael Riego was elected chairman of the Cortes.

In June 1822, the Cortes passed a law on wastelands and royal lands: half of this land was supposed to be sold, and the other was to be distributed among veterans of the anti-Napoleonic war and landless peasants. In this way, the “exaltados” tried to alleviate the situation of the most disadvantaged part of the peasants, without violating the fundamental interests of the nobility.

In August 1822, the exaltados government led by E. San Miguel came to power. The new government was more active in the fight against counter-revolution. While suppressing counter-revolutionary protests, the “exaltados” at the same time did nothing to deepen the revolution. The government of E. San Miguel actually continued the agrarian policy of moderate liberals.

Counter-revolutionary intervention and restoration of absolutism

In 1822, it was already clear that Spanish reaction could not independently suppress the revolutionary movement. Therefore, the Verona Congress, which met in October 1822 Holy Alliance, decided to organize an intervention. In April 1823, French troops crossed the Spanish border. The government and the Cortes were forced to leave Madrid and move to Seville and then to Cadiz. Despite the heroic resistance of General Mina's army in Catalonia and Riego's troops in Andalusia, in September 1823 almost all of Spain found itself at the mercy of counter-revolutionary forces.

On October 1, 1823, a decree of Ferdinand VII abolished all laws adopted by the Cortes in 1820-1823. Absolutism re-established itself in Spain, and the lands taken from it were returned to the church. In November 1823, Rafael Riego was executed.

Spain's attempts to restore its power in Latin America proved futile. By early 1826, Spain had lost all its colonies in Latin America, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.

Bourgeois revolution 1820-1823 was defeated, but it shook the foundations of the old order, preparing the ground for further development revolutionary movement.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1834 - 1843

The reactionary regime of Ferdinand VII, victorious in 1823, could not stop the progressive development of capitalism. In the 30-40s, the industrial revolution began, which exacerbated the contradictions between the needs of the development of capitalist relations and the preservation of the “old order”. The Spanish bourgeoisie, having lost colonial markets, began to more actively fight against feudal remnants that hindered the development of entrepreneurship and trade in Spain itself.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1854 - 1856

In June 1854, a group of opposition-minded generals led by O'Donnel called for the overthrow of the government. The uprising in the army gave impetus to the revolutionary movement in the cities. At the end of July, a government was formed led by the leader of the "progressives" - Espartero; the post of Minister of War was taken by O "Donnell, representing the Moderados."

The government decided to confiscate and sell church lands. Lands in the hands of peasant communities were also confiscated and put on sale.

The government of Espartero-O'Donnell restored the national militia and convened the Cortes. In 1855-1856, laws were passed that promoted the growth of entrepreneurial initiative and the attraction of foreign capital.

As the revolutionary movement developed, the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility moved into the camp of the counter-revolution. On July 14, 1856, Minister of War O'Donnell provoked the resignation of Espartero and dissolved the Cortes. This step led to an uprising in Madrid. On July 16, the uprising was suppressed. O'Donnel's government suspended the sale of church lands and disbanded the national militia. This was the end of the fourth bourgeois revolution.

After the revolution of 1854-1856. Two blocs emerged: the Liberal Union and the Conservatives. The liberal union, the leader of which was General O'Donnell, expressed the interests of the bourgeois nobility and the top of the bourgeoisie. The conservatives, led by General Narvaez, represented the interests of large landowners and nobles. In 1856-1868, the Narvaez government came to power three times and was replaced three times by the government of O "Donnel.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1868 - 1874

Beginning of the fifth bourgeois revolution (1868-1874)

As capitalism developed, the bourgeoisie in Spain, strengthened economically, more and more decisively laid claim to political power. By the end of 1867 - beginning of 1868, a bloc of bourgeois parties had formed, which included the “progressives”, the Liberal Union, and republican groups. The leaders of the bloc came to the conclusion that a new military coup was necessary.

In September 1868, an uprising began in Cadiz, which caused a wide response: in Madrid and Barcelona, the rebels seized arsenals; The creation of detachments of “freedom volunteers” began everywhere. Queen Isabella fled Spain.

By June 1869, a new constitution had been drafted. Spain was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy, a bicameral parliament was formed on the basis of universal male suffrage. The monarchy has been proclaimed, but there is no king. In Spain there was a fairly long period of struggle between various political forces, in which the governments of a number of European countries were involved. At the end of 1870, the son of the Italian king, Amadeo of Savoy, was proclaimed king of Spain. The Carlist pretender also aspired to become a monarch.

The Basque Country and Navarre became the support of Carlism, whose population pinned their hopes on Carlism for the restoration of ancient local liberties - “fueros”. In 1872, the Carlists started a civil war in northern Spain.

First Republic in Spain

The republican movement was expanding in the country, and the influence of sections of the First International was growing. The north of Spain was engulfed in the Carlist war. The deepening political crisis forced King Amadeo to abdicate the throne. On February 11, 1873, Spain was declared a republic.

Now the struggle has already begun within the republican camp. Revolts broke out in southern Spain. The Carlist war continued in the north.

The Spanish bourgeoisie, frightened by the scale of the revolutionary movement, sought to restore the monarchy. The army continued to be the driving force behind all changes in Spain. On January 3, 1874, the military, having dispersed the Cortes, carried out a coup d'état. The new government began preparations for the restoration of the monarchy. In December 1874, Isabella's son Alfonso XII was proclaimed king. Thus ended the fifth bourgeois revolution. In 1876, the Carlist War ended with the defeat of the Carlists.

Results of the bourgeois revolutions of 1808-1874.

Cycle bourgeois revolutions, which shocked Spain in 1808-1874, destroyed many feudal remnants that stood in the way of the development of capitalism.

History of Spain 19th century

Restoration mode

Cycle of revolutions 1808-1874 ended with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in December 1874. During the reign of King Alfonso XII (1874-1885) and then during the regency of his widow Maria Christina (1885-1902), the monarchical regime acquired relative stability.

In 1875, two political parties took shape in the ruling circles of Spain: liberal and conservative.

The Liberal Party, led by Mateo Sagasta, enjoyed the support of the financial and commercial bourgeoisie. Liberals advocated the gradual “liberalization” of the restoration regime through anti-clerical policies (limiting the number of religious congregations, developing secular education) and political reforms (the introduction of universal suffrage, etc.).

The Conservative Party was led by the head of the first restoration government, A. Canovas del Castillo. The party found support among a significant part of the landed aristocracy and the church. Conservatives advocated a moderate constitutional monarchy that limited both absolute power and democratic freedoms. In the customs area, conservatives showed themselves to be supporters of agricultural protectionism, while liberals demanded a policy of free trade.

In 1876, the Cortes adopted and the king sanctioned a monarchical constitution, which then existed until 1931. It proclaimed freedom of the press, assembly and association. The bicameral Cortes shared legislative power with the king. The king had supreme command of the army and navy. He appointed ministers and was the head of the executive branch. The Catholic religion was declared the state religion.

El Pardo Pact

In November 1885, when information was received from the royal palace of El Pardo about the hopeless condition of the king, who was suffering from tuberculosis, the conservative and liberal parties entered into an unspoken agreement among themselves to alternately come to power and to jointly defend the dynasty in the event of new uprisings by the Carlists or Republicans. The agreement became known as the El Pardo Pact. The birth of an heir was expected only a few months later. Saving the dynasty, the ruling circles provided demonstrative support for the regency of Maria Christina, established after the death of Alfonso XII on November 25.

In the 90s, the ruling parties changed power every two or three years, invariably ensuring for themselves a corresponding position in the Cortes. In the agricultural regions of Spain during this period, the casique system was widespread, which contemporaries called “new feudalism” or “the true constitution of Spain.” Individuals with the greatest economic influence in a given area became caciques. As a rule, this was a large landowner or, if the latifundist himself lived permanently in Madrid, his representative. The caciques took on the responsibilities of political leadership, organized elections to the Cortes and, in fact, determined the composition of local authorities.

The liberals carried out some of their political program of change at the end of the 19th century. Gradually, Spain acquired the appearance of a European-style legal state. In 1881, the Sagasta government allowed the formation of associations, including political parties. Sagasta's second government passed legislation in 1890 introducing universal male suffrage, abolishing the property qualification required by the 1878 law.

Military defeat of 1898 and the problem of Spain

Before the start of the war with the United States, Spain controlled Cuba and Puerto Rico in the West Indies, the Caroline and Mariana Islands, the Philippines, the Palau Islands in the Pacific Ocean and a number of small possessions on the African continent. Claims for the division and seizure of Spanish colonial possessions were made by the imperialist powers - the USA and Germany.

In April 1898, a war began between Spain and the United States, which sought to actually transfer Spanish possessions under their sovereignty. The war lasted only four months and ended with the defeat of Spain. Spain lost its navy in two battles and could no longer defend its colonies. According to the Paris Peace Treaty of December 10, 1898, Spain lost Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico and other islands in the West Indies, Guam and the Philippines to the United States (for $20 million). Germany in February 1899 forced Spain to sell it the Caroline and Mariana Islands. All that remained of the old Spanish colonial empire were its possessions in Africa: Spanish Guinea, Western Sahara, Ifni and several strongholds in Morocco.

Defeat in the war with the United States and the loss of colonies were perceived in Spain as a national catastrophe. The Spaniards then experienced an acute sense of national humiliation.

It was clear that the root cause of the military defeat of 1898 was the relatively weak development of the Spanish economy.

The Moors come to the Iberian Peninsula in 711 to help the Visigothic groups. This was the beginning of the end of the Visigothic power. In a short period of time, Spain becomes part of the Umayyad Caliphate (Arab Caliphate). Islam spread with incredible speed. The mosques built in those days became real masterpieces of Muslim architecture. For example, the mosque in Cordoba became the most outstanding monument of the Umayyad family. The Arabs were tolerant of Jews and Christians, but the tax had to be paid by everyone who did not change their faith.

The noble Umayyad dynasty is replaced by the Abbasids, representatives of another family. Armed confrontations in the Arab possessions lead to the rise to power of Abd ar-Rahman (his statue in the photo on the right), who makes Cordoba the capital of his emirate (756), like many Muslim cities, adorned with the Alcazar Palace. Muslims rebuild the Roman palace into a defensive bastion.

Later, Ferdinando III turns the structure into the residence of the kings. For about 32 years, attempts have been made to overthrow the ruler from the throne. Charlemagne, the Frankish king, also made an attempt. But his troops were defeated; in the decisive battle in the Roncesval gorge, the famous Breton Count Roland, who later became the hero of the epic poem “The Song of Roland,” dies.

For several centuries, power was replaced by different representatives of the family of Abd ar-Rahman I. The Caliphate lasted until the 11th century. In 1031 Hisham III loses his reign. In the collapsed Cordoba Caliphate, representatives of the elite Arabs and Berbers are trying to create new strong states, but to no avail.

Reconquista

Reconquista means "reconquest" in Spanish. With this name, the war against the Moors, waged by the Spaniards together with other European nations, entered the history of the country.

It began with Pelayo (Pelagia) in 718, when, under his leadership, the Arab movement in the Asturian mountains was stopped at the Battle of Covadonga. Alfonso I, grandson of Pelayo, united Cantabria with Asturias. His victories also included the conquest of Galicia. It was here that the tomb of St. James was found. This event made it a center of pilgrimage.

The merits of Charlemagne (in the picture on the left) include the creation of the Spanish Mark in the northeast (the border between the lands of the Franks and Arabs). She stopped the advance of Muslims into Europe. The border lasted until 1137, until the merger of Barcelona and Aragon into one kingdom of Aragon. By the way, the Aragonese Pyrenees are famous throughout the world for their beauty and pink rocks near the town of Aguero.

Ferdinand I assigns Leon-Asturias the status of a kingdom, it becomes a stronghold of the Reconquista. In 1085, Toledo was conquered by Christians. Aragon unites with Catalonia, the Basques found Navarre. During the reign of the Almoravids (1090-1145), the valiant knight Sid performed his exploits. The national hero of Spain conquers Valencia in 1095. Sid's sword is now kept in the Spanish hall of the Military Museum in Madrid.

After several impressive victories, by the end of the 13th century, the Christians ousted the Moors, only the Caliphate of Cordoba still maintained its position on the peninsula, paying tribute. The Torre de la Calahorra Tower, a powerful defensive fortress of Cordoba, has withstood more than one battle, proving its strength.

Spain in the Middle Ages population language. Brief history of Spain. The most important events of the 20th century

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