Correctional work of a psychologist at school. Development of an observation program (scheme) Scheme of standardized observation of children's attention

12.7. Oddities, observations? When you say hello first, sometimes the elders (mostly grandmothers prevail) pretend not to hear and “go on their own.” Therefore, on this occasion, one grandmother I knew, almost a mother-in-law, said: first of all, don’t say hello to strangers. But I can’t unlearn it

Observations and Questions and Answers Perhaps it is now obvious to you that the world of any person is a complex mosaic of subjective perceptions, unconscious conditioning and objective facts, which is constantly changing (and the only constant thing is change).

Acceleration and infantilism are variations of one problem of personality development.
It is worth noting the amazing “kinship” between acceleration and infantilism. These phenomena, at first glance, are completely different and directly opposite, in essence they come from the same root, they are two variations of one problem - the problem of personality development - fixing its two sides, two extremes, which, as befits extremes, converge. Both - the accelerated development of physical characteristics and the slowdown in the rate of development of other personal qualities - are a violation of the normal course of personality development.
Acceleration is accelerated physical and partly mental development in childhood and adolescence. This term was proposed by E. Koch (1935). Acceleration was noted when comparing anthropometric data obtained in the early 20s of the 20th century with data from the 30s of the 19th century, when anthropometric studies of children began.

The proposed observation scheme can be used as an auxiliary means of obtaining information about the mental activity, behavior and communication of a student. First of all, in the situation of an individual examination. At the same time, we do not exclude the possibility of using this scheme in other psychological and pedagogical situations of interaction between an adult and a student. The scheme is a set of descriptions of specific behavioral manifestations of the child, observed by a psychologist or teacher in the process of communication, which

correlated with various parameters of his psychological and pedagogical status.

3. Stott's Observation Map (35)

This technique is a specialized questionnaire for studying the content and nature of maladaptive behavior in schoolchildren aged 7-12 years. In form, it, just like the psychological-pedagogical map, is a technology for structured observation by a teacher of a child’s behavioral characteristics. However, observation and evaluation are subject to in this case such fragments of student behavior that can be qualified as manifestations of maladjustment. The undoubted advantage of the Observation Card (abbreviated as CN) is its differential capabilities - on the basis of the card filled out by the teacher, you can not only establish the presence or absence of maladaptation in the student’s behavior, but also find out the predominant nature of the existing violations (withdrawal, hostility, anxiety, etc.), as well as the social sphere of their manifestations (relationships with adults, with peers).

Accordingly, the main direction of data analysis is qualitative analysis, which allows us to understand the nature and depth of violations and outline ways of correction.

A serious disadvantage of the method is its labor intensity. Therefore, filling out the CN is recommended for those children whose behavior disorders have already been recorded by a psychologist and teacher. In addition, in our opinion, this technique has another serious drawback, so to speak, of an ideological nature. It is associated with the clinical orientation of the method and is manifested in the very formulations of behavioral fragments. A teacher who fills out the CT text for all the children in the class inevitably begins to look at them as carriers of negative, pathological traits. This does not contribute to the formation of a humanistic attitude towards children, and accordingly complicates the implementation of the idea of ​​psychological and pedagogical support for the child in the process of schooling.

4. Questionnaires for parents

Questioning of parents is provided for in all diagnostic minimums, but they are of particular importance in the 2nd and 4th screenings, aimed at studying particularly

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benefits of the process of adaptation of schoolchildren in new social and pedagogical conditions. The information revealed during the parent interview is an important component of the diagnostic minimum, as it allows:

Correlate the child’s behavior at home with his school behavior

manifestations;

• 
  clarify the origin of a particular school product
  problems of a child or teenager;
• 
  supplement the data obtained from the survey of teachers
  and examination of the child.

As a possible option for surveying parents, we refer to the “Questionnaire for parents of first-graders,” given in the book “Diagnostics of School Maladjustment” (16). The questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions concerning various aspects of the child’s behavior at home, directly related to educational activities and the school communication situation. It does not have strict processing standards, but can serve as a source of important qualitative information. In addition, to standardize the procedure for its preparation * When this book was being prepared for publication, the questionnaire was published in the methodological manual “Psychological and pedagogical support for correctional and developmental work at school” - M.. 1997.

boots in a simple form is not particularly difficult.

5. Tests for performance and rate of mental activity

Partial information about the tempo characteristics of a student’s educational activity and his performance is contained in the psychological and pedagogical map and questionnaires for parents. When this information is insufficient, the screening battery can be supplemented with test procedures such as the tapping test and the Raven method for mental performance.

Te p p i n g-te st. The author of the technique is Ilyin E. P. (23). The technique is intended to determine the properties of the nervous system based on psychomotor indicators. Its practical value lies, among other things, in the ability to identify the characteristics of the pace of activity characteristic of a particular student. Practice shows that test results correlate well with the child’s actual behavior in various learning situations. Consequently, based on its data, specific recommendations can be developed for teachers and parents on organizing educational and other types of student activities. The undoubted advantages of the test also include its compactness, ease of processing and the possibility of repeated use.

Raven's mental performance test. This technique is intended for use in middle and high school. It allows us to identify the dynamic features of intellectual activity on verbal material accessible to schoolchildren. The proposed test material partially assumes mechanical work, partly requires intellectual effort. This feature of the technique also makes it possible to compare the tempo characteristics of different types of mental activity. The technique is easy to process and does not require much time to carry out.

6. Methods for studying the content features of cognitive activity of schoolchildren

We consider it possible to obtain a significant part of the information concerning the content of the cognitive activity of schoolchildren and their inherent characteristics in this area during

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expert survey of a teacher. However, we understand that it must be supplemented with the data that is obtained directly in the process of examining schoolchildren. We have already had the opportunity to present to readers our views on school applied psychodiagnostics and its specifics. Most of the existing intellectual methods designed to examine the cognitive sphere of children and adolescents seem to us to be little informative from the point of view of school psychological practice and support tasks. The most consistent with our goals are such methods as SHTUR in its various modifications, which can be used to study the characteristics of the cognitive activity of adolescents (grades 8-10) and the method for determining the mental development of normal and abnormal children by E. F. Zambazyavichene (3.33).

This technique is intended to study the level and characteristics of verbal logical thinking in children 7-9 years old. For a school psychologist, the interest is not so much in the differential capabilities of the test, but in the possibility of obtaining information about the formation of various elements of logical thinking in children studying in a public school: operations of generalization and analogies, highlighting essential features, general awareness. Survey data provide information that is important both for constructing the process of accompanying specific children, and for analyzing the teaching process in a certain class, a certain parallel.

1. Methodology essays

The methodology proposed by the authors is focused on examining children at the stage of transition from primary to secondary education. Currently, psychological readiness for the transition to high school is mainly the subject of theoretical discussion, but is poorly implemented in practice. The content of psychological readiness has not been defined with sufficient clarity; accordingly, criteria for assessing readiness and diagnostic techniques have not been developed. There are few descriptions of techniques designed for individual use. Mass studies using them are practically impossible.

Completing the task of mass examination of children (there is

in view of the examination of all children of the same age in a regular school) requires rapid diagnostic methods that are quite unusual for traditional psychological practice. The result of using such methods is the conditional division of children into groups. Such groups in a school setting can be high - medium - low level of skills or properties. The authors propose an express diagnostic method for assessing psychological readiness for the transition to secondary school, based on an analysis of the product of activity. It is assumed that the product of activity, especially creative activity, reflects the main personality traits of the subject (author). This applies to both intellectual qualities, abilities, and personal manifestations. With a certain degree of reliability (the results of express diagnostics cannot be the final conclusion!), conclusions related to the product of activity also apply to personality traits.

Children's work is analyzed. The usual pedagogical technique is used - children are given the task of writing an essay. The work is performed under normal conditions, by the whole class during one lesson. The suggested topic is “My favorite game or activity.” The necessary organizational assistance is provided without affecting the content of the work. The topic is related to the immediate interests of children, which is important for motivation to work, and is broad enough to reveal the diversity of children’s ideas about the environment, their knowledge and skills.

Essays are considered from several points of view. According to the scheme developed by the authors, the following is determined: the intellectual level, the maturity of the qualities of the subject of educational activity, the level of volitional regulation of activity, the emotional background, the level of social and personal development.

Analysis of the results allows not only to assess the level of readiness for education in secondary education, but also to implement a program to help children experiencing certain psychological difficulties.

8. Questionnaires for assessing the level and content of school motivation of students

Modern psychological and pedagogical literature presents quite a variety of test material for

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measuring the level and studying the content of educational motivation of schoolchildren (21, 34, 35). Undoubtedly, projective and “semi-projective” procedures are more informative, but they are of little use in conditions of a diagnostic minimum (the exception is admission to school, where the use of such methods is quite accessible, for example, the technique developed by M. R. Ginzburg can be recommended (36) For the purposes of mass express diagnostics, it is advisable to use text-based questionnaire-type methods. For example, when carrying out the diagnostic minimum at the adaptation stage at the initial level - the motivational questionnaire of N. G. Luskanova and I. A. Korobeinikov (22), when moving to the middle level - method “Attitude towards school” (35).

9. Pictures projective techniques

This psychodiagnostic procedure is of great value for school psychological activity, despite significant technical difficulties arising in the development of the methodology, processing and interpretation of data.

When compiling the text of a methodology, it becomes necessary to select and justify the topic and focus of the judgments proposed for continuation. In our model, we naturally proceed from the content of the parameters of the psychological and pedagogical status of schoolchildren. This technique is of interest to us primarily as a way to identify the characteristics of a student’s system of relationships to the world, significant activities, and himself. Using unfinished sentences, the cognitive and emotional aspects of this system can be revealed. The algorithm for selecting judgments for diagnostics is as follows.

First of all, they stand out social spheres, psychologically significant for schoolchildren of this age. Then, within each sphere, significant criteria for the system of these relations are selected, which are assessed in two aspects: how the student “sees” and perceives the system of his specific social relations and how he evaluates them emotionally.

For example, for older teenagers, one of the most significant is the system of their relationships with peers. IN

Within the framework of this system, such aspects of relationships as subjective involvement in emotional trusting relationships and inclusion in a wide system of social contacts are essential. Accordingly, the methodology will include judgments that make it possible to understand how a high school student sees his position in the group, society, and how emotionally satisfying these positions are to him.

Many practitioners encounter serious difficulties when processing and analyzing data from unfinished sentences. There are two main forms of data analysis of this technique - qualitative, substantive and quantitative, criterion-based. The first form is undoubtedly deeper, but can be successfully used only in individual diagnostic work. In diagnostic mass examination, the second form is used. However, the criterial, quantitative processing itself can be carried out in different ways. For example, by assigning certain scale ratings to students’ answers: positive attitude to the question +1, negative -1, neutral (care) - 0. Such an assessment system is described in the literature (30, 23), however, from the experience of our own work and consulting practicing school psychologists, we know that it is not always possible to unambiguously assess a student’s answer in this coordinate system. It seems to us more acceptable to process the results of the unfinished sentence technique using content analysis. Content analysis is a specific quantitative and qualitative method for processing and analyzing large amounts of unstructured information (27). In our case, it can be used to process data from essays, psychotherapeutic interviews with students, and the technique of unfinished sentences. The method involves isolating certain characteristics of the text under study and counting the frequency of their occurrence. When processing unfinished sentences, the following characteristics can be identified: specific topics revealed in the students’ answers, emotional assessment of the situations described, speech features of sentences, etc.

So, analysis of the data from the projective technique “Incomplete Sentences” allows us to get an idea of ​​the features of the student’s system of relationships to the world, the environment.

to other people and to yourself. Students' responses also contain important information about their emotional state. Indirectly, based on the initial answers, one can judge the student’s intellectual development (correct speech, understanding the meaning of an unfinished statement, literacy, comprehensiveness of the answer, etc.).

There are a large number of options for this technique for children. school age. In our practical work, we focus on two main options: for younger teenagers, compiled by E. V. Novikova, and for older teenagers, compiled by M. R. Bityanova and A. F. Shadura.

Based on the results of the diagnostic minimum, the final examination document is filled out - the psychological and pedagogical card of the student. Filling it out allows the psychologist to determine what features of learning, communication (behavior) and mental state characterize a given student and whether there are pronounced problems in his psychological development at the moment of schooling. The psychological and pedagogical map is compiled according to the same parameters by which the student’s status is monitored. As noted above, at this stage of the examination it is not always possible to clearly determine the essence and origin of existing psychological difficulties. In many cases, a more detailed examination is required, aimed at clarifying the hypotheses put forward.

In-depth diagnostic examination

The detailed examination discussed at the end of the previous section can take various forms:

• 
  differentiation of norm and pathology,
• 
  studying the characteristics of cognitive activity
  schoolchildren within the age norm,
• 
  study of the zone and content of the conflict,
• 
  study of psychological characteristics of personality
  schoolchildren.

At a minimum, a psychologist can identify such features and disorders within the framework of psychological and pedagogical status, the causes of which remain unclear. Consequently, effective follow-up is difficult. This section of our work can help in formulating assumptions about the nature and origin of the identified features and problems. We have tried to describe the most likely causes of certain difficulties and psychological inconsistencies that can be identified during the diagnostic minimum.

The description is structured according to the following scheme:

1. Parameter of psychological and pedagogical status.

1. 
   The most likely psychological difficulties you
   revealed in the diagnostic minimum.
2. 
   The most likely psychological and social problems
   dagogical reasons for their occurrence. At the same time, in
   regarding some parameters of the cause status
   are described under two different headings: when
   objective decrease in mental abilities due to
   in relation to the age norm and without such a lower
   nia. That is, it is assumed that the psychologist is based on
   based on existing data or after conducting primary
   of a differential examination has a representative
   a discussion about the correlation between the mental development of a schoolchild
   and age norms.

Problems:

Low level of arbitrariness of cognitive processes

Low level of thinking development

Lack of formation of the most important educational mental actions

Possible reasons:

With an objective decrease in mental abilities in relation to the age norm

"mental retardation

• 
  
  functions
• 
  psychophysical infantilism (in this case it is
  means a kind of “stuck” child at pre-

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school level of development, which is especially clearly seen in relation to norms, rules of behavior and activity, as well as in the characteristics of self-esteem, which often turns out to be unformed). Psychophysical infantilism can be provoked by the style of family education, the characteristics of the socio-pedagogical environment of the child’s life, but in this case it can be assumed that it was formed against the background of a certain cerebral insufficiency (10).

Without an objective decline in mental abilities in relation to the age norm

• 
  high personal or school anxiety, you
  caused by communication disorders with teachers or with
  peers, as well as family problems
• 
  low level of educational motivation caused by volume
  active pedagogical lag in the program
  me, low level of psychological readiness for training
  learning at this school level, intellectual
  passivity, etc. In general, low educational
  motivation can be a consequence of two combinations
  those factors. The first set of factors
  contributes to unformed™ educational motivation. WITH
  In such situations, psychologists and teachers most often
  encounter at the primary level of school. The basis
  Behind these situations may lie the features of Intel
  lectual and volitional development of the child, social
  but pedagogical factors. Second set
  factors leads to a decrease in educational motivation.
  This situation can arise at any stage
  school education. It is provoked by violations of the
  esteemed social relations, objective backwardness
  tion according to the program, family problems and other facts
  tori (10, 24).

Low level speech development Possible reasons:

With an objective decrease in mental abilities in relation to the age norm:

• 
  mental retardation
• 
  mental retardation or decline
  functions
• 
  psychophysical infantilism

• 
  
• 
  low level of educational motivation
• 
  specific speech therapy problems
• 
  socio-pedagogical conditions of development (character
  and style of communication in the family, features of speech development
  ity of the subculture to which the family belongs and
  schoolchild reference group).

For example, second grade student Valentina K. was promoted to second grade with great difficulty; the first grade material remained practically unlearned: the girl does not read well (but loves to listen to books), and cannot cope with logical problems and examples that require calculations involving passing through tens. Obedient, calm. Not neat, not neat. Loves to play and spends a lot of time with dolls.

A diagnostic examination conducted at the request of the teacher showed a low level of thinking development, unformedness of the most important mental actions, poorly developed oral speech, and the girl’s disinterest in successful learning. The girl tr-

important, distrustful of adults, and not popular or respected in the class.

From conversations with the teacher, it became known that the girl spent the last three years before school in the village with her great-grandmother, since another child was born into the family, very weak and sickly.

The psychologist suggested the presence of serious mental development disorders and organized a differential in-depth examination using the children's version of the Wechsler test. The girl's intellectual score turned out to be 99, with 104 in nonverbal subtests and 94 in verbal subtests. Particularly low results were obtained in the subtests of awareness, comprehension, mathematics, and sequential pictures. The last subtest was repeated after completion of the examination and, under conditions of training and assistance, the girl coped with it quite successfully.

The mental decline turned out to be not so significant and was mainly provoked by a low level of knowledge about the world and undeveloped logical thinking skills. Academic problems were provoked by the child’s low social and cognitive readiness for learning, lack of proper support and substantive assistance in the family, as well as school failure itself, which gave rise to fear, self-doubt, and apathy.

/7 Problem:

Low level of development of fine motor skills

Possible reasons:

• 
  specific neuropsychological problems (3, 25)
• 
  left-handedness (it is necessary to distinguish between difficulties, fuss
  repentant when teaching writing and drawing (drawing)
  in left-handed people who continue to write with their left hand and labor
  characteristics of retrained left-handers getting used to the right
  hand) (5).
• 
  psychophysical infantilism

Low rate of mental activity and low educational performance.

Possible reasons:

If the existing problem is objectively determined:

Features of the nervous system (inert or weak

types of nervous activity)

• 
  asthenia of the nervous system caused by the object
  tive causes of genetic or ontogenetic
  whose character, living conditions and activities, con
  specific events
• 
  physical weakness due to chronic or
  acute somatic diseases

• 
  high personal or school anxiety
• 
  communication disorders at school (with teachers and
  stnikami)
• 
  family education style (overprotection) (49)
• 
  negative emotional background within the family from
  wearing

For example, an 8th grade student, Vyacheslav D., during the diagnostic minimum demonstrated extremely low rates of voluntary cognitive activity, pace and mental performance, and reduced educational motivation. The results were significantly different from the previous low. All teachers complained about inattention, lethargy, passivity and low work efficiency. At the same time, parents noted that when doing homework, the boy can get his act together and remains very successful in schoolwork. external activities(classes in a dance club).

Based on the available information, the psychologist suggested that slowness, low performance and decreased academic motivation are a reflection of school problems. More likely, in some system of social relations. A conversation with the class teacher made it possible to clarify this issue. The teacher noted that in recent months the boy has practically not communicated with his classmates; they treat him with disdain. Further examination, in particular, consultative work with the teenager, made it possible to substantiate this assumption and find out the reasons for his conflict with the most influential members of the class, which entailed serious intrapersonal and educational problems.

2. Peculiarities of behavior and communication of schoolchildren Problem:

Disorders of communication with peers and teachers, predominantly of an aggressive nature Possible reasons:

• 
  Aggression as a mature personality trait
  child and teenager (personal accentuation). She
  may be associated with certain social
  pedagogical conditions of a child’s life outside of school
  ly, in particular, by mastering the style of aggressive behavior
  family dynamics, characteristics of a teenage referent
  group, in addition, it may be a reflection
  certain clinical problems (called
  cerebral insufficiency) (44)
• 
  aggressiveness of a defensive nature, as a manifestation
  anxiety, lack of confidence in the student’s acceptance of his
  significant adults or peers, inadequate
  a manifestation of internal insecurity
• 
  aggressiveness as a reflection of immaturity
  productive forms of communication associated with style
  family upbringing, living conditions, experience before
  previous communication with adults and peers,
  or - autism in varying degrees of severity
  (in this case we mean autism less
  meeting the need for communication) (10)
• 
  aggressiveness as a reflection of unaccepted talent
  ty, non-standard personality of the child

Disorders of communication with peers, manifested in the form of isolation, avoidance of contacts with peers and teachers

Possible reasons:

• 
  objectively determined features of communication
  child and teenager related With Intel features
  mental or emotional development (intellectual
  tualism, autism)(10)
• 
  features of a protective psychological nature, associated
  those with high personal or school anxiety
  ness. In this case, the child’s isolation is often associated with

read with distrust and apprehension, especially in relation to new life situations. In many cases, such a child is characterized by an unproductive type of educational and social motivation - an orientation toward avoiding failure.

Closedness as a reflection of a low level of formation

Problem:

Violation of communication with peers and teachers, mainly in the form of negativistic demonstrativeness - a conscious violation of the rules and norms of school behavior.

Possible reasons:

• 
  lack of adequate forms of implementation
  need for attention and recognition from others,
  associated most often with the peculiarities of family style
  th education
• 
  unrecognized talent and inability by others
  the personality of a child or teenager
• 
  high personal anxiety, leading to
  confidence in acceptance by significant adults and
  stnikami
• 
  as a demonstration of teenage independence, due to
  in most cases with a violation of the normal
  significant emotional contact between the student and the teacher
  we and our peers

Violations of communication with teachers and peers, manifested in excessive diligence and conformity of the child. The communication of such a student is characterized by “stickiness” and demonstrative loyalty.

Possible reasons:

High personal anxiety, manifested in

child’s problems (for example, such family education styles as hypoprotection)

Emotional and personal infantilism of the child,
manifested in high conformity, unformed
level of ideas about one’s “I”, motivation
no immaturity. Often such features provoke
are supported by a certain style of families
nnogo upbringing, attitude towards the child (overprotection).
It may also be based on a certain purpose.
rib insufficiency (44)

Problem:

Motor disinhibition, restlessness, low level of control over one’s behavior and emotional reactions.

Possible reasons:

in case disinhibition and restlessness with

Dima S., a sixth grade student, baffled his teachers. IN primary school He studied well, but had a very lively, active character, was restless and talkative. This greatly irritated his teacher, a professionally competent but tough woman. She not only did not encourage, but also quite seriously punished the boy for violations of established discipline. The parents supported the teacher in everything. They also considered their son ill-mannered and disobedient, although undoubtedly capable. At the end of the 5th grade, Dima's behavior deteriorated significantly: he became irritated, impudent, began to be rude to teachers, and even behave like a hooligan: damaging furniture, putting matches in locks. I studied extremely unevenly: 5-2. Easily grasped new material, but showed no interest in school knowledge no longer showed. At the same time, I read a lot and enjoyed it, and was involved in aircraft modeling and chess. Parents repeatedly and seriously

They punished the teenager, even took him to a psychiatrist, but he was not registered.

After talking with the parents (regarding the history of their son’s development) and with the teachers, the psychologist suggested that the matter was the boy’s originality and broad talent, for which neither the parents (they really wanted a girl assistant) nor the teachers were ready. Tests for general talent and intellectual abilities confirmed this assumption of the psychologist.

• 
  Features of protective psychological behavior
  nature. Disinhibition as demonstrative
  behavioral manifestation may occur against the background
  violations of communication between the student and teachers and verification
  stnikami
• 
  Motor disinhibition against the background of high
  impulsiveness of behavior, weak purposeful behavior
  may indicate certain features
  disadvantages of the child’s nervous system, unfavorable
  neurological status
• 
  Motor disinhibition as spoilage
  indicates the peculiarities of the style of family reunion
  nutrition and relationship with the child

Behavioral disorders mainly in the form of depression and asthenization of the student Possible reasons:

• 
  depression caused by objective facts
  rami - fatigue, low energy. Such special
  disadvantages of behavior may indicate a general
  somatic weakness of the child, psychological
  or psychophysical exhaustion, as well as special
  characteristics of the child’s nervous organization - weak type
  the nervous system, first of all. In this case it is necessary
  keep in mind that this type of nervous activity in itself
  pregnancy is not a cause of depression
  schoolboy standing. He becomes provocative
  factor in conditions unfavorable for learning
  and development of children of this type
• 
  depressive behavior defensive psychological
  nature. This behavior may be caused by

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psychologist

the combination of various socio-psychological conditions: demonstrative depression as a reflection of an unsatisfied need for attention, a consequence of high personal or school anxiety associated with disruption of contacts with significant adults and peers, unrecognized talent, and finally, motivational withdrawal from activities into the internal fantasy plane may be associated with loss of interest in cognitive activity (low or unformed educational motivation)

General slowness of the pace of psychophysical activity

Problem:

Behavioral disorders manifested in disinhibition of drives in a child and adolescent Possible reasons:

• 
  pathological, irresistible attractions, caused by
  identified by certain objective psychic disorders
  giggles of a child or teenager
• 
  disinhibition of social-pedagogical drives
  nature related to the characteristics of the living environment
  child’s activity, characteristics of family education
  tania
• 
  disinhibition of drives of psychological defenses
  nature, most often acquiring the features of a nega-
  tivistic demonstrativeness. Has its basis
  impairment of communication with significant adults
  and peers

The manifestation of neurotic symptoms in the behavior of a schoolchild, such as tearfulness, speech disorders, obsessive movements or sounds, psychosomatic manifestations (pain, allergic reactions, enuresis, etc.).

Possible reasons:

How manifestations of pre-existing psychosomatics

• 
  high anxiety as a reflection of serious disorders
  ideas in relationships with significant adults, checking
  friends and family
• 
  high anxiety as a stable personality trait
  (a certain type of character accentuation)

Finally, low self-esteem in the vast majority of cases is a secondary factor, a derivative of certain disorders in the child’s learning, behavior or well-being (6, 10, 16, 19). A decrease in self-esteem often occurs following a change in the social situation, the child’s system of social relations. Thus, self-esteem decreases against the background of the child’s chronic failure, rejection by the peer group, deterioration of attitude on the part of significant adults - parents, teachers, etc. From this point of view, self-esteem can be considered more like a “litmus test” of the child’s psychological state. Often its level and maturity make it possible to more clearly differentiate a psychological diagnosis (for example, to distinguish situations of psychophysical infantilism from undeveloped self-esteem and chronic failure, accompanied by an underestimated assessment of one’s capabilities (10). In addition, this indicator reflects the depth of the disorders and problems that the student has. If in the presence of serious problems in behavior, learning or relationships with others, the student retains adequate self-esteem and a positive “I-concept”; this opens up wide opportunities for changing the current situation and solving existing difficulties.

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So, if during the diagnostic minimum certain problems of learning, behavior or psychological well-being of a schoolchild are identified, the psychologist carries out subsequent diagnostic work according to the diagram below:

Thus, a differential examination of a child can be quite successfully organized using such express methods as the Peresleni-Padobed method (3), Bender test (26), as well as using the full version of the Wechsler children's questionnaire. The last test is undoubtedly preferable, but the first two methods can also help the psychologist decide on the possibility of a child studying at a given school.

The study of the characteristics of students’ cognitive activity is carried out in most cases with the help of various

personal intellectual tests, methods for studying the properties of memory, attention, perception. Their specific choice is determined by a hypothesis put forward by a psychologist based on available preliminary information.

If it is necessary to study the zone and content of a child’s internal conflict, the projective techniques CAT and TAT (10, 30), the Rosenzweig test, the Rene Gilles technique (23, 30), the color relationship test (30), and drawing projective techniques can be successfully used.

To study the personal characteristics of schoolchildren that provoke certain problems in learning, behavior and mental well-being, the children's version of the Cattell questionnaire (1.16), the Lichko adolescent diagnostic questionnaire (21), and the Luscher test (31) can be used.

Let us note once again that the purpose of conducting this kind of complex examination is not to make a psychological diagnosis in the strict sense of the word, not to create a holistic portrait of the child’s personality, but to obtain reliable information regarding the validity of the hypotheses put forward. It, in turn, is necessary for building an effective support process, primarily its advisory, correctional and social-dispatcher aspects. The information obtained by the psychologist as a result of various diagnostic schemes is recorded in the student’s psychological and pedagogical record and special documents prepared for the consultation.

A few words about the student’s psychological and pedagogical map. It is based on data from diagnostic minimums and in-depth or differential examinations organized based on their results. It reflects the status parameters highlighted above, their primary numerical and level assessment according to the diagnostic procedures that were used to measure them. The card also contains the conclusions of the consultation, notes on the conduct and results of certain types of accompanying psychological and pedagogical work. Storing various test forms and primary questionnaires is not advisable. A student’s psychological and pedagogical record is not a publicly available document. The school should develop clear ideas about what information is only available

Age psychology -> Although counseling the population is a new type of practical activity of psychologists, today it is not built from scratch

Observation technique for analyzing the interaction process by R. Bales designed to study small groups (their approach to problem solving, status-role structure, etc.), as well as the personal characteristics of the participants and their relationships. The interaction process is described using 12 descriptive categories that reflect the main problems of relationships and group processes: a) exchange of information and definition of the situation in group consciousness; b) mutual assessment of each other and external information, formation of group values; c) attempts by individuals to command or influence each other, the formation of a status hierarchy; d) forming a group solution to the problem; e) weakening interpersonal and intrapersonal tensions, maintaining harmony; f) development of mutual assistance and support, group integration. R. Bales in later works allows for the reduction of the original 12 categories to 8, corresponding to 4 main parameters: adaptive actions (compliance, condescension; the opposite - elevation, dominance); integrative actions (causing acceptance or non-acceptance); instrumental and expressive actions (see Figure 2).

The observer must internalize the list of categories and the meaning of each of them, not individually, but as an ordered system. Before the interaction begins, it remembers the participants and identifies each with a number or letter. When observing, he divides the behavior of the participants into separate acts and records each one, subsuming it under the category in the scheme that best describes this fact.

a – orientation problem;

b – problem of assessment, opinion;

c – control problem;

d – problem of finding a solution;

e – the problem of overcoming tension;

f – integration problem.

The most informative data using this scheme can be obtained by observing a group working under time pressure while jointly solving complex problems.

Figure 2.

Using observation to study development. The widespread use of the observation method to study the mental development of children is due to the characteristics of the object of study. Small child cannot be a participant in psychological experiments, is unable to give a verbal account of his actions, thoughts, emotions and actions. The accumulation of data on the mental development of infants and young children has made it possible to combine them into certain systems.

Development tables of A. Gesell cover four main areas of child behavior: motor skills, language, adaptive and personal-social behavior. Data obtained through direct observation of children's responses to common toys and other objects are supplemented by information reported by the child's mother. American psychologist A. Anastasi, in his authoritative manual on psychological testing, notes the lack of standardization of these development tables, but points out their usefulness as a supplement to medical examinations carried out by pediatricians and other specialists.

Methodology E. Frucht records the development of a child aged from 10 days to 12 months in the following categories: 1) visual indicative reactions; 2) auditory orientation reactions; 3) emotions and social behavior; 4) hand movements and actions with objects; 5) general movements; 6) speech understanding; 7) active speech; 8) skills and abilities.

For each age, a list of categories (from two to seven) and a description of reactions characteristic of this age are given. For example, for the age of 1 month: general movements - lying on his stomach, trying to raise and hold his head (for 5 seconds); immediately raises his head after stroking his back, holds it for 5 seconds and lowers it. For the age of 3 months: general movements - lies on the stomach, leaning on the forearms and raising the head high (for 1 minute), immediately raises the head high, leaning on the forearms, the chest is raised, the legs lie quietly, maintains this position for 1 minute; holds the head in an upright position (in the arms of an adult); holds head straight for 30 seconds. With support under the armpits, firmly rests on a solid support with legs bent at the hip joint; when touching the support, straightens the legs at the knee joint and rests with both feet.

This scheme is not aimed at making a diagnosis, but only allows you to recognize the general picture of development and pay attention to some alarming symptoms.

Development cards by D. Lashley. The author suggests using the following structural headings in the development card: 1) physical development, which covers both general movements, such as walking, climbing, and more subtle ones, for example, coordination of eye and hand movements when drawing and sculpting; 2) communication and speech development. These include expressive language and comprehension; 3) social development and play - include relationships with adults and children, how the child plays, his interests, and the ability to concentrate on these activities; 4) self-reliance and independence - the ability to do without the help of adults while eating, dressing, using the toilet, as well as the ability to help adults, participate in group activities and carry out routine assignments; n) behavior. sometimes included in headings 3 (social development) or 4 (independence), but this section is necessary to record the child’s difficulties and problems.

The structure of the development card is a list of points for each area of ​​development. If a skill or skill has been formed, then a “V” (check mark) is placed on the card; if the data is uncertain, a “?” is placed. The results are not summed up at the end. This is a way to “photograph” a baby at some point in development for planning further measures for his upbringing, as well as for comparison with future “snapshots” of the same child.

Psychologists and speech therapists use the results of a child's development for the purpose of comparison with average indicators for children of a given age. Educators tend to compare later developmental results with earlier ones. If a child has developmental deviations, they are usually expressed in a decrease in the rate of development. For such children, special development cards are needed, which indicate more detailed stages and steps that the child goes through before mastering certain skills. They are not always marked as completed milestones for healthy children.

When choosing a development card, you should not strive to find a perfect example - one is unlikely to exist. Precisely formulated points on the card are less important than systematic observation of the child. The regularity of observations is called by D. Lashley the “method of time-based samples” and means conducting observations over pre-marked time periods. All entries related to one “slice” must be entered into the card within one week. If this is not possible, observation should be postponed.

Methods for observing “difficult” behavior by D. Lashley. The author believes that in order to understand the child’s problem, one should conduct an observation and then draw a conclusion about how serious it is. It is quite easy to determine three main aspects of observation: 1) frequency - how often the problem occurs; 2) duration - how long the “difficult” behavior lasts in each case or for how long in a day such behavior appears typical; 3) intensity - the problem is not complicated, quite serious or very serious. Separately, it should be said about the frequency of observations. You can observe the child for several days, or you can simply count the number of manifestations of “difficult” behavior. Frequency counting in relation to such behavior sometimes brings unexpected results. Adults may decide that the child is naughty most of the day, but after observation it turns out that there are long periods during the day or even whole days when the child is not “difficult” at all.

Thus, based on observation, it is possible to carry out both basic research in area child development, as well as a huge number of applied research that helps to reveal and explain various phenomena of child development. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for a teacher, as it allows him to better understand his students.

Analysis of pedagogical communication using observation. Experts in the field of educational psychology are unanimous in affirming the leading role of pedagogical communication in the process of teaching and raising children. Pedagogical communication is the foundation of relationships with children. There is a law of transferring the attitude of schoolchildren towards the teacher to their attitude towards the academic subject, therefore the analysis of pedagogical communication is one of the main aspects of the psychological analysis of a lesson (lesson).

N. Flanders' technique is intended for observation and analysis of speech interaction between teacher and students. It uses 10 categories of interaction, 7 of which relate to the teacher’s speech activity, 2 to students’ statements, and 1 category is of an auxiliary nature. A list of interaction categories is given in Appendix 1. N. Flanders’ methodology considers verbal interaction from the standpoint of the balance of initiative in communication between teacher and student, as well as the nature of interaction (directive - non-directive).

The N. Flanders system is one of the most popular all over the world; several modifications have been created on its basis. For analysis school lesson there is a modification A.E. Steinmetz, which proposes to highlight the following positions in the analysis of pedagogical communication in the lesson: emphasizing the thoughts of students (AM); acceptance of the feelings of students (AS); expression of satisfaction (SA; appeal to the opinions of students (OM), instructions, orders (UR); expression of dissatisfaction (VN) ; disciplinary influences (DI); conflict interactions (CI) (Appendix 2).

After counting the manifestations of individual positions, a meaningful description of the prevailing positions in each structural component of the lesson is given, as well as the validity and appropriateness of their use.

To analyze the interaction of a teacher in classes with preschool children, it is recommended to use N. Flanders’ modified speech interaction analysis system T.I. Chirkova(Appendix 3). During classes, the teacher’s speech takes up most of the time; it permeates all structural parts of educational and cognitive activity, from setting goals and objectives to assessing the results of the educational and cognitive process. Verbal interaction is of great importance in the education and upbringing of a child, since language transmits culture. The teacher’s speech is the main means of introducing children to the ways of human thinking, and it is very important that verbal communication is carried out at a level sufficient for such purposes. All speech reactions are divided into several categories, combined into three groups: the teacher’s reaction to the children’s actions, the teacher’s own initiative, the children’s conversation.

The protocol records all speech utterances of the teacher and children assigned to various categories. In some cases, the reasons that led to this or that statement are indicated. Quantitative processing may be used in the analysis. The number of statements classified in a particular category is counted.

Qualitative analysis can be done in several ways, depending on the purposes of observation: the first way is to see how categories change in time sequence during a lesson - at the beginning, middle, end. In this case, the fixation of categories should be carried out with a breakdown by time. Using this method, pedagogical skill is clearly visible. A certain combination of categories indicates the teacher’s support for children’s cognitive activity and the provision of opportunities for children to show their own initiative in the classroom. The reverse sequence of these same categories indicates the suppression of manifestations of child activity. The dominance of monotonous interaction options characterizes the formality and stereotyping of conducting educational sessions with children. Thus, the first method of analysis allows us to identify the type of activity of children in the classroom, the position of the teacher and his attitude towards the manifestation of children's initiative in the classroom. The second method of analysis allows us to identify the proportion of speech activity of the teacher and children during the lesson. The optimal ratio is considered to be 2: 3 (2 – teacher’s speech activity, 3 – children’s speech activity). The correlation between the use of various categories also allows us to draw a conclusion about the style of pedagogical communication in the classroom.

Observation technique L.A. Regush designed to analyze the teacher's verbal influences during the lesson. This technique differs from the previous ones by the presence of “keys” - empirically obtained ranking places of various categories of interaction at high and low levels of student understanding (S.V. Kondratyeva).

To process the observation results, it is necessary to: count the number of words-influences of each type, determine the ranking place of each type of influence, correlate the ranking places of one or another type of influence observed from the teacher with the data presented in the “keys”. Based on these data, we can draw the following conclusions: about the most typical types of verbal influence for a given teacher (1st – 4th ranking places); about the least typical types of verbal influence for a given teacher (9th – 12th ranking places). (Appendix 4).

When using methods for observing the activities of a teacher, the following conditions must be observed: before conducting an observation, you need to familiarize the teacher in detail with the methodology used and, having received the consent of the teacher, carry out timing and recording of categories of interaction. It is advisable to conduct repeated observations in several classes (lessons). Analyze and discuss the observation results together with the teacher. When analyzing categories of interaction, adhere to the principles of person-centered developmental education.

Analysis of student behavior using the observation method. In the process of teaching and raising children, the need arises to study their behavioral characteristics. For this purpose, techniques based on the observation method can be used.

Rating scale for measuring student reactivity Ya. Strelyau. The scale consists of descriptions of 10 types of behavior in various situations that are considered particularly important for the diagnosis of reactivity. Each of these types is rated on a five-point system. Therefore, a student can receive a maximum of 50 points and a minimum of 10 points. In this case, the level of reactivity is lower, the more points the observed person receives. The observation scheme is given in Appendix 5.

The Stota observation map is designed to study the behavior of students maladapted to school conditions. Teachers who have the opportunity to interact with students in lessons, in extracurricular activities, and observe them during breaks and in their free time are involved in observation. The observation map consists of a description of 16 symptom complexes (SC). Each SC includes a list of behavior patterns. In each IC, behavioral patterns have their own numbering (see Appendix 6). When filling out the card, the observer marks with a “+” sign the manifestations characteristic of the student and a “–” sign for those that are not characteristic. Behavior patterns in different social networks have unequal information weight, therefore, when translating primary empirical indicators, a special table is used. Then, in each SC, the points are summed up and converted into percentages. Based on the results of filling out the observation card, the maladjustment coefficient is calculated. However, according to Stott, the numerical indicators of the SC are indicative, and they must be handled with caution, because the technique is not standardized.

According to V.A. Murzenko, the coefficient of maladaptation of the main part of the sample ranges from 6 to 25 points. In 20.8% of the sample, the maladaptation coefficient exceeds 25 points, which indicates a significant violation of the mechanisms of personal adaptation. Such students are on the verge of clinical disorders and need special help, including the intervention of a neuropsychiatrist. For 5.5% of students, we can rather talk about situational personal reactions than about stable personality deviations. Analysis of the structures of completed observation cards showed that a typical structure is one in which a dominant symptom complex is identified, sometimes a group of symptom complexes. The following frequencies of distribution of dominant symptom complexes have been identified:

V. BB– hostility towards adults – 34.4%,

VII. A– lack of social normativity (asociality) – 22.2%,

III. U – withdrawal into oneself – 12.5%,

II. D – depression – 11.1%,

VIII. VD– hostility towards children – 11.1%,

I.ND – distrust of new people, things, situations – 8.3%.

Thus, observation techniques can be used both in psychological and pedagogical research and in the practical activities of psychologists educational institutions. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for a teacher, as it allows him to better understand his students.

Questions for section 2:

1. Highlight the main characteristics of observation as a method of psychological research.

2. What does the observation technique consist of?

3. What phenomena act as the subject and object of observation?

4. In what ways can you minimize the influence of the presence of an observer on the behavior of those being observed?

5. Describe the main types of observation.

6. What methods are there to obtain a quantitative assessment of the observed phenomena?

7. What methods of verbal recording of behavior were proposed to be distinguished by M.Ya. Basov?

8. What are the forms for recording non-standardized and standardized observations?

9. For what purposes can R. Bales’ observation technique be used?

10. What methods for diagnosing the development of infants and young children are based on the observation method?

11. What techniques based on the observation method can be used to analyze pedagogical communication?

1. Anastasi A. Psychological testing. T. 1, 2. M., 1982.

2. Basov M.Ya. Selected psychological works. M., 1975.

3. Age and individual characteristics of younger adolescents / ed. D.B. Elkonina, T.V. Dragunova. M., 1967.

4. Lashley D. Work with young children. M., 1991.

5. Nikandrov V.V. Observation and experiment in psychology. St. Petersburg, 2001.

6. General workshop in psychology. Observation method. Part 1 / Ed. M.B. Mikhalevskaya. M., 1985.

7. Psychological diagnostics: Problems and research / ed. K.M. Gurevich. M., 1981.

8. Psychological tasks for pedagogical practice students. / Ed. A.E. Steinmetz, M., 2002.

9. Workbook of a school psychologist / ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1991.

10. Regush L.A. Observation in practical psychology. St. Petersburg, 1996.

11. Regush L.A. Workshop on observation and observation skills. St. Petersburg, 2001.

12. Chirkova T.I. Psychological service V kindergarten. M., 2000.