Indirect question in Latin. Conditional clauses for the Latin language. Comparative clauses

Latin Grammar Exam Answers

1. The main functions of the ablative

A) Ablativus auctoris– Ablativecurrentfaces.

Ablativus auctoris essentially goes back to the ablative proper, since it denotes the transition of an action from subject to object in a passive turnover:

Ventus prosper a nautis desideratur. Passingwindexpectedsailors.

Servus a domino suo venditur. Slavefor saletheirmister.

Castra vallo fossaque muniebantur. The camp was fortified with a rampart and a moat.

B) Ablativus separation is– ablativebranches

In Latin ablativus, the functions of three cases were combined: “the actual ablative, i.e., separative, instrumental (instrumentalis) and local (locativus). Actually ablative has different types.

Ablativus separationis means a person or object from which something or someone is separated, removed: Magnomemetuliberabis. "You will deliver me from great fear";causedesistere "withdraw the claim".

IN) Ablativus originis– ablativeorigin.

Ablativus originis denotes the person from whom someone is descended: VenusIovenataestetDiona. "Venus was born from Jupiter and Dione."

G) Ablativus materiae– ablativematerial.

An ablative can denote a material, a substance from which something is made: navis ex tabulis fabricator. "The ship is made of boards"

D) Ablativus instrumenti– ablativeguns.

In the instrumental function, ablativus is close to the Russian instrumental and usually answers the questions: by whom? how? Ablativus instrumenti denotes a tool or means by which this or that action is performed: Cornibustaurisetutantur

"Bulls protect themselves with horns";memorytenere "remember", lit.: "keep memory".

E) Ablativus cases– ablativecauses.

Ablativus causae expresses the cause of an action or state: casu "accidentally", iussu "by order". duxVictoria superbuserat. The leader was proud of the victory.

Yo) Ablativus limitationsis– ablativerestrictions(relationship).

Ablativus limitationis indicates in what respect or from what point of view a given action or state is limited: Poeta Graecorum Aesopus nomine. "A certain Greek poet named Aesop." Galliomneslinguaintersediffernt. "All Gauls differ from each other in language."

Note: occasionally there is accusativus limitationis, which is otherwise called Graecus, since it is organically inherent in Greek syntax: alba capillos femina "a woman with blond hair" (lit.: "a woman is fair in relation to her hair")

AND) Ablativus loci used in unprepositional combinations with words: locus, i m "place", pars, partis f "part", totus, a, um "whole", for example: Hosteslocoidoneoscary. "Enemies fight in a convenient place."Dextraparte "on the right side",totaAsia"throughout Asia".N.B. :terra marique "on land and sea".

Designation of cities

To the question where? in the singular of 1-2 declensions genetivus is used, in other cases - ablativus: Romae "in Rome", Corinthi "in Corinth", Athenis "in Athens", Carthagine "in Carthage".

To the question where? – accusativus: Romam “to Rome”, Corinthum “to Corinth”, Athenas “to Athens”, Carthaginem “to Carthage”.

When asked where? – ablativus : Roma “from Rome”, Corintho “from Corinth”, Athenis “from Athens”, Carthagine “from Carthage”.

Note: the same construction is observed in the words: domus, us f (house); rus, ruris n (village); humus, i f (earth).

Z) Ablativus comparationis - ablativecomparisons.

With a comparative degree, in the case of missing the union quam "than" in Latin, the ablative comparison is used Ablativus comparationis. In Russian, in the non-union construction, the genitive case is used:

Quidveritatisdulciushabemus? “What is more pleasant for us than the truth?”

Quid dulcius, quam veritas habemus?"What's nicer than the truth?"

AND) Ablativus mensurae– ablativemeasures.

The ablative measure is used with the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, as well as with words containing a shade of comparison (superare, ante, supra, etc.): multo maior “much more”, quo - eo “than - by that”, quarto - tanto "as much as", nihilo minus "nevertheless". Hibernia dimidio minor est, quam Britania. "Hibernia (Ireland) is half the size of Britain."

2. Accusativus cum infinitivo.

Romani vincunt. "The Romans are winning."

DicoRomanosvincere. "I say the Romans are winning."

The turnover Accusativus cum infinitivo is a compound direct object, within which the logical subject is expressed through accusativus, and the predicate through infinitivus.

Accusativus cum infinitivo is translated into Russian with an additional sentence. Turnover is used depending on the verbs expressing:

sensory perception (verba sentiendi): sentire "feel", videre "see", audire "hear", etc.;

thinking(verba putandi): putare "think", censere, arbitrari "count", scire "know", etc.;

wish(verba voluntatis): cupere "strongly want", velle "wish", iubere "order", vetare "forbid", etc.

emotions(verba affectuum): gaudere "to rejoice", dolere "to be sad", mirari "to be surprised", etc.

expression of thoughts(verba declarandi): dicere "to speak", tradere "to transmit", scribere "to write", and also depending on impersonal expressions: constat, notum est "known", oportet "necessary", necesse est "necessary", iustum est " fair”, etc.

Note: Sentiendi and other -ndi terms are the verbal noun of the gerund in the genitive singular.

Accusativus cum infinitivo, mainly with verba sentiendi, is also used in new languages. So, the Latin phrase video arborem florere "I see that the trees are blooming" corresponds in English: I see the three blossen. In the Old Slavonic language, accusativus cum infinitivo was encountered as a tracing of the Greek-Latin turnover in the translation of sacred scripture (for example: Whom do men say to be). From here, with other Slavicisms, he penetrated into the language of writers of the 18th century, for example: My soul longs for you (Derzhavin. God).

3. Nominativus cum infinitivo.

Nominative case with indefinite form

Most of the verbs that require the turnover accusativus cum infinitivo in the active voice, in the passive voice are combined with the turnover nominativus cum infinitivo and, moreover, in a personal construction: the infinitive has a subject in the nominative case, with which the controlling verb in the passive voice agrees in person and number. This turnover is a constituent subject: Romanivinceredicuntur. "They say the Romans are winning."

A sentence with a turnover nominativus cum infinitivo is translated into Russian by an indefinitely personal control sentence and an additional subordinate clause depending on it.

A similar turnover is found in English, for example: He is said to live in the country. "They say he lives in this country."

It is convenient to translate the verb videre in the passive voice with the words “it seems”, “apparently”, etc.: intellegere videris “it seems you understand”.

1. Ablativus absolutus -ablative self .

The combination of a noun with the agreed participle Troia capta "Troy taken" in ablativus (Troia capta) takes on the meaning of circumstances:

time: when Troy was taken (Greeks returned home)

causes: since Troy was taken (the Trojans began to look for a new fatherland)

conditions: in case Troy is taken (the Greeks had to make thanksgiving sacrifices to the gods)

concessions: although Troy was taken (the glory of Priam remained eternal)

course of action: the capture of Troy (the Greeks established their position in Asia Minor).

In such a function, the combination of an agreed participle with another name is called ablativus absolutus.

Ablativusabsolutus- this is a participial turnover that is grammatically independent of any member of the sentence, standing in ablativus and having the meaning of circumstances of time, reason, concession, condition, mode of action. This turnover is translated into Russian by the corresponding adverbial clauses, nouns with prepositions and sometimes participles.

Participium praesentis activi means simultaneous action : Graeci advenientibus Persis Thermopylas ceperunt."The Greeks, when (= while) the Persians were approaching (= at the approach of the Persians), occupied Thermopylae."

Participium perfecti passivi denotes the preceding action: Tarquinio Superbo expluso duo consules creati sunt. "When (after) Tarquinius the Proud had been expelled (after the expulsion of Tarquinius the Proud), two consuls were elected."

In ancient Greek there was genetivus absolutus, in Old Russian and Old Slavonic - a dative independent. Lomonosov, for example, has the following turnover: "I was at sea, a great storm arose." There are separate participial phrases in French, German, English. There are no absolute participial constructions in the modern Russian literary language. They are found in folk speech (for example: Beans are not mushrooms, without sowing, they will not sprout), as well as in the language of individual writers: “Having left Vyatka, I was tormented by a memory for a long time” (Herzen), “Having smoked, a conversation began between the soldiers” ( L. Tolstoy). An independent adverbial turnover is occasionally used in impersonal expressions, for example: Talking about this, I want to remind ...

Let's compare two sentences: Troia capta Aeneas in Italiam venit. "When Troy was taken, Aeneas arrived in Italy." Troia capta Graecidomos reverterunt. "Having taken Troy, the Greeks returned home."

It becomes clear that ablativus absolutus can be translated as a participle only when the logical actor in both parts of the sentence is the same (the Greeks took Troy and the Greeks returned home).

Since the present and past participles of the verb esse do not exist, there is an incomplete ablativus absolutus, consisting of a logical subject and a nominal part of the predicate. The latter are usually nouns: adiutor "assistant", dux "leader", testis "witness", praetor "praetor", auctor "doer, adviser", iudex "judge", consul "consul", senex "old man", and others and adjectives: vivus “alive”, “healthy”, invitus “reluctant, against will”, conscius “knowing”, inscius “unknowing”, etc.: Natus est Augustus Cicerone et Antonio consulibus. "Augustus was born in the consulship of Cicero and Antony."

5. Genetivussubjectivusetobjectivus– Genitive logical subject and object.

The expression timor populi can mean "fear of the people" (i.e., the people are afraid) and "fear of the people" (i.e., someone is afraid of the people). Therefore, with a verbal or verbal noun, the genitive case can be a logical subject (subjectivus) or a logical object (objectivus).

Genetivus objectivus is used with verbs with the meaning: "remember", "remind", "forget", depending on adjectives with the meaning: desiring, knowing, remembering, participating, possessing, complete. For example: cupidus gloriae "hungry for fame."

In essence, genetivus criminis goes back to genetivus objectivus - a genitive accusation used to denote an offense or punishment: accusare proditionis "accused of treason", capitis damnare "sentence to death"

6. Gerund. The use of the gerund.

Infinitivus, acting as a subject or object, can be seen as a neuter verbal noun: legere necesse est "to read is necessary" = "reading is necessary".

If Infinitivus is conditionally considered a form of the nominative case, then the missing forms of the indirect cases of the infinitive are filled in by the verbal noun gerund (gerundium), which is formed by adding the suffix –nd to the stem of the infect - nd - in conjugations 1 and 2 and -end - in 3 and 4 conjugations and declined according to 2 declension only in the singular.

The gerund is translated into Russian by an indefinite form of the verb, a verbal noun, and a participle. The English gerund can be compared with the Latin gerund.

Gerund - from gerere to act.

acc. legere

Abl. legendo reading - reading

For example, ars legendi "the art of reading", operam do legendo "I make an effort to read", legendo memoriam exerceo "by reading (reading) I exercise memory".

Genetivus gerund is used in the sense of genetivus objectivus and depending on the prepositions gratia and causa "for", "for the sake of". The dativus gerund denotes a target (dativus finalis) and is rarely used.

In Accusativus, the gerund is used with the preposition ad. Ablativus gerund performs an instrumental function, and is also used with the prepositions ab, ex, de, in.

The gerund retains verbal properties: it is determined by the adverb and retains the verb control. For example: ars bene faciendi versus (acc.) "the art of writing poetry well."

7. Gerundivum -gerund.

The gerundive is a verbal adjective denoting the action being tested or the need for this action, formed by adding the suffixes –nd - in 1 and 2 conjugations and –end - in 3 and 4 conjugations to the base of the infect and is declined by 1-2 declensions.

1 monstra -nd -us,a,um that, that, that, who needs to be shown

2 mone -nd -us, a, um that, that, that, who needs to be convinced

3 teg -end -us ,a ,um that, that, that who needs to be covered

4 audi -end -us ,a ,um that one, that one, that one who needs to be listened to

liber legendus "a book to be read"; epistula legenda "letter to be read"; rescriptum legendum "prescription to be read."

From the Latin gerund forms come the words in modern languages: legend, dividends, propaganda, memorandum, referendum, etc.

Constructions with a gerund.

With an impersonal construction, i.e. in the absence of a subject, the gerund, being the nominal part of the predicate, is used in the form of the neuter singular and does not agree with any word. The name of the character, both in this construction and in other constructions with a gerund, is used in the dative case - dativus auctoris: mihi legendum est "I need to read."

With a personal construction, the gerund, being the nominal part of the predicate, agrees with the subject in gender, number and case. This construction is usually called the descriptive conjugation of the passive voice - conjugatio periphrastica passiva: liber mihi legendus est “I need to read a book” (the book must be read by me); libri mihi legendi erant "I needed to read books."

The gerund as an agreed definition, especially in oblique cases, is equal in meaning to the gerund and is translated into Russian with an indefinite form of the verb, a verbal noun and a gerund: cupiditas libri legendi “the desire to read a book” (literally translated, it would be nonsense: “the desire for a book that should be read"); operam do libro legendo "I am making an effort to read a book"; paratus sum ad librum legendum "I am ready to read a book"; libro legendo memoriam exerceo "I exercise my memory by reading a book."

When reading a Latin text, it is easy to confuse the gerund with the gerund, as they are formed and declined in the same way. It is important to remember that the gerund is only in the form of a noun of the middle gender singular of the 2nd declension and cannot be consistent with another part of speech.

8. Functions of the subjunctive in an independent clause.

While the indicative mood indicativus serves to ascertain, express a fact (indicare - to show), the subjunctive mood expresses the relation of action to real implementation, that is, modality.

In the Latin conjunctiva, two Indo-European moods historically merged: the subjunctive proper and the optative (the so-called optative that existed in ancient Greek).

In classical Latin, conjunctivus expresses: desire, possibility, unreality in a variety of shades. Negation in conjunctive forms ne.

I. a) Conjunctivus optativus expresses the desire: Utinam pater veniat! "Oh, if only my father would come!"

b) Conjunctivus iussivus expresses the command: Audiatur et altera pars. Let the other side be heard.

c) Conjunctivus hortativus expresses a call to action: Gaudeamus igitur! So let's rejoice!

d) Conjunctivus prohibitivus expresses the prohibition: ne dicas! do not speak!

II a) Conjunctivus potentalis expresses the possibility: dicam "I would say", "I could say"

b) Conjunctivus dubitativus expresses doubt: quid agam? what should I do?

c) Conjunctivus concessivus expresses a concession, an assumption: sit hoc verum "let's (suppose) that this is true."

III Conjunctivus irrealis expresses unreality, a contradiction of reality and is practically used only in conditional periods.

Since the Russian language does not have a developed subjunctive mood system, when translating Latin conjunctive forms, one has to use not only the particle by-, but also the words let(especially in the 3rd person), let's be, a particle -ka (especially in the 1st person plural), as well as an imperative form (in the 2nd person).

In dependent clauses, Conjunctivus is used to express a subordinating relationship (subjunctivus)

1. Suggestions of purpose and additions

In Latin, there is a strict dependence of the form of the predicate subordinate clause on the form of the predicate control clause.

The tenses of the control sentence are divided into two groups: main tenses: praesens, futurum 1 and futurum 2; historical, that is, past tenses: imperfectum, perfectum, plusquamperfectum.

Historical times are : praesens historicum, perfectum praesens, infinitivus historicus.

As in Russian, Latin target and additional sentences have the same conjunctions: ut "to", ne "not to".

Unions of the goal are called finale, unions of the complement - objectivum.

Sentences with ut (ne) finale are used with any verb denoting a purposeful action. Sentences with ut (ne) objectivum are used depending on verbs expressing desire and will (verba studii et voluntatis), care (verba curandi), fear (verba timendi), obstruction (verba impediendi).

In sentences with ut (ne) finale and objectivum, conjunctivus is used.

In Russian, an additional-target union to includes the union itself What and a particle of the subjunctive mood would.

If the predicate of the control sentence is used in the main tense, then praesens is used in the subordinate clause: Do , (praes.Ind.),utdes(praes.Conjunct.). I give so that you give meutfinale).

If the predicate of the control sentence is used in historical time, then imperfectum is used in the subordinate clause: Omnes cives optaverunt (perf. Ind), ut pax esset (imperf. Conjunct.). All citizens wished for peace (ut objectivum)

With verba timendi, the union ne indicates an undesirable fact, and the conjunction ut (or ne non) indicates a desirable fact: TimorRomaegrandisfuit,neiterumGalliRomamVenirent. In Rome there was great fear that the Gauls would not go to Rome again.timeo,nePaternonveniat, orutPaterVeniat. I am afraid that the father will not come (that is, the arrival of the father is desirable).

With verba impediendi, in addition to the union ne, the conjunction quominus is used: Plura ne scribam, dolore impedior. Sorrow prevents me from writing more. Quidobstat ,quominussitbeatus? What prevents him from being happy?

There are other conjunctions of the complement: quod "what", "to" with indicativus and quin with conjunctivus depending on negative expressions (mainly from expressions of no doubt)

1. subordinate clauses withut andquodexplicative.

Subject clauses with the unions ut and quod explicativum (explanatory) are used depending on the expressions: accidit, evenit “happens”, mos est “there is a custom”, etc., and the union quod is used if the indicated expressions contain a definition or adverbial word (bene est, bonus mos est). With the union ut, conjunctivus is used, and the time is what it would be if this sentence were independent. The rule of consecutio temporum does not really apply here. When quod is used indication: His rebus fiebat, ut Helvetii minus late vagerentur (imperf. Conjunct .). “Due to these circumstances, it turned out that the Helvetians roamed in a small space”. In an independent sentence it would be: "The Helvetians roamed in a small area", Optimeaccidit ,quodamicusmeusvenit. It turned out great that my friend came.

1. Adverbial clauses of the corollary.

The subordinate clauses of the consequence are attached to the control clause with the union ut consecutivum (investigative) "so", "what", "to". Negative - non.

The control sentence often contains demonstrative words: ita, sic "so"; adeo "before"; tantus, talis "such"; tam "so much", etc.

In the sentences of the consequence, as in the sentences of the subjects, conjunctivus is used, and the time is what it would be if this sentence were independent. Consecutio temporum is used restrictively: after historical times imperfectum conjunctivi is used. For example , Atticus ita vivebat, ut omnes eum amarent (imperf. Indicat ). "Atticus lived in such a way that everyone loved him." An independent proposal would be:omnesAtticumamabant (imperf. Indication.) "Everyone loved Attica".

12. Union usecum (=quum)

1 cum temporale (subordinate temporary)

It is used in a narrative about the present or future tense, it can also be used in the past, but the specificity limits.

The subordinate clause is long, the main thing is one thing against the background of a long one.

CumTiberiumregnabat, magnusmotusterraefit- when Tiberius ruled, there was a big earthquake.

Requires indicative mood.

Special case.

A) iterativum(repeated action)

... whenever ...

After him the choice indicator carried out according to a specific rule, which is somewhat similar to consecutiotemporum. In particular, you can use perf. after the main times, Plusqperf. after historical.

pqmp can be translated into Russian in the future tense.

Galli cum superaverunt (perf), animalia capta immolant/ The Gauls, when they are victorious, sacrifice the captured animals.

2 Cum historicum

After cum put conjunctiv.

3 Cum case ( adventitious reasons )

Marcus, cum aeger esset, in scholam non venit. Mark, because he was sick, did not go to school.

+quod(but after indication)

4 Cum concessivum (concessions)

Although, in spite of the fact that

Official version:

Temporary Offers

The most common conjunction of tense in Latin cum(in some editions of Latin texts quum) "When".

In a story about past events, the union is used cumhistoricum. Imperfectumconiunctivi expresses simultaneous action, and pqmpconiunctivi- previous: CumessemBrundisi, letterstuasaccepi. "When (while) I was in Brundisi, I received your letter"; Graeci, cumTroyamexpugnavissent, omnesfereincolasnecaverunt. "When (after) the Greeks conquered Troy, they killed almost all the inhabitants."

In offers with cumhistoricum usually there is an internal logical connection, so it is used Conjunctivus.

In purely temporary sentences without an internal logical connection with control sentences, the union is used cumtemporale With indication relevant tenses: CumTiberiusregnabat, magnusterraemotusfit. “When Tiberius ruled, there was a great earthquake” (naturally, there is no logical connection between the reign of Tiberius and the earthquake).

Note: Union cum With indication applies to other types of temporary proposals.

A) Cumiterativum denotes a repetitive action: Galli, cumsuperaverunt, animaliacaptaimmolant. "Whenever the Gauls are victorious, they sacrifice the animals they have taken."

B) Cumcoincidences(matching) or explicative(explanatory) is used when the subordinate clause explains the meaning of the control clause that coincides in time: Dete, Catilina, cumtacent, clamant. "About you, Catiline, when (those that) are silent, they shout."

C) If the sentence of time is only formally subordinate, containing main idea, union applies cuminversum(reverse): vixdumepistulamtuamlegeram, cumadmePostumusCurtiusVenit. "I had hardly read your letter when Postumus Curtius came to me."

There are other unions of time: postquam"after"; ut, ubiprime, simulation"as soon as" indication; dum, donec, quoad"Bye"; prisquam And antequam"before" with Conjunctivus, if the desired, possible, supposed action is expressed.

Causal Suggestions

Union cum in addition to temporary sentences, he can attach caused ones; in that case it is called cumcausal(causal and is translated “because, because.” With this union, Conjunctivus, and times - depending on the time of the predicate in the control sentence and the ratio of the actions of both sentences.

Cum aeger essem, ad te non veni."Because I was sick, I didn't come to you." Imperfectumconiunctivi expresses an action that is simultaneous with another action ( nonveni) in past.

Other alliances reasons: quod, Quia, quoniam"because", "because" are used with coniunctivus in the case when the reason is given not as something real, but as something supposed or subjectively expressed (“since”, “according to him”, “since, de ...”): noctuamulabatThemistocles, quodsomnumcaperenonposset; "Themistocles walked at night, because (according to him) he could not sleep."

Concession offers.

Union cum may also attach concessive offers; in that case it is called cumconcessivum(concessive) and is translated “although”, “despite”.

This union uses coniunctivus, and times - according to the rules by which cumcausal. Phocionfitperpetuopauper, cumditissimusessayposset. "Phocyon was constantly poor, although he could be very rich."

WITH coniunctivus other concessive unions are combined: ut, licet, quamvis; etsi, tametsi, etiamsi; union quamquam usually requires indicator.

In terms of meaning, subordinate clauses are close to concessive sentences, in content they are contrasting to the control sentence. They use union cumadversativum("opposite") - "whereas". The subjunctive tenses are applied according to the rule consecutiotemporum: Nostrorumequitumeratquinquemiliumnumberus, cumhostessesnonampliusoctingentosequityhaberent"The number of our horsemen was five thousand, while the enemies had no more than eight hundred horsemen."

13. Definitive clauses with adverbial connotations.

Definitive sentences with relative pronouns qui, quae, quod“which, -th, -th” can include shades of various circumstances: goals, consequences, causes, concessions, conditions. Therefore, in such attributive sentences, coniunctivus, and the times are general rules corresponding adverbial clauses.

target shade : Dux legatos misit, qui (ut ii) pacem peterent.“The leader sent envoys who would ask for peace (so that they ...)

connotation of consequence : Exegi monumentum, quod (ut id) Aquilo diruere non possit.“I erected a monument that Aquilon cannot destroy (such a monument that it)

shade of reason : O, magna vis veritatis, quae (cum ea) facile se per se ipsa defendat.“O great power of truth, which easily defends itself (since it)

shade of concession : Pompeii milites exercitui Caesaris luxuriam obiciebant, cui (cum ei) simper omnia ad necessarium usum defuissent.“The soldiers of Pompey reproached Caesar’s army for luxury, which always lacked all the essentials (although he always had)

hue conditions : Qui (si quis) videret, urbem captam diceret.“Whoever saw, he would say that the city was taken (if anyone saw)

14. consecutio temporum– Time Sequence Rule

The form of the predicate subordinate clause depends, firstly, on the form of the predicate control clause and, secondly, on the ratio of the actions of both sentences.

If in the control sentence the predicate is used in one of the main tenses ( praesens, futurum 1, futurum 2), then in the subordinate clause the simultaneous action expresses praesensconiunctivi, previous - Participumfuturiactivi of this verb in combination with praesensconiunctivi auxiliary verb essay.

If in the control sentence the predicate is used in one of the historical, that is, past tenses ( imperfectum, perfectum, pqmp), then in the subordinate clause the simultaneous action expresses imperfectumconiunctivi, previous - pqmpconiunctivi, and the upcoming Participumfuturiactivi given verb essay

Completely rule consecutiotemporum It is used in an indirect question and in indirect speech, and partially in other types of subordinate clauses.

Thus, in target and additional sentences, the action is thought to be logically simultaneous, therefore the choice of the tense of the predicate in the subordinate clause depends entirely on the form of the predicate in the control clause.

Cumhistoricum is always used with the historical tense of the predicate in the control clause, so the choice of the tense of the predicate in the subordinate clause depends on the simultaneity or precedence of the action.

Quaestioobliqua is an indirect question.

An indirect question is an additional subordinate clause that begins with interrogative pronouns, adverbs, and particles. In an indirect question, the rule of succession of times applies in full:

I ask what you read, read, read

( ask ) ( read ) ( you will read )

Interrogo, quid legas, legeris, lecturus sis

(Interrogabo) (praes. coni) (perf. coni)

I asked what you read, read, read

Interrogavi, quid legeres legisses lecturus esses

interrogabam

Particles are used in double and multiple indirect questions: utrum"or", ne – an"whether or". For example: Quaero, utrumhocverum, anfalsesit. "I'm asking if this is true or false."

The full rule of the sequence of tenses is also applied in additional clauses with a union quin"what" when the control clause expresses the absence of doubt: Nondubito, quinintellegas, intellegeris etc. "I have no doubt that you understand, understood, etc."

15. indirect speech andattractio modi

attractionmodi– attraction inclination

Above we spoke about the subjective, subordinating function of the Latin coniunctivus. It is this function that coniunctivus in subordinate clauses depending on infinitive constructions or on another sentence whose predicate is used in coniunctivus. Such a use case coniunctivus called attractiomodi: Ditibident (praes. Coniunct.) quaecumqueoptes (praes. Coniunct). "May the gods send you whatever you desire." Mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos, qui sint in proeliis interfecti."It is the custom in Athens to glorify in the public assembly those who have been killed in battle."

oratiooliqua- indirect speech

Indirect speech in Latin presents certain difficulties for understanding and translation:

Narrative control sentences in indirect speech are transmitted through accusativuscuminfinitivo

Control sentences are interrogative, imperative, and also containing coniunctivus in its optative function have a predicate in coniunctivus.

By virtue of attractiomodi in subordinate clauses, the predicate is always placed in coniunctivus.

Time coniunctivus are used according to consecutiotemporum in accordance with the tense of the control verb, on which all indirect speech depends.

The pronoun of the 3rd person, replacing the pronoun of the 1st person of direct speech, is expressed in oblique cases by the reflexive ( suit, sibi, se), and in nominativus– through ipse, the possessive pronoun of the 1st person becomes reflexive ( suus)

The pronoun of the 3rd person, replacing the pronoun of the 2nd person of direct speech, is expressed by is or ille.

Indirect speech may depend not only on verbadeclarandi, but also from verbasentiendi, putandi, voluntatis.

16. Conditional periods (long heaped sentences when nothing is clear)

The period is the main and subordinate.

What is introduced by the union + subordinate clause.

If - si And nisi- if not

Casusrealis- conditional periods of a real form (realistically translate). The reality of the condition is not evaluated by the speaker. Used indicator all times and peoples.

Siiddicis, eras

Casuspotentialis- possible form (it is possible to translate)

The conditions and the result were thought possible, mainly in the future.

Or praes. coniunct, or Perf. coni. The difference is only visual.

Siiddicas, eras If you say that, then you are wrong.

Casusirrealis(both condition and result are impossible)

coniimperf/pqmp

Prot, to that, / prot to that,

What is what was

Si id diceres, errares

If you said that, you would be wrong

Conditional clauses

Conditional clauses contain a condition necessary for the action in the main clause to take place (or not take place). In Latin, conditional clauses are introduced using conjunctions si if, if, nisi (ni) if not, if not(when the entire condition is negated, i.e. the entire conditional sentence is given a negative value Nunquam... temre tinnit tintinnabmlum: nisi qui illud tractat aut movet, mutum est, tacet(Plautus). - Never... the bell does not ring without a reason: if someone does not touch or shake(lit. does not move) him, he is dumb, (He) is silent. [On the use of pronouns nisi, see the lecture]:

Plur-bus verbis ad te scribrem, si res verb desiderret ac non pro se ipsa loquertur(Cicro).- I would write to you more verbosely(lit. in big words), if the deed required words and did not speak for itself.

Unlike the sentences we studied earlier that contain a subordinate clause, conditional clauses are considered as a whole with the main clause. The subordinate clause of a condition in conjunction with the main clause is called conditional period.

The choice of tense and mood of the verb-predicate is determined by whether the actions are in the main clause and its condition in the subordinate clause:

• real
• possible
• impossible

Depending on this, three types of conditional periods are distinguished:

• real(casus relis - "real case"). In the conditional period of this type, the actions of both the main and the subordinate clause are thought of as real, actually taking place in the past, taking place in the present or coming in the future. Verbs-predicates of the main and subordinate clauses are put in the forms of the indicative mood in praesens, perfectum, imperfectum, futurum I:

Si interrOgas, respondeo(praes.) - If you ask, I answer.

Si interrogbas, respondbam(imperf.) - If you asked, I answered.

Si interrogav+sti, respondi(perf.) - If you asked, I answered.

Si interrogbis, respondbo(ft. I) - If you ask(ask) I will answer(I will answer).

• possible or potential(casus potentilis). In conditional sentences of this type, the actions of the main and subordinate parts are possible, but optional, i.e. may or may not happen in the future. In both parts, the predicates are used in the form praesens conjunct + vi or (less often) perfectum conjunct + vi:

Si interrogas, respondeam(praes.conj.) Si interrogavris, respondris(perf.conj.) - If you ask me, I will answer; or: If you asked me I would answer(but you may or may not ask).

• unreal(casus irrelis). The actions of the main and subordinate parts are obviously impossible. In such sentences, the action refers either to the present or to the past (it makes no sense to assume a condition that is obviously impossible in the future):
• if in a sentence the main and subordinate parts denote actions that are impossible in the present, then imperfectum conjunct + vi is used in both parts: Si interrogres, respondrem. - If you <сейчас> asked, I would answer(but you don't ask me and I don't answer);
• if in sentences the main and subordinate parts denote actions that were impossible (and did not take place) in the past, then plusquamperfectum conjunct + vi is used in both parts: Siinterrogavisses, respondissem. - If you<раньше>asked me, I would answer(but you didn't ask and I didn't answer).

It is possible to use mixed conditional periods, i.e. those in which the main part has one form, and the subordinate part has another. For example, a combination of the main clause of the real form and the subordinate clause of the possible form is common: Memoria minuitur(praes. ind.), nisi eam exerceas(praes.conj.) - Memory weakens(real action) if you don't develop it(but in the future you can develop it - a possible, but not mandatory action).

Comparative clauses

Conditional comparative clauses have the meaning of mental comparison, i.e. a certain fact is compared not with a real event or phenomenon, but with an imaginary one; cf. In russian language: He sped away faster than the wind, as if all nine<всадников>were chasing him(in fact, no one was chasing him).

Conditional comparative sentences are introduced by unions quasi, ut si, velut si, tamquam (si) with meaning as if, as if. In the main sentence, the words are often used ita, sic so, simil-ter like etc. The predicate of conditionally comparative sentences has the form of a subjunctive.

Sentences with a conditionally comparative clause can be classified as a potential or unreal kind of conditional periods; the tense of verbs-predicates depends on this:

Non debmus ita cadre an-mis, quasi aliquid evenrit, quod firi posse nunquam putarimus(Cicro). - We should not be so discouraged as if something had happened<такое>which we thought could never happen. - mixed view: in the main clause the action is real, in the subordinate clause - possible;

Alacres et laeti inter se impii cives, quasi vicissent, gratulabntur(Cicro). - Cheerful and cheerful, the wicked citizens congratulated each other as if they had won. - mixed view: the event of the main sentence took place in reality; the event of the subordinate clause did not actually occur, the predicate is in plusquamperfectum conjunctivi, this is casus irrealis.

Relative clauses conditionally desirable

Conditional-desirable subordinate clauses have the meaning of a condition that is desirable for the performance of an action. In Latin, subordinate clauses with this meaning are joined by conjunctions dum, dummodo - if only, if only. Negation in sentences of this type - ne. The tenses of the predicate of the subordinate clause are determined by the rule consecutio tempOrum: Dummodo sit dives, barbarum ipse placet(Ovidius) (poetic line). - He himself (= even) likes the savage - if only he was rich(after the main tense in the main clause, the predicate of the subordinate clause has the form praesens conjunct + vi).

However, if the condition of the subordinate part is obviously unfulfillable in the present tense or was unfulfillable in the past (as in the unreal form of conditional periods), then the forms imperfectum conjunct + vi and plusquamperfectum conjunct + vi are used in the subordinate clause, respectively (even if the predicate of the main clause has the form of the main tense ).

Noun formation

The main way to form nouns in Latin is to add suffixes to the stems of adjectives, verbs, etc., i.e. various parts of speech. The formation of nouns with the help of prefixes is somewhat less common (prefixes and examples of the prefix formation of nouns see Lecture II).

Suffixes (as well as prefixes), with the help of which nouns are formed, each carry a specific meaning, which they convey to the resulting words. The meaning of a noun is also influenced by the general meaning of the part of speech from which it is derived; so, from adjectives (part of speech that has the meaning of quality: what? red) nouns with the meaning of quality are formed.

For the convenience of memorization, we will consider not the suffixes themselves, but the final elements of words, including the suffix, the ending, and sometimes part of the stem - the so-called derivational formants.

formant n. from miser, ra, rum miserable)-itiafadj.avar-itia,ae f greed ( from avrus, a, um greedy)-tkra

Skraf verb (the basis of supine) the result of the action of pingo, pinxi, pictum, ere draw a pictkra, ae f picture ( supin base a pict-)

censeo, ui, censum, re evaluate, decide a censkra, ae f censorship ( soup base cens-) II declension-iumn verb (the basis of the infection) action studeo, studui, -, try, engage in a studium, ii n effort, occupation-mentumn verb (the basis of the infection) tool, means, result of the action instruo, xi, ctum, re arrange a instumentum, i n tool, tool-bmlum

Trumn verb (stem of infection) instrument of action, place of action sto, stti, sttum, stre DFoy a stabulum, i n stall

aro plow a aratrum, i n plow-ariumn n. receptacle, storage aes, aeris n copper a aerarium, ii n treasury-ariusmc n. profession, occupation argentum, i n silver a argentarius, ii m changed nouns by adding suffixes:

Ll-II fold: m:-l-

Ll-which are joined by the endings of I-II declensions:

puella, ae f girl, girl -> puell-ml-a, ae f girl, girly

sol, solis m sun -> soli-cml-us, i m sun

granum, i n grain -> gran-ml-um, i n grain

Notes on the table

• A number of words with formants -tkra, -skra borrowed into modern European languages, incl. and in Russian: culture, dictatorship, recipe and so on. The new languages ​​also included:
• words on -mentum (

There is no strict word order in a Latin sentence. However, it often has the following word order in simple sentence: the subject is in the first place, the predicate agreed with it in person and number is in the last place, between the subject and the predicate there are secondary members of the sentence (additions, definitions, circumstances), and the definition, unlike the Russian language, comes after the word being defined.

Medicus veterinarius animal aegrōtum curat.

Medicus - doctor - subject, comes first;

cure - heals - predicate, is in last place;

veterinary - veterinary - agreed definition to the subject, stands after the word being defined (medicus);

animal - animal - direct object;

aeggotum - sick - agreed definition to addendum, stands after the word being defined (anĭmal).

Translation : A veterinarian treats a sick animal.

EXERCISES

1. Add the endings of the active voice ( where necessary - with a connecting vowel):

Sample: recipi ... (I take) - recipi o.

Misce ... (he mixes), sign ... (I indicate), repet ... (they repeat), audi ... (he listens), recipi ... (you take), da ... (we give out), solv... (you dissolve), nutri... (they feed), divid... (you separate), vide... (I see).

2. Add the endings of the 3rd person singular and plural of the passive voice ( where needed with
connecting vowel):

Sample: solv ... (dissolves)-- solv i tur.

Repet ... (repeated), divid ... (divided), da ... (issued), misce ... (mixed), signa ... (marked), forma ... (formed), solv. .. (dissolve), sterilisa ... (to be sterilized).

3. Determine mood, person and number of verbs, translate:

1) signa; 2) solvmus; 3) date; 4) miscent; 5) repĕte; 6) divide; 7) addĭte; 8) vertitis; 9) dantur, 10) recipe; 11) nutri; 12) seet; 13) vale; 14) sterilisāmus; 15) receive.

4. Determine the grammatical form of the verbs and translate into Russian:

a) infinitivus; c) praesens indicativi activi;

b) imperative; d) praesens indicativi passivi;

e) praesens conjunctivi passivi;

1) date; 2) curare; 3) date, 4) repetite; 5) misceātur; 6) sterilĭso; 7) sanantur; 8) est; 9) nutrition; 10) colentur; 11) solve; 12) laborāmus; 13) sun; 14) recipitis; 15) auditory; 16) doces; 17) ausculta; 18) addātur.

datur, repetition; miscent; recĭpe; da; repetitive; misceātur, denture; signa; recpit; formentur; date; fiat; sterilisētur; miss.

6. Form the forms of 2 faces units. and many others. numbers of the imperative mood and forms of the 3rd person unit. and many others. numbers of the subjunctive mood of the passive voice from verbs:

coquere; praerarare; audire; miscere; legĕre, nutrīre; signare; videore.

7. Conjugate the verbs in the indicative mood of the present tense, active and passive voices, orally translate the received forms:

Scire (to know); docere (to teach); cure (treat); repetĕre (repeat).

8. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. In columna vertebralis animálium sunt: ​​vertebrae cervicáles, thoracáles, lumbáles, caudáles. 2. Ossa nasalia bestiarum rapacium magna et longa sunt. 3. Musculi bicipites et tricipites teres sunt. 4. Musculi abdóminis sunt: ​​musculus rectus abdóminis, musculus oblíquus externus abdóminis, musculus obliquus internus abdominis, musculus transversus abdominis. 5. In cavo abdominis multa viscera sunt 6. Régio abdominis in epigastrium, mesogastrium et hypogastrium divíditur. 7. In cavo thoracis pulmones sunt. 8. Vertebrae columnam vertebrárum formant. 9. Cor e tela musculosa constat. 10. In femore tubĕra sunt: ​​trochanter major et trochanter minor. 11. Costas veras et costas spurias distinguĭmus.

9. Read, if possible, translate:

1. Collega meus medicus est. 2. Magister nos laudat. 3. Laborate et docete laborare. 4. Vaccas in self pascunt. 5. Medici veterinary bene curant. 6. Solvite saccharum in aqua destillata! 7. Memoria tenete! 8. Plus vident oculi, quam oculus. 9. Collega meus medicus veterinarius est et bene curat. 10. Lupus bestia fera est. 11. Bestiae variae in silva habitant. 12. Quod legitis, monstrate! 13. Hic herbae variae crescent. 14. Nos studemus, vos cantatis. 15. Multi versus poetarum nostrórum in libris sunt. 16. Paratus es! 17. Defendite et amate pátriam vestram!

LATIN LANGUAGE

FOR LAWYERS

Starting course

Foreword

The educational and methodical manual on the Latin language is intended for students of higher educational institutions legal profile. Since ancient times, the Latin language has played a huge role in the education of the future lawyer. This is primarily due to the fact that Latin is the language of Roman law, which has become the basis of legal thinking and legal proceedings in modern European society.

The purpose of the manual is to give initial information about the specifics of the Latin language, to acquaint students with legal terminology and phraseology.

The structure of the classes involves familiarity with the phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of the language. Each lesson includes theoretical grammatical material, questions to test knowledge, exercises designed to consolidate the topic covered. The theoretical material is designed for the joint work of students and teachers. The implementation of practical tasks involves independent work of students.

The textbook lacks a lexical minimum for each lesson. This approach is due, on the one hand, to the quantitative unevenness of the lexical material corresponding to each topic. On the other hand, in legal Latin, the significant unit is not so much a single word as word combinations or phrases, which makes it difficult to link terms to one topic. Therefore, acquaintance with professional vocabulary should be included in the independent work of law students, which will help consolidate the skills of grammatical analysis. For this purpose, the textbook is supplied with brief dictionaries - Latin-Russian and Russian-Latin. To consolidate the vocabulary minimum, exemplary dictionary dictations of legal terms are offered.

Control over the assimilation of grammatical material is offered in the form independent work given in the appendix to the tutorial.

In addition, the textbook is equipped with applications containing winged words and aphorisms of legal subjects, texts for reading, summary grammar tables, questions for self-examination and topics for independent work and essays.

The author expresses his deep gratitude to the staff of the Department of the Russian Language and Culture of the Saratov state academy Law (Head of the Department Prof. N.Yu. Tyapugina), Associate Professor of the Department of Foreign Literature and Journalism of Saratov state university R.P. Vasilenko, Associate Professor of the Department of Russian and Classical Philology of the Saratov State Medical University O.N. Polukhina for valuable advice in the preparation of this manual.

Introduction

Latin (Lingua Latina) is one of the Indo-European languages ​​of the Italic group (which also included the Os and Umbrian languages). Its formation is attributed to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The original zone of the origin of the Latin language is a small region of Latium, or Latium (lat. Latium, modern It. Lazio) around Rome, but as the ancient Roman state expanded, the influence of the Latin language gradually spread to the entire territory of modern Italy, Southern France (Provence) and significant part of Spain, and by the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. - to almost all countries of the Mediterranean basin, as well as Western (to the Rhine and Danube) and Northern Europe (including the British Isles).

In his historical development Latin has gone through several periods.

1. The most ancient period of the existence of the language is called the pre-literary period (VIII-VII centuries BC - up to 240 BC). The most famous legal monument of the Latin language of this period is the Laws of the Twelve Tables - Leges duodecim tabularum (451 - 450 BC). Until that time, officials in Rome conducted the court, guided by customs dating back to the tribal past and already outdated. However, in the middle of the 5th c. BC e. under pressure from the plebeians, the patricians were forced to create a commission of 10 people (decem viri - ten husbands) to record court decisions. They were written on XII copper plates and put on display in the central square of Rome - the forum.

2. From 240 BC until about 100 AD. distinguish the ancient literary period, or the period of "archaic Latin". Started in the 4th century BC e. expansion of Rome to the 1st century. BC e. ends with the almost complete Latinization of Italy. An example of an archaic language of the III-II centuries. BC e. with its not yet established norms, it is presented in the comedies of Plautus and Terence. At this time, the foundations of Roman jurisprudence were laid. Fragments of the writings of many lawyers of that time have survived to this day (Appius Caesus, Gnaeus Flavius, Manius Manilius, father and son of Scaevola).

3. The most striking period in the development of the Latin language was the turn of the millennium: approximately 100 BC. - I century. AD This is the period of classical, or "golden" Latin. At this time, grammatical norms are finally stabilized, the language reaches a high literary level in the prose of Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, in the works of poets of the Augustan era (Virgil, Horace, Ovid). The Latin language of this period is currently the subject of study in educational institutions.

4. Latin of a later time generally retains the main features of the classical period. "Silver Latin" (I-II centuries AD) clearly follows the already developed grammatical standards, but somewhat departs from the strict syntax norms of "Golden Latin" (Tacitus). The literary language is characterized by the penetration of poetic stylistic elements into prose and sublime rhetoric into poetry. This period is also called "artistic Latin", and in some cases it does not stand out at all as an independent stage in the development of the language, entering the period of the "golden age".

5. Latin language II-VI centuries. AD defined as "Late Latin". At this time, Latin ceases to be a living language. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, Rome loses its influence over the provinces. Latin is also losing its status as a unified language. literary language. There is a fusion of the Latin language with local dialects. The history of the colloquial Latin language continues until the 9th century, when the formation of national Romance languages ​​on its basis (modern Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian languages, which make up the Romance group of the Indo-European family) ends.

One of the most famous legal monuments of this time is the Code of Civil Laws - Corpus juris civilis. Until now, this document is considered the basis of modern European legislation. Corpus juris civilis consists of 4 parts:

Codex justinianeus (imperial decrees - in 4 books);

Digesta (excerpts from the writings of jurists - in 12 books);

Institutionis (manual of jurisprudence - in 4 books);

Novellae (novellas).

V.G. Belinsky described this document as follows: The Code of Justinian - the mature fruit of the historical life of the Romans - freed Europe from the shackles of feudal law».

6. In the Middle Ages (7th-14th centuries), Latin is used as the common written language of Western European society, the language of the Catholic Church, science, and partly literature.

7. Another surge of attention to the Latin language is observed in the XIV-XVI centuries. This is the time of the Renaissance, when interest in antiquity, and therefore in ancient languages, occupies the leading minds of society. Almost until the end of the 17th century, Latin continued to serve as the main language of European science, diplomacy and the church (the works of T. More, Erasmus of Rotterdam, J. Bruno, T. Campanella, N. Copernicus, etc.).

8. From the XVI-XVII centuries. Latin is being phased out national languages, remaining until the 18th century the language of diplomacy, until the 20th century - the language of university teaching and partly of science. Works of philosophers and scientists of the XVI-XVIII centuries. R. Descartes, P. Gassendi, F. Bacon, B. Spinoza, I. Newton, L. Euler, many works of M.V. Lomonosov are written in Latin.

9. In the 20th century, Latin is used in scientific terminology, is the official language of the Catholic Church and acts of the Vatican.

In the history of culture, the Latin language has played a huge role. This is evidenced by numerous Latin borrowings that can be traced in all European languages. At present, the Latin language remains the basis for term formation in many fields of knowledge (jurisprudence, medicine, biology, general scientific terminology of the natural sciences and the humanities).

Lesson 1

Alphabet. Pronunciation. Word order in Latin sentences.

The Latin alphabet consists of 24 / 25 letters (the letter j appeared in the 16th century), denoting vowels and consonants.

Letter	Name	Pronunciation	Usage examples
A a	A	[a]	aqua
Bc	be	[b]	bona
c c	ce	[k], [c]	cause, censor
D d	de	[e]	dominus
e e	e	[e]	experientia
F f	ef	[f]	fortune
G g	ge	[G]	gens
H h	ha	[x breathed]	homo
I i	i	[And]	ira
J j	jota	[th]	jus
Kk	ka	[To]	katapoda
l l	el	[l']	lupus
M m	em	[m]	manus
N n	en	[n]	nemo
O o	o	[o]	opus
Pp	pe	[P]	populus
Q q	ku	[To]	quaerimonia
R r	er	[R]	ratio
S s	es	[s], [s]	sententia
T t	te	[T]	testis
U u	u	[y]	unus
Vv	ve	[V]	vita
X x	iks	[ks], [ks]	xenium
Y y	ypsilon	[And]	tyrannus
Zz	zeta	[h]	zone

Vowels

The vowels are:

- sounds a=[a], e=[e], o=[o], u=[y], i=[u], y=[u] (occurs only in borrowed words: rh y thmus=[p And tmus] - rhythm);

- diphthongs(two sounds united by homogeneous articulation): au=[au], eu=[eu]: c au sa=[to ay for] - reason, n eu ter=[n eu ter] - neither one nor the other;

- digraphs(two vowels conveying one sound): ae=[e], oe=[e]: s ae pe=[with uh ne] - often, p oe na=[n uh on] - punishment.

If the combinations of letters are not diphthongs or digraphs, then a line or two dots is placed above the letters: aer.

Consonants

The pronunciation of some consonants may depend on their position in the word or on the tradition of use.

Letter	Pronunciation	Example
c	[Ц] - in the position before the vowels i, e, y, digraphs ae, oe [К] - in other cases	C ae sar [Caesar] - Caesar c a ntāre [kantare] - to sing
g	[G]	genus [genus] - people
h	[X] is pronounced with a breath	honor [honor] - honor
k	[K] - the letter K is used only in proper names and abbreviations K or KAL from the word Kalendae	Kalendae [kal'ende] - kalends
l	[L']	locus [l'ocus] - place
q	the letter is only used in combination with u + vowel: [KB]	aq ua[aqua] - water
s	[З] - in a position between two vowels (the exception is words borrowed from Greek) [C] - in other cases	c au s a[cause] - reason phil o s o phia [philosophy] - Greek. servus [servus] - slave
x	[КЗ] - in a position between two vowels [KS] - in other cases	e x e mplar [exampl'ar], but n o x a[knox] - harm lex [l'ex] - law
z	[Z] - the letter is found only in borrowed words.	zona [zone] - zone, belt

Some combinations of sounds also have pronunciation features:

In Greek words there are combinations of consonants with h:

Word order in Latin sentences

1. The subject is put in first place.

2. The predicate is usually put in last place, except in cases of inversion: Historia magistra vitae est.- History mentor of life [is].

3. The agreed definition is after the word being defined: lingua Latina- latin language.

4. Direct object expressed by a noun in vip.p. without a preposition, precedes the predicate or is placed close to it: librum lego - I read a book [I].

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is the peculiarity of the Latin alphabet?

2. Name the vowel sounds of the Latin language. How are they used?

3. How are the consonants of the Latin alphabet pronounced? What consonants have pronunciations? What do they depend on?

4. What is the specificity of the use of combinations of sounds ti, su, ngu?

5. Combinations of what sounds indicate borrowed words? How are these combinations pronounced?

6. What are the features of word order in Latin?

EXERCISES

1.Read the words following the pronunciation rules:

A. natura, terra, ager, luna, mare, silva, hora, linea, fabŭla, agricŏla, Homerus, Aesopus, aetas, aestas, coelum, poema, praeda, praetor, aër, occasus, parsimonia, asinus, praesidium, miser, casa, socius, coena, amicus, auctor, natio, obligatio, scientia, sententia, otium, pretium, initium;

B. amicitia, lapsus, legatus, lupus, bellum, alea, sanguis, quisque, quinque, quaestor, aes, ars, pars, auctoritas, plebejus, proletarius, disciplina, fluvius, egestas, historicus, philosophus, rector, decanus, professor, magister, Rhenus, actor, scaena, circus, medicamentum, respublica, veto, declamatio;

2.Read the words, explain the features of pronunciation and stress in them. Learn the words by heart:

caput - legal capacity

aerarium - treasury

accusator - accuser, accuser

acta - minutes of meetings, resolutions

actio - action, lawsuit, legal proceedings

aestimatio capitis - property qualification

alibi - elsewhere

Aulus Agerius - the traditional name of the plaintiff in examples, sample formulas

bona fides - conscientiousness, good morals

casus belli - a casus belli

causa - reason, reason, court case

censura - assessment

Numerius Negidius - the traditional name of the defendant in Roman judicial formulas

cessio - cession, concession

civis - citizen

civitas - citizens, citizenship

corpus delicti - corpus delicti

corpus juris - body of law

crimen publicorum - a criminal offense

cui bono? - in whose interests?

justitia - law and order, justice, legality

2. Read the following words, explain the features of the pronunciation of sounds. Find the meaning of the words in the dictionary:

Clarus, causa, scientia, caedes, amicitia, quinque, rhythmus, Theodōra, aqua, pax, aurōra, nauta, beātus, medĭcus, cultūra, doctor, bestia, poёta, littĕra, Juppīter, lectio, philosphus, poena, dexter, pinguis, negligentia, quadrātus, consuetūdo, Aegīptus, suadeo, Augustus, censūra, potentia, saepe, suus, Euclīdes, zodiācus, Cyprus, chorus, Pithagōras, Athēnae, Graecia, obaerāti, Italia.

3. Read the words, translate them:

A. Thesaŭrus, religio, audio, audīre, theātrum, aetas, elegantia, domus, memoria, amīca, historia, femĭna, publĭcus, decrētum, vita, pater, magīstra, studeo, studēre, fortūna, fabŭla, spectacŭlum, beneficium, instrumēntum, accusatīvus, quaestio, symphonia, coepi, triūmphus, poëta, causa, Decēmber, incŏla, sphaera, Eurōpa, justitia, argumēntum, oceānus, genetīvus, pericŭlum.

4.Read the hymn "Gaudeamus", observing the pronunciation of the words:

Gaudeamus igitur,
Juvenes dum sumus!
Post jucundam juventutem,
Post molestam senectutem
Nos habebit humus. (bis)

Ubi sunt qui ante nos
In mundo fuere?
Vadite ad superos
Transite ad inferos,
Ubi jam fuere. (bis)

Vita nostra brevis est,
Brevi fineur;

Venit mors velociter,

Rapit nos atrociter,
Nemini Parcetur. (bis)

Vivat Academy,
Vivant professors!
Vivat membrum quodlibet,
Vivant membra quaelibet
Semper sint in flora! (bis)

Vivant omnes virgines,
Faciles, formosae!
Vivant et mulieres
Tenerae, amabiles,
Bonae, laboriosae! (bis)

Vivat et Republica
Et qui illam regit!
Vivat nostra civitas,
Maecenatum caritas,
Quae nos hic protegit! (bis)

pereat tristitia,
Pereant sores,
pereat diabolus,
Quivis antiburschius
Atque irrisores! (bis)

Gaudeamus is an old student song that originated in the 13th century from the drinking songs of the Vagantes. It was widely spread among the students of Heidelberg and Paris Universities. The authors of the text and melody are unknown. In the 15th century, the Flemish composer Jean Ockenheim processed and recorded its melody, and since then it has become a traditional student anthem.

Lesson 2

Syllabus. stress. The structure of a simple sentence.

syllable section

The number of syllables in Latin words is the same as the number of vowels in a word. The syllable goes through:

1. between two vowels: r e -u s - defendant;

2. before a single consonant in an open syllable or before QU: r o -s a - rose, a-qu a - water;

3. before a combination of consonants multa cum liquida(silent: b, p, d, t, c, g + smooth: r,l): br,bl,pr,pl,dr,dl,tr,tl,cr,cl,gr,gl: doc-tr ina - science, tem-pl um - temple;

4. between two consonants: fu r -t um - theft(if there is a j in the word, then it doubles: pejor: pe j -j or - worst);

5. in a group of several consonants - before the last of them: sa nk- t us - sacred;

6. prefixes always form an independent syllable: re -ceptum - accepted obligation.

Syllables differ in longitude and brevity.

Longitude or brevity of a syllable can be natural or positional. Natural longitude is indicated in writing by the sign ¯, brevity - by the sign ˘, which are placed above the vowel that is part of the syllable. For example, natū ra - nature, tabŭ la - board.

Positional the length or brevity of a syllable manifests itself depending on its position in the word.

The syllable is long:

1. if it contains a diphthong: n au ta - sailor;

2. if it contains a vowel before two or more consonants: argumē nt um - proof;

3. if it is before consonants x, z:corrē x i - fixed.

The syllable is brief:

1. before a vowel or h: potentĭ a- force, contră h o - tighten;

2. before consonant combinations br, pr, tr, dr, cr, gr, bl, pl, cl, gl, tl, dl: intĕ gr um - integer.

In modern pronunciation, the longitude / brevity of syllables or vowels does not differ. However, in some cases, these differences affect the understanding of the meaning of the word ( līber - free, lĭber - book) or delimitation of grammatical forms ( lēges - laws, lĕges - you will read).

stress

In Latin, stress

1. never put on the last syllable;

2. in two-syllable words is always placed on the first syllable: cr i men - crime;

3. is placed on the penultimate (second from the end of the word) syllable, if it is long: mag i ster - teacher;

4. is placed on the third syllable from the end of the word, if the second is short: au dio - listening.

Similar information.