Brief assessment of Pushkarev. Public Administration Reform Brief Assessment of Pushkarev
I.Choose the correct answer:
A) in Kyiv
B) in Novgorod
B) in Lyubech
D) in Rostov
2.What is the Boyar Duma?
A) the judicial body under the prince
3. Andrei Bogolyubsky reigned:
B) in the Principality of Kiev
B) in the Principality of Chernigov
A) Kyiv
B) Smolensk
B) Suzdal
D) Novgorod
5. 1223 is the year...
A) Battle of the Neva
B) Battle of Kulikovo
B) Battle on the Ice
D) battles on Kalka
A) Vladimir
B) Ryazan
B) Kozelsk
Kiev
A) Prince Oleg 1.980-1015
III. Explain the concepts:
A) ancient Russian state-
B) polyudye -
B) baskak-
IV. Who is the odd one out and why?
I.Choose the correct answer:
1. In 1097, an all-Russian princely congress met. In what city did it take place?
A) in Kyiv
B) in Novgorod
B) in Lyubech
D) in Rostov
2.What is the Boyar Duma?
A) the judicial body under the prince
B) government agency in Novgorod
B) an advisory body to the prince
3. Andrei Bogolyubsky reigned:
A) in the Galicia-Volyn principality
B) in the Principality of Kiev
B) in the Principality of Chernigov
D) in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality
4. At the beginning of the 12th century, the boyar feudal republic established itself in:
B) Smolensk
B) Suzdal
D) Novgorod
5. 1223 is the year...
A) Battle of the Neva
B) Battle of Kulikovo
B) Battle on the Ice
D) battles on Kalka
6. Which Russian city was nicknamed the “evil city” by the Tatar-Mongols:
A) Vladimir
B) Ryazan
B) Kozelsk
II. Correlate the princes and years of reign:
A) Prince Oleg 1.980-1015
B) Prince Svyatoslav 2. 1019-1054
B) Prince Yaroslav the Wise 3. 945-964
D) Prince Vladimir 4. 882-912
D) Princess Olga 5. 964-972
III. Explain the concepts:
A) ancient Russian state-
B) polyudye -
B) baskak-
IV. Who is the odd one out and why?
A) Dmitry Ivanovich B) Vladimir Andreevich C) Dmitry Bobrok D) Nestor
V. Determine the significance of the Battle of Kulikovo.
VI. Read an excerpt from a historian’s essay and answer the questions.
“... for none of the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise, except Monomakh and Alexander Nevsky, was as loved by the people and boyars as Dmitry, for his generosity, love for the glory of the Fatherland, justice, and kindness. Brought up among the dangers and noise of the military, he did not have knowledge gleaned from books, but he knew Russia and the science of government: by the power of reason and character alone he earned from his contemporaries the name of a pompous eagle in state affairs; words and example poured courage into the hearts of soldiers...
Contemporaries were especially surprised by his humility in happiness. What victory was more glorious than the Don, where every Russian fought for the Fatherland and their neighbors?
QUESTIONS:
1) How does the historian characterize Prince Dmitry Donskoy? Based on the document, determine the historian’s attitude to the personality and activities of Dmitry Donskoy
2) Explain why the historian put Dmitry Donskoy on a par with
Vladimir Monomakh and Alexander Nevsky?
Document analysis task! Read an excerpt from the work of historian V.O. Klyuchevsky and answer the questions. "...Didn't sit in the palacelike the previous kings, sending decrees everywhere, directing the activities of his subordinates... Leaving his generals and admirals and admirals to act at the front..., he usually remained behind his army, arranged its rear, recruited recruits, drew up plans for military movements, built ships and military factories, brought in ammunition, provisions and combat shells, stocked everything, encouraged everyone, urged, scolded, fought, hanged, galloped from one end of the state to the other, was something like a general-feldtsechmeister, general-provisions-master and naval chief master
1-Who are we talking about?
2-Name the chronological period of Russian history in which the described event took place.
3-Describe the meaning of the events!
6. Which three concepts from the following characterize the board?Prince Oleg?
2) Signing an agreement beneficial for Rus'
3) Murder of Askold and Dir
4) Death during Polyudia
5) Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv
6) Preservation of the unity of Rus'
Answer:
7. Establish a correspondence between the given passages from the chronicles and the names of the events they speak about.
EXTRACTS
A) “Our land is large and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us."
B) “We have nowhere to go. So let us not disgrace the Russian land, but let us lie down with bones, for the dead bear shame.”
B) “Then the prince sent throughout the city to say: “If someone does not come to the river tomorrow - be it rich or poor, or beggar, or slave - he will be my enemy.”
D) “That year the squad said to Igor: “The youths of Sveneld are dressed in weapons and clothes, and we are naked. Come with us, prince, for tribute, and you will benefit both yourself and us. And Igor listened to them and went... for the tribute, and added a new one to the previous one.”
EVENTS
A
B
IN
G
1) campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav
2) calling of the Varangians
3) uprising of the Drevlyans
4) baptism of Rus'
5) congress of princes in Lyubech
8. Read an excerpt from “The Tale of Bygone Years” and indicate which of the princes Ancient Rus' This characteristic applies:
“He was lame, but he had a kind mind, and he was brave in battle: another remarkable feature was added, that he was a Christian and read books himself. During his reign, Christianity and literacy were to spread. Gathered many scribes; they translated books from Greek into Slavic and copied many books, many in and bought them. The prince built churches in cities and unfenced places, installed priests at them, to whom he gave maintenance from his own property, and ordered them to teach people. The prince ordered to gather children (300 people) from the elders and priests and teach them books.”
Answer:
9. Which three concepts from the following characterize the reign of Prince Igor?
1) Unsuccessful campaign in Byzantium
2) Signing a treaty beneficial for Rus' 3) Murder of Askold and Dir
4) Death during Polyudia
5) Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv 6) Preservation of the unity of Rus'
Answer:
10. Establish a correspondence between concepts related to the history of Ancient Rus' and their definitions.
CONCEPTS DEFINITIONS
A
B
IN
G
A) outcasts 1) communal peasants
B) stinkers 2) stewards of the manor house
B) serfs 3) people who have broken with the community
D) tiuns 4) the lowest category of the population, close in status to slaves
5) peasants who took out a loan
11. Read an excerpt from the historian’s essay and answer the question.
“... Prince Igor was killed in one of the campaigns against the Drevlyans for repeated tribute. Cruel revenge on the Drevlyans ensued on the part of his wife Olga. The sad experience forced Olga to streamline the tribute and duties received from the allied tribes.”
What was the name of the new form of tribute collection established by Princess Olga?
Answer:
12.Which three concepts listed below characterize the reign of Prince Vladimir?
1) Unsuccessful campaign in Byzantium
2) Defense of Rus' from the Pechenegs
3) Baptism of Rus'
4) Death during Polyudia
5) Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv 6) Pagan reform
Answer:
13. Establish a correspondence between the names of the princes and the events associated with their activities.
PRINCE
A) Vladimir Monomakh B) Vladimir Svyatoslavich
C) Yaroslav the Wise D) Igor Stary
A
B
IN
G
EVENTS
defeat of the Polovtsians
unification of Kyiv and Novgorod
uprising of the Drevlyans
Baptism of Rus'
adoption of "Russian Truth"
14. Read an excerpt from the historian’s essay and indicate which of the princes of Ancient Rus' this characteristic applies to.
“This prince, called Equal to the Apostles by the Church, has earned in history the name of the Great... The prince, having accepted the faith of the Savior, was sanctified by it in his heart and became a different person. Having been a fierce avenger in paganism, a vile sensualist, a bloodthirsty warrior, he, instructed in the philanthropic rules of Christianity, was already afraid to shed the blood of villains and enemies of the fatherland. His main right to eternal glory and gratitude of posterity lies, of course, in the fact that he put Russians on the path of the true faith.”
Answer:
15. Place the following events in chronological order.
A) baptism of Rus'
B) the defeat of the Khazar kingdom
B) unification of Novgorod and Kyiv
D) uprising of the Drevlyans
1) “About obligated peasants”
2) “About free cultivators”
3) “On the establishment of the III department of the Own E.I.V. Offices"
4) “On the introduction of universal military service”
A2. Which class was the most privileged in Russia in the 19th century?
1) boyars 3) merchants
2) nobility 4) clergy (priesthood)
A3. Which government agency were the authorities given the functions of the highest court and supervisory body over the administration according to the reform of 1802?
1) Holy Synod 3) Senate
2) Supreme Privy Council 4) State Council
A4.Like in the 19th century. named the peasants who had money and were engaged in entrepreneurial activities?
1) sessional 3) temporary
2) capitalists 4) Black Hundreds
A5. Read an excerpt from the historian’s work and indicate the place of the meeting of the two emperors in question.
“On June 25, 1807, in the second hour of the day, the first meeting of both emperors took place. In the very middle of the river, a raft with two magnificent pavilions was established. The entire guard was lined up on the French bank, and a small retinue of the emperor on the Russian bank... The boats set sail from the banks, and in the middle of the river, the emperor and the tsar simultaneously entered the tent of peace. The guardsmen who shot at each other 10 days ago shout: “Hurray!” Yesterday's enemies embraced..."
1) Waterloo 3) Austerlitz
2) Tilsit 4) St. Petersburg
A6.During which war did the Russian army carry out the brilliant Tarutino march-maneuver?
1) Smolensk 3) Livonian
2) Northern 4) Domestic
A7.In the 19th century. wealthy citizens could participate in city management issues through
1) city councils 3) provincial elders
2) world mediators 4) zemstvo committees
A8. Read an excerpt from the notes of a contemporary and indicate the name of the war the events of which are discussed
“The Uglitsky and Kazan regiments, and the fifth squad of the Bulgarian militia, with amazingly beautiful harmony, moved forward under thick enemy fire. After brilliant attacks, Skobelev lined up in front of<Шипкой-Шейново>Vladimir regiment... - Well, brothers, follow me now. Your comrades did their job honestly, and we will finish properly. - We’ll try... - Look... Move in order... The Turks are almost already defeated... God bless you!”
1) Russian-Turkish war of 1806–1812. 3) Crimean War 1853–1856
2) Russian-Turkish war of 1828–1829. 4) Russian-Turkish war of 1877–1878.
A9.According to the reform of 1861, peasants received the right
1) transfer to other classes
2) elect and be elected to the State Duma
3) leave the community and settle in farmsteads
4) to all the lands of the landowner
A10. Read an excerpt from N. Figner’s memoirs and indicate the name of the emperor whose assassination attempt is being prepared in the document.
“Simultaneously with the preparations for explosions near Moscow, Aleksandrovsk and Odessa, the Committee had in mind another appointment in St. Petersburg itself... The Committee in St. Petersburg was preparing an explosion in the Winter Palace, but this was kept in the strictest confidence and was under the jurisdiction of the “Administrative Commission” of three persons elected by members of the Committee from among themselves for matters of the greatest importance. At that time the three were: Al. Mikhailov. Tikhomirov and Al. Kwiatkowski, from whom I once heard a mysterious phrase: “While all these preparations are going on, here the personal courage of one can end everything.” This was a hint to Khalturin, who later told me that in the Winter Palace he once happened to be alone with the sovereign, and the blow of a hammer could have destroyed him on the spot.”
1) Pavel Petrovich 3) Nikolai Pavlovich
2) Alexander Pavlovich 4) Alexander Nikolaevich
A11. Which of the following happened in the 19th century?
1) abolition of the patriarchate 3) proclamation of Russia as an empire
2) establishment of boards 4) abolition of serfdom
A12. “We were children of 1812” - this is what they said about themselves
2) Marxists 4) Narodnaya Volya
A13. What was the name of the legislative advisory body of state power established in 1810?
1) State Council 3) Supreme Senate
2) State Duma 4) Holy Synod
A14. Began in Russia in the 30s. XIX century the industrial revolution contributed
1) the emergence of the first manufactories
2) the emergence of the first all-Russian fairs
3) decrease in urban population
4) the formation of factory centers
A15. Representatives of Russian social thought from the late 1830s to the 1850s, who believed that Russia should develop in an original way, and not follow the models of leading European countries, were called
1) Westerners 3) Slavophiles
A16. Indicate the changes and transformations that were carried out during the Great Reforms of the 1860-1870s.
A) abolition of recruitment into the army
B) limiting corvee to three days a week
B) creation of provincial and district zemstvos
D) the ban on selling peasants without land
D) introduction of the institution of jurors
Please indicate the correct answer
ABG 2) AVD 3) BVG 4) IOP please help
TICKET 23 Reforms of Peter 1. Assessments of historians
Military reforms
The reforms of Peter I were guided by the conditions of his time. This king did not know peace, he fought all his life: first with his sister Sophia, then with Turkey, Sweden. Not only to defeat the enemy, but also to take a worthy place in the world, Peter I began his reforms. The starting point for the reforms was Azov campaigns (1695-1696).
In 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov (a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don), but due to a lack of weapons and the absence of a fleet, Azov was not captured. Realizing this, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. It was decided to organize Kumpanstvos, which would be engaged in the construction of ships. The United Kumpanstvo, which consisted of merchants and townspeople, was obliged to build 14 ships; Admiralty - 16 ships; one ship is an obligation for every 10 thousand landowner peasants and 8 thousand monastery peasants. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. In 1696, Russian naval forces won their first victory - Azov was taken. The following year, Peter sent the so-called Great Embassy of 250 people to Europe. Among its members, under the name of the sergeant of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, Pyotr Mikhailov, was the Tsar himself. The embassy visited Holland, England, Vienna. As I thought CM. Soloviev, the idea of traveling abroad (Grand Embassy) arose from Peter I as a result of the ongoing transformations. The king went to Europe for knowledge and experience in 1697-1698. Researcher A.G. Brickner, on the contrary, believed that it was after his trip to Europe that Peter I developed a reform plan.
In the summer of 1698, the trip was interrupted due to a report received about a mutiny of the archers. The Tsar took personal part in the executions, Sophia was tonsured a nun. The Streltsy army was to be disbanded. The Tsar began to reorganize the army and continued the construction of the fleet. It is interesting to note that in addition to providing general leadership, Peter was directly involved in the creation of the fleet. The tsar himself, without the help of foreign specialists, built the 58-gun ship "Predestination" ("God's Foresight"). Back in 1694, during a sea voyage organized by the Tsar, the Russian white-blue-red flag was raised for the first time.
With the outbreak of the war with Sweden, the construction of a fleet began in the Baltic. By 1725, the Baltic fleet consisted of 32 battleships armed with 50 to 96 cannons each, 16 frigates, 85 galleys and many other smaller ships. The total number of Russian military sailors was about 30 thousand. Peter personally compiled Marine charter, where it was written “Only that sovereign has both hands who has both a land army and a fleet.”
Peter I chose a new principle for recruiting the army: recruitment kits. From 1699 to 1725 53 recruitments were carried out, giving the army and navy more than 280 thousand people. Recruits underwent military training and received government-issued weapons and uniforms. “Willing people” from free peasants were also recruited into the army with a salary of 11 rubles a year.
Already in 1699, Peter formed, in addition to two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - 29 infantry and 2 dragoons. By the end of his reign, the total number of the Russian army was 318 thousand people.
Peter strictly obliged all nobles to perform military service, starting with the rank of soldier. In 1716 it was published Military regulations, which regulated order in the army in war and peacetime. Officer training was carried out in two military schools - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). Subsequently, Peter opened naval, engineering, medical and other military schools, which allowed him, at the end of his reign, to completely refuse to invite foreign officers to Russian service.
Reform government controlled
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in Northern War. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state management mechanism, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not meet the growing needs of the autocracy. This manifested itself in a shortage of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help regional reform- creation of new administrative entities - provinces, uniting several counties. IN 1708 g. was formed 8 provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything it needed: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the army regiments, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of Kriegskomissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created locally. The former “order - district” system was doubled: “order (or office) - province - province - district.”
IN 1711 Senate was created. Autocracy, which strengthened significantly in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed the institutions of representation and self-government.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Meetings of the Boyar Duma actually cease, management of the central and local state apparatus passes to the so-called “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in Peter’s state system. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, and appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was prosecutor general, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of prosecutor general laid the foundation for an entire institution of the prosecutor's office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
IN 1718 - 1721. The system of command administration of the country was transformed. Was established 10 boards, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with external relations, the Military Collegium - with the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - with the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - with revenue collection, the State Office Collegium - with state expenses, and the Commerce Collegium - with trade.
Church reform
Became a kind of collegium Synod, or Spiritual College, established in 1721 The destruction of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to eliminate the “princely” system of church power, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter’s time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of church institutions to carry out his policies.
Monitoring the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special government official - chief prosecutor.
MIKHAIL FEDOROVICH ROMANOV (1613 – 1645)
“Mikhail’s lack of bright talents could even turn out to be an advantage in the situation at that time: the country was tired, it was waiting for peace, a cautious conservative policy. The Romanovs suited everyone.”
“Caring about strengthening local power, the king introduced new system management - voivodeship. Under him, Zemsky Sobors were convened, and he resolved the main political issues together with the Duma.”
“After the storm of turmoil, a calm but “stifling” time came, when it was impossible to show one’s talent, when thoughts had to be hidden. Troubles brought hope, calm brought disappointment.
The new government persistently sought to erase from the memory of the Russian people the time when the Tsar was elected, when it was possible to think, argue and decide who would be the Tsar in the Russian state.”
(A.L. Yurganov, L.A. Katsva History Russia XVI– XVIII centuries M. 1995 p. 125)
“Mikhail Fedorovich has remained in history as a meek monarch, easily influenced by his entourage. But for the last twelve years, Mikhail Fedorovich ruled himself, and these years, in terms of the importance and complexity of solving state affairs, were not much different from the previous ones."
(Encyclopedia for children. History of Russia M. 1997, vol. 5 p. 387)
“Although Mikhail Romanov was by nature an intelligent man, due to his melancholy and lack of education (when he ascended the throne he could barely read) he was not able to rule the country.
Pious to the point of fanaticism, the young king obeyed the will of his father and mother in everything."
(A.L. Yurganov, L.A. Katsva History of Russia XVI - XVIII centuries. M. 1995)
ALEXEY MIKHAILOVICH ROMANOV (1645 – 1676)
“For the first time after a long break, the royal throne was occupied by a sovereign prepared for political activity. He knew foreign languages, understood philosophy, worship, laws, understood and loved sacred music. He was a gentle, good-natured man; He became known as the quietest in history.”
“His external softness was deceptive. This sovereign had a strong character. Thus, he did not hesitate to expel yesterday’s favorites who began to impose their ideas.”
(See Encyclopedia for children. History of Russia. M. 1997, vol. 5 p. 387)
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was the kindest man, a glorious Russian soul. I am ready to see in him the best man of Ancient Rus', at least, I don’t know another ancient Russian man who would make a more pleasant impression.”
(See V.O. Klyuchevsky. Aphorisms. Historical portraits and sketches. M. 1993)
“For all his liveliness, as the tsar’s contemporaries noted, Alexei Mikhailovich was a weak-willed and cowardly person. He did not know joy in work. At first B.I. ruled for him. Morozov, then N.I. Odoevsky, etc. Good-natured and weak-willed, active but not energetic, Tsar Alexei could not be a fighter and reformer.”
(B.G. Pashkov, Rus. Russia. Russian empire M. 1997 p. 338)
“He was not averse to picking the flowers of a foreign culture, but did not want to get his hands dirty in the dirty work of sowing it on Russian soil.”
(See Klyuchevsky V.O. Aphorisms. Historical portraits and sketches. M. 1993)
PETER I (1682-1725)
There are different points of view characterizing the personality of Peter I. Do you agree with one of the assessments of Peter I as a revolutionary on the throne?
"IN Russian history It is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter I in terms of the scale of his interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved. Woven from contradictions, the emperor was a match for his enormous power, reminiscent of a giant ship, which he led out of a quiet harbor into the oceans, pushing aside the mud and cutting off growths on the sides and bottom.”
(Encyclopedia for children. History of Russia. M.1997 vol. 5 part 1 p. 500)
“Being a fan of the legality of justice and law and order, Peter, however, did not show sufficient restraint and self-discipline, had little respect for the personal dignity of those around him, and sometimes, giving in to fits of irritation and anger, he showed wild and completely unnecessary cruelty, as in the dark days of the mass executions of the Moscow archers.”
(S.G. Pushkarev Review of Russian History P. 1993, p. 262)
“The habit of power, the servility of those around him explain, but do not justify, such qualities in Peter as rudeness and cruelty, permissiveness and disregard for human dignity, arbitrariness in politics and everyday life, he was aware and more than once emphasized that he was an absolute monarch, and everything “What he does and says is not subject to human judgment: only God will ask for everything, good and bad.”
(V.I. Buganov, P.N. Zyryanov History of Russia, end of the 17th - 19th centuries, p. 41)
Reform activities of Peter I
“His achievements were great. He opened sea routes for Russia for relations with other peoples and introduced Russia into the midst of European peoples; by creating a first-class army and navy, he made Russia economically self-sufficient and independent from other countries; finally, he laid the foundations of a culture that bore such abundant fruit in the 19th century.”
“The significance of Peter’s reforms for Russia and Europe is great. Russia “cut a window to Europe” and entered the world stage strong, powerful and renewed. Peter's genius touched many areas of activity. His innovative thoughts are still relevant today. He is a role model for all generations of Russians, for those who truly love the Fatherland and care for it.”
(Pashkov B.G. Rus'. Russia. Russian Empire. M. 1997 p. 386)
“The reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization.”7)
(Encyclopedia for children. History of Russia. M. 1997 vol. 5 part 1 p. 49
“With other European peoples you can achieve goals in humane ways, but with Russians this is not the case; If I had not used severity, I would not have owned the Russian state long ago and would never have made it what it is now. I’m not dealing with people, but with animals, which I want to transform into people.”
Peter I
(Encyclopedia for children. History of Russia. M. 1997 vol. 5 part 1 p. 497)
“Peter I ruled by “incursions”; Carrying out reforms on an all-Russian scale and sometimes did not have the opportunity to understand the essence of private problems, he entrusted them to those close to him and was by no means always able to control the activities of these people. This state of affairs opened the way to numerous official abuses, quite common in Peter’s time.
(Encyclopedia for children. History of Russia. M. 1997 vol. 5 part 1 p. 498)
“The reforms of Peter I, despite all their progressiveness, resulted in new taxes, duties and burdens for the working people, far exceeding the burdens of the previous reigns.”
(History of the Fatherland, edited by B.A. Rybakov, A.K. Preobrazhensky M. 1993, p. 220)
“The Europeanization he carried out was forced, hasty, little thought out and therefore largely superficial in nature, covering up old Moscow weaknesses and vices only with “German” caftans and wigs. On the other hand, the sharp and sudden Europeanization of the social elite tore the latter away from the masses, destroyed the religious, moral and social unity of the people that existed in Muscovite Rus', and made the nobility and bureaucrats foreigners in their own country.”
(S.G. Pushkarev Review of Russian History S. 1993 p. 262)
“If Peter tried to introduce European civilization into Russia, then he was more attracted by its external side. The spirit of this civilization - the spirit of legal freedom and citizenship - was alien and even disgusting to him, the despot. Dreaming of re-educating his subjects, he did not think of instilling in them a high sense of human dignity, without which there is neither true morality nor virtue. He needed capable tools for material improvements based on the models he had seen abroad.”
M.A. Fonvizin
(See History of Russia, edited by M.M. Shumilov, S.P. Ryabikin, 1997)
ANNA IOANNOVNA (1730-1740)
“In her manner she is pleasant, affectionate and extremely attentive. Generous to the point of extravagance, she loves pomp excessively, which is why her courtyard surpasses all other European ones in splendor. She strictly demands obedience to herself and wants to know everything that is happening in her state, does not forget the services rendered to her, but at the same time she remembers well the insults inflicted on her. They say that she has a tender heart, although she carefully hides her actions. In general, I can say that she is a perfect empress.”
(See A.L. Yurganov, L.A. Katsva History of Russia XVI - XVIII centuries. M. 1995 p. 289)
“The Empress, rude, uneducated, devoid of higher interests and a sense of duty and little interest in state affairs, gave control of the state into the hands of a handful of Germans surrounding her. At this time, the empress herself was enjoying herself with luxurious celebrations and entertainment. Anna generously spent government money, which was collected from the peasants through military executions, on organizing these amusements and on gifts for her favorites...”
(S.G. Pushkarev Review of Russian history of Stavr. 1993, p. 267)
“In general, in the person of Anna Ioannovna, a woman reigned on the Russian throne with the typical features of a serf-landowner. Anna Ioannovna went down in history under the name of the bloody one, and the period of her reign was called the Bironovschina.”
(B.G. Pashkov Rus'. Russia. Russian Empire M. 1997, p. 397)
ELIZAVETA PETROVNA
“In general, Elizabeth’s reign was mild. The unbridled “chicks” of Peter I and the soulless Germans of the time of Anna Ioanovna were replaced by a generation of people.”
(B.G. Pashkov Rus'. Russia. Russian Empire M. 1997, p. 410)
“Historians have often written about the absence of high-profile affairs and large-scale transformations during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. However, the first theater, Moscow University, the spread of fine arts, the abolition of the death penalty for ordinary criminal offenses, Tsarskoe Selo, the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery - this is not the appearance of the Elizabethan era.”
(See Encyclopedia for Children Vol. 5 Part 2 p. 97)
“Elizabeth paid serious attention only to foreign policy, entrusting the management of a huge empire to his ministers. She used her immense power not to serve the Fatherland, but only for pleasure.”
(See A.L. Yurganov, L.A. Katsva History of Russia XVI - XVIII centuries. M. 1995, p. 299)
“...the time of Elizabeth is characterized by the replacement of the German influence that dominated the previous era with French cultural influence: French fashions, French language, French literature began to conquer Russian educated society at this time in order to finally triumph in it in the era of Catherine.”
(S.G. Pushkarev Review of Russian history of Stavropol. 1993, p. 272)
CATHERINE II (1762-1796)
“Nature gave Catherine II a great mind. It was a mind that took from everywhere what it liked and gave this disparate material a distinctive appearance. She was a lively, cheerful, flexible person with an amazing ability to adapt to external circumstances.
Catherine did not like someone who was boring, sad, too learned, or too sensitive.”
(Pashkov B.G. Rus'. Russia. Russian Empire. M. 1997 p.449-450)
People who saw her closely found many weaknesses in her. She was reproached for her love of fame, “for self-love to infinity,” for the vanity of love for flattery.
Her habit of luck made her somewhat arrogant and very touchy. She was irritated not only by the censure of her actions, but also by opinions with which she did not agree.”
(see Klyuchevsky V.O. Aphorisms. “Historical portraits” and sketches” M. 1993 p.245,247)
What did the reforms of Catherine’s reign mean—moving forward or marking time, stagnation?
“In the era of Catherine II, colossal legislative and administrative work was carried out, which transformed Russia from the hastily cobbled together state of Peter I into a Europeanized power; the Army and Navy brought many glorious victories to Russia.
“The history of the reign of Empress Catherine II is a history of brilliant good wishes and their very moderate and distorted implementation. Catherine did not turn out to be a “sage on the throne”: autocracy and serfdom have not weakened in Russia, in many ways they have even strengthened.”
(See Encyclopedia for Children M. 1997, vol. 5, part 2, p. 126)
“In general, Catherine’s reign was a time of certain internal political stability. This is the heyday of Russian culture and enlightenment. Her reign went down in history as a time of enlightened absolutism. Catherine took the second, after Peter the Great, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first along the path of reforming it in a liberal-educational spirit.”
“Catherine II brought “to the end, to complete resolution, the questions that history posed to her” - and this forces everyone to recognize her as a paramount historical figure.”
(Platonov S.F. see History of Russia 9th - 20th centuries edited by Shumilov M.M., Ryabikin S.P. S-P. 1997 p. 203)
“Catherine’s reforms were not radical in nature, did not change the essence of either the political system or social relations, and did not decisively influence the position of any social group. Searching for any bourgeois tendencies in Catherine’s political reforms is a futile endeavor.”
(Kamensky A.B, Questions of History No. 3 1989 p. 82)
“Many of the activities of Catherine II, most imbued with the spirit of liberalism and the desire to Europeanize the country, turned out to be unfinished and ineffective, rejected by Russian reality.”
(See History of Russia 9th - 20th centuries, edited by Shumilov M.M., Ryabikin S.P. S-P. 1997, p. 202)
Foreign policy of Catherine II
“In the field of foreign policy, Catherine took a firm position from the very beginning and behaved proudly and arrogantly with foreign diplomats. “From the first days of her reign, she firmly took foreign policy into her own hands and did not let go of it until her death.”
“It was a time of military victories, achievements in the field of military art - the time of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Ushakov. Foreign policy successes and famous victories on land and sea played an important role in the development of Russian national identity.”
(Kamensky A.B. Catherine II. Questions of history No. 3 1989 pp. 82 - 85)
“Foreign policy successes turned out to be incommensurate with the material and human costs. As for Poland, the consequences of the “successes” of Catherine’s policy towards this country are felt to this day.”
“In general, the nature of Catherine II’s foreign policy can be defined as expansionist. Neither “natural justice” nor the destinies and interests of other peoples were taken into account. The role played by tsarism in the destruction of the Polish state is a shameful stain on its history. Catherine’s foreign policy expansionism can hardly be justified in this case by the “noble” motive of unifying the East Slavic lands.”
(Kamensky A.B. Catherine II. Questions of history No. 3 1989 p. 82-85)
The full application contains abstracts about all the top officials of the state.
Test on Russian history 18th century 8th grade option 1
Task 1. “Yes or no”
1. The Northern War lasted 21 years.
2. Peter III was the son of Peter I
3. A meeting-ball with the participation of women in the houses of the nobility was called an assembly.
4. Peter I forbade nobles to marry if they did not study.
5. The first museum in Russia was called the Hermitage and it was opened under Catherine I.
6. Catherine II issued paper money for the first time in Russia
7. Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg, the name of Catherine II before the adoption of Orthodoxy
8. The first guards regiments in Russia were called Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky.
9. The southern regions of Russia were called Novorossiya.
10. According to the decree of Paul I, the peasant had to work for the landowner 6 days a week.
1. This emperor liked to say that in Russia the great one is with whom I speak and while I speak?
2. What Pushkin said: I love you, Peter’s creation
3. “The Europeanization he carried out was violent, hasty, poorly thought out, and therefore largely superficial, covering up old Moscow weaknesses and vices only with “German” caftans and wigs.” “Some contemporaries proclaimed him like God, others called him the Antichrist. The reason for this is the inconsistency of the era itself, the consequences of its transformations for the further history of Russia, the scale and ambiguity of the figure of the tsar-reformer.”
1. Outstanding architects of the 18th century. were:
2. Which cultural figure is considered the founder of the Russian professional theater?
1) D. I. Fonvizin 2) V. K. Trediakovsky 3) F. G. Volkov 4) M. V. Lomonosov
3. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, the throne was inherited by:
1) Ivan Antonovich - the son of Anna Ioannovna’s niece; 2) Peter Alekseevich - grandson of Peter I;
3) Karl Peter Ulrich - Nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna; 4) Elizaveta Petrovna - daughter of Peter the Great
4. During whose reign the Italian and Swiss campaigns of A.V. Suvorov took place:
1) Catherine I 2) Anna Ioannovna 3) Paul I 4) Peter I
5. St. Petersburg was founded: 1) 1700 g 2) 1703 3) 1721 4)1755
6. Which of the above was a consequence of the research carried out in Russia in the 18th century? secularization?
7. The policy of patronage of domestic industry and trade is called:
1)export 2)revision 3)import 4)protectionism
1) “Table of Ranks” 2) Cathedral Code 3) recruiting 4) provinces 5) Bironovschina 6) Zemshchina
| 1 Karamzin N.M. (1766 – 1826) | A painting |
| 2 Losenko A.P. (1737 – 1733) | B literature |
| 3 Krylov I.A. (1769 – 1844) | IN architecture |
| 4 Kazakov M.F. (1738 – 1812) | G sculpture |
| 5 |
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| 6 |
|
A B C
Questions
Test on the history of Russia 18th century 8th grade option 2
Task 1. “Yes or no”
1.The Northern War ended with the signing of the Peace of Nystadt
2. Peter II was the grandson of Peter I
3. Collegiums are places where they met to discuss government issues.
4. Peter I awarded medals for drunkenness.
5. The first museum in Russia was called the Kunstkamera and it was opened under Peter I.
6. Peter I conducted a population census
7. Peter Fedorovich real name of Peter III
8. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, Russia did not enter into war.
9. Little Russia is the Black Sea lands of Russia
10. Paul I resumed corporal punishment for nobles
Task 2. Determine who or what we are talking about
1. Who did Pushkin talk about that he embraced all branches of education, historian, rhetorician, mechanic, chemist, mineralogist, artist, universal scientist?
2. Hard in learning, easy in battle - whose words are these?
3. “Before becoming queen, she lived in Russia for 18 years. She did a lot during these years to understand Russians: she converted to Orthodoxy and received the name ..., learned the Russian language, the history and customs of the country. Possessing an attractive appearance, she placed both Elizabeth and the court in her favor. On August 21, 1745, she was married to Grand Duke Peter.
4. “Surprised Europe saw how the Russian fleet passed through the ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, ... proclaimed freedom to the Greeks and blew up the Muslim fleet in the Chesme Bay; Finally, the Grand Vizier was besieged by Rumyantsev in Shumla, and the shadow of Peter the Great was avenged. The Sultan, defeated and forced to agree to a shameful peace, ceded Azov and Taganrog to the Russians, allowed them free navigation in the Black Sea and recognized the independence of Crimea.”
Task 3. Find the correct answer
1. Outstanding artists XVIII V. were:
1) Dmitry Fonvizin, Gavriil Derzhavin 2) Matvey Kazakov, Vasily Bazhenov
3) Vladimir Borovikovsky, Fyodor Rokotov 4) Ivan Kulibin, Ivan Polzunov
2. The policy of patronage of domestic industry and trade is called:
1)export 2)import 3)protectionism 4)revision
3. Elizaveta Petrovna left the throne:
1) Pyotr Fedorovich 2) Ivan Antonovich 3) Ekaterina Alekseevna 4) Pyotr Alekseevich
4. The concept of “conditions”, “Bironovism”, “cabinet of ministers” refer to the reign: 1) Peter I; 2) Elizaveta Petrovna; 3) Anna Ioanovna.
5. The history of which war includes the battles of Narva, Gangut, Grengam, Lesnoy? 1) Northern 2) Seven Years 3) Russian-Turkish
6. The manifesto on the freedom of the nobility was signed: 1) Anna Ioanovna; 2) Elizaveta Petrovna; 3) Pavel 1
7. Which of the above was a consequence of the research carried out in Russia in the 18th century? secularization?
1) carrying out a reform of church worship 2) turning church property into state property 3) separating the school from the church 4) creating the Holy Synod
8. Which three of the listed concepts and terms are associated with the transformative activities of Peter I? Write down the numbers under which they are listed in your answer. 1) “Table of Ranks” 2) provinces 3) Bironovschina 4) Zemshchina 5) Soborny Code 6) Recruitment
Task 4. Correlate the personality and his activities
| 1 Rastrelli B.K. (1675 – 1744) | And painting |
| 2 Sumarokov A.P. (1717 – 1777) | B literature |
| 3 Starov I.E. (1745 – 1808) | In architecture |
| 4 Falcone E.M. (1716 – 1791) | G sculpture |
| 5 Krylov I.A. (1769 – 1844) |
|
| 6 Rokotov F.S. (1735 – 1808) |
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Task 5. Determine architectural style(direction)
A B C
Rococo 2) classicism 3) baroque
Task 6. Work with the text.
By our common voluntary and mutual consent, according to mature reasoning and with a calm spirit, we decided this common Act, by which, out of love for the fatherland, we elect the heir, by right
the only one, after my death, Pavel, our greater son, Alexander, and after him all his
male generation. After the suppression of this male generation, the inheritance passes to the second generation
my son, where to follow what is said about the generation of my eldest son, and so on, if I had sons; which is primogeniture...
Upon the suppression of this lineage, the inheritance passes to the family of my eldest son in the female generation, in
which is inherited by a close relative of the last-reigning family of the above-mentioned son of mine, and in the absence of her, then a male or female face that takes her place, observing that a male face is preferred to a female one, as already said above; which is the intercession...
Questions
1.What, in your opinion, explained the need to adopt a manifesto on succession to the throne?
History test ancient world 5th grade option 1
| A. Greece | |
| B. Egypt | |
| V. Persia | |
| J. Palestine |
Names: 1) Trajan 2) Pericles 3) Prince Gautama 4) Confucius 5) Xerxes 6) Romulus 7) Solon 8) Octavian Augustus 9) Ashoka 10) Thutmose III 11) Tiberius Gracchus 12) Mark Antony 13) Qin Shihuang 14) Solomon 15) Imhotep 16) Darius I 17) Cheops 18) Nero
| A. Greece | |
| B. Egypt | |
| V. Persia | |
| J. Mesopotamia |
Geographical objects : 1) Athens 2) Tigris and Euphrates 3) Tiber 4) Yangtze and Yellow River 5) Sparta 6) Rome 7) Marathon Plain 8) Memphis 9) Mohenjo-Daro 10) Babylon 11) Indus and Ganges 12) Nile 13) Persepolis 14) Rubicon
| A. Greece B. Egypt V. Persia J. Mesopotamia |
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| 4 |
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1
2
3
7
6| A. Greece | |
| B. Egypt | |
| V. Persia | |
| J. Mesopotamia |
Terms: 1) plebeians 2) cuneiform 3) brahmins 4) democracy 5) pharaoh 6) immortals 7) papyrus 8) Confucianism 9) demos 10) consul
Text No. 1
Text No. 2
Test on the history of the ancient world, grade 5, option 2
Task 1. Distribute names by country
| A. Greece | |
| B. Assyria | |
| In Egypt | |
| J. Mesopotamia |
Names: 1) Trajan 2) Pericles 3) Prince Gautama 4) Confucius 5) Ashurbanipal 6) Romulus 7) Solon 8) Octavian Augustus 9) Ashoka 10) Thutmose III 11) Tiberius Gracchus 12) Mark Antony 13) Qin Shihuang 14) Phidias 15) Imhotep 16) Hamurappi 17) Cheops 18) Nero
Task 2. Match the country and geographical features
| A. Greece | |
| B. Egypt | |
| V. Mesopotamia | |
| J. Palestine |
Geographical objects : 1) Olympia 2) Tigris and Euphrates 3) Tiber 4) Yangtze and Yellow River 5) Sparta 6) Rome 7) Athens 8) Memphis 9) Indraprastha (Delhi) 10) Babylon 11) Indus and Ganges 12) Nile 13) Jordan 14) Jerusalem
Task 3. Match the country and illustrations
| A. Greece B. Egypt V. Persia J. Mesopotamia |
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| 4 |
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1
2
3
7
6Task 2. Match the country and terms
| A. Greece | |
| B. Egypt | |
| V. Persia | |
| J. Phenicia |
Terms: 1) demos 2) purple 3) castes 4) democracy 5) pharaoh 6) immortals 7) papyrus 8) emperor 9) patricians 10) Confucianism
Task 5. Choose one of the texts. Find mistakes and write them down.
Text No. 1
Greece was divided into 3 parts: Northern, Central and Southern. Over time in certain areas In Greece, small independent states emerged - poleis. The region of Attica was located in southern Greece. The main city of Attica was Piraeus. There were military and commercial harbors in Piraeus. Thanks to the fertile soils, the inhabitants of Attica grew a lot of bread. On the contrary, there was a shortage of olive oil and wine in Attica: wine and oil were brought from other countries.
Another polis - Sparta was a very beautiful city. Foreigners used to admire its large theater and beautiful statues. Spartan youths were famous for the fact that they wrote correctly, without a single mistake, and read a lot. In terms of education, the Spartans were superior to other Greeks.
Text No. 2
The city of Rome arose on the banks of the Tigris River. The Umbrian tribe once lived here, who became the founders of the city. Italy was located on the Balkan Peninsula. Despite the cold climate of Italy, agriculture and viticulture developed in the country.
Having subjugated Italy, the Romans began to strive to capture the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Their attempts to take possession of the island were opposed by Carthage, the richest city in Egypt. The first war between Rome and Carthage was won by Carthage. However, both sides were preparing for new battles. The second war began with the attack of Hannibal's troops and again Carthage won. Rome was forced to accept defeat and pay monetary damages (indemnity)
The personality of Peter I (1672-1725) rightfully belongs to the galaxy of bright historical figures on a global scale. Many studies and works of art are devoted to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers have assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms in different, sometimes even contradictory, ways.
Already the contemporaries of Peter I were divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continued later. In the 18th century M.V. Lomonosov praised Peter and admired his activities. And later, the historian Karamzin accused Peter of betraying the “true Russian” principles of life, and called his reforms a “brilliant mistake.”
At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I came to the Russian throne, our country was experiencing a turning point in its history. In Russia, unlike the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, textiles, and agricultural implements. It had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which it could develop foreign trade. Therefore, Russia did not have its own navy to guard its borders. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia. The nobles were reluctant to leave their estates for military campaigns; their weapons and military training lagged behind the advanced European armies.
There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, well-born boyars and the serving nobles. There were continuous uprisings of peasants and urban lower classes in the country, who fought both against the nobles and against the boyars, because they were all feudal serfs. Russia attracted the greedy gaze of neighboring states - Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were not averse to seizing and subjugating Russian lands.
It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a fleet, take possession of the sea coast, create a domestic industry, and rebuild the system of government of the country.
To radically break the old way of life, Russia needed an intelligent and talented leader, an extraordinary person. This is how Peter I turned out to be. Peter not only comprehended the dictates of the times, but also devoted all his extraordinary talent, the tenacity of an obsessed person, the patience inherent in a Russian person, and the ability to give the matter a state scale to the service of this command. Peter imperiously invaded all spheres of the country's life and greatly accelerated the development of the principles he inherited.
The history of Russia before and after Peter the Great saw many reforms. The main difference between Peter's reforms and the reforms of the previous and subsequent times was that Petrov's were comprehensive in nature, covering all aspects of the life of the people, while others introduced innovations that concerned only certain spheres of life of society and the state. We, the people of the late 20th century, did not We can fully appreciate the explosive effect of Peter’s reforms in Russia. People of the past, the 19th century, perceived them more sharply, more deeply. This is what historian M.N. Pogodin, a contemporary of Pushkin, wrote about the significance of Peter in 1841, i.e. almost a century and a half after the great reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century: “In the hands (of Peter) the ends of all our threads are united in one knot. Wherever we look, everywhere we meet with this colossal figure, which casts a long shadow over our entire past and even will obscure for us ancient history, which at the present moment still seems to hold its hand over us, and which, it seems, we will never lose sight of, no matter how far we go into the future."
What Peter created in Russia survived both Pogodin’s generation and subsequent generations. For example, the last recruitment took place in 1874, i.e. 170 years after the first (1705). The Senate existed from 1711 to December 1917, i.e. 206 years old; The synodal structure of the Orthodox Church remained unchanged from 1721 to 1918, i.e. for 197 years, the poll tax system was abolished only in 1887, i.e. 163 years after its introduction in 1724. In other words, in the history of Russia we will find few institutions deliberately created by man that would have existed for so long, having such a strong impact on all aspects of public life. Moreover, some principles and stereotypes of political consciousness, developed or finally consolidated under Peter, are still tenacious; sometimes in new verbal clothes they exist as traditional elements of our thinking and social behavior.
Discussions in historical literature
5.1 Bagger's analytical work
Naturally, living in the West, Danish historian Hans Bagger begins his review with assessments of reforms by Western researchers.
The interests of Western researchers focused primarily on Russian foreign policy and the biography of Peter I; after Napoleon, the tsar was characterized by them as the most striking personality in the history of Europe, as “the most significant monarch of the early European Enlightenment.”
The background against which one or another researcher assessed Peter’s reforms was also varied. While some historians examined the topic primarily in comparison with the previous period of Russian history, most often immediately preceding, others - in comparison with the situation in Europe at the beginning of the 18th century, and still others assessed the historical significance of Peter's reform activities through the prism of the subsequent development of Russia.
In most review works, the Peter the Great period is considered as the beginning of a new era in the history of Russia. However, deep disagreement reigns among historians trying to answer the question to what extent the era of reforms meant a fundamental break with the past, whether the new Russia was qualitatively different from the old.
A prominent exponent of one of the extreme points of view within the framework of the “revolutionary” concept was S.M. Soloviev, who, with his “History of Russia”, made a major contribution to the scientific study of the era of Peter’s reign. He interprets the Peter the Great period as an era of fierce struggle between two diametrically opposed principles of government and characterizes the reforms as a radical transformation, a terrible revolution that cut the history of Russia in two and marked the transition from one era in the history of the people to another.
Among scientists who defend the “evolutionary” concept, the most prominent are IN. Klyuchevsky And S.F. Platonov, historians who deeply studied the pre-Petrine period and, in their lecture courses on Russian history, persistently pursued the idea of continuity between Peter’s reforms and the previous century.
The second of the most distinct problems posed in the general discussion about Peter’s reforms contains the question: to what extent were reform activities characterized by planning and systematicity?
CM. Soloviev, presents reforms in the form of a strictly sequential series of links that make up a comprehensively thought-out and pre-planned program of reforms, based on a rigid system of clearly formulated targets.
However, there are historians who hold completely opposite views. So for P.N. Milyukova reforms appear in the form of a continuous chain of miscalculations and mistakes. Peter's transformative activity reveals, in his opinion, a striking lack of a long-term assessment of the situation, systematicity, and a well-thought-out plan, which resulted in the mutual contradiction of many reforms.
IN. Klyuchevsky he not only characterized the reforms as a long series of mistakes, but also defined them as a permanent fiasco, and Peter’s management techniques as a “chronic illness” that destroyed the body of the nation for almost 200 years.
Soviet historians have not developed a unified position on the issue of systematic reforms. But, as a rule, they assumed a different, deeper meaning than the intensification and increase in the effectiveness of military operations.
Some historians believe that Peter’s extraordinary personality left its mark on the entire political activity of the government, both in a positive and negative sense. However, such an assessment is only rarely confirmed in serious studies concerning the degree and nature of Peter’s influence on the process of transformation.
P.N. Miliukov was the first to open and defiantly doubt the greatness of Peter. He argues that Peter's sphere of influence was very limited; the reforms were developed collectively, and the final goals of the reforms were only partially understood by the tsar, and even then indirectly by his immediate circle. Thus, Miliukov discovers a long series of “reforms without a reformer.”
According to conventional wisdom, the Tsar used most of his time and energy precisely to change the relationship between Russia and the outside world; In addition, many historians have documented, based on foreign policy materials, confirmed the active and leading role of Peter in this area of \u200b\u200bstate activity.
One gets the impression of complete unanimity among historians that Peter’s administrative reforms were a step forward in comparison with the previous system of management.
Researchers are unanimous in considering the Peter the Great era to be very significant in the history of Russian industry, if only because in the first quarter of the 18th century, thanks to the policy of protectionism and state subsidies, many new enterprises were founded.
Peter's social reforms have always attracted the close attention of historians. Many believe that in his desire to achieve maximum return from his subjects in relation to the state, Peter preferred, as a rule, to build new things on the foundation of the existing class structure, gradually increasing the burdens of individual classes. In this, his policy differed from the policy of Western absolutism, which sought, first of all, to destroy the edifice of medieval society. But there is another opinion, according to which Peter considered it necessary to regulate social functions, erasing traditional class boundaries.
In the literature on the issue concerning the results of Peter’s cultural policy, there is such a wide variety of variations in their assessments that it can obviously be explained only by the difference in the breadth of approach, on the one hand, among historians who consider the tsar’s cultural policy as something integral and fundamentally all-encompassing, and , on the other hand, from those researchers who studied the implementation and consequences of ongoing activities. Thus, it is easy to notice that the characteristics of specific results of reforms are often negative, while the general results of reforms are usually assessed positively.
There is a strong opinion in the historical literature: the era of Peter’s reign meant, politically, a historical turn in the relationship between Russia and Europe, and Russia itself, thanks to the victory over Sweden, entered the European system of states as a great power. At the same time, some authors consider these results to be the most important in all of Peter’s activities, while others - in general the most important event in the history of Europe of the 18th century.
In conclusion of the review of Bagger’s work, I would like to quote his words, which nevertheless characterize the pseudo-objectivity of almost all historians who become dependent on the society and time in which they live and work.
"Although the famous Russian historian and politician P.N. Miliukov and remarked in a mentoring tone that it is not the historian’s job to indulge in speculation about whether the events of the past were positive or negative, that he must instead concentrate entirely on his activity “as an expert,” that is, to identify the authenticity of facts so that they can be used in scientific debates about politics; he himself, however, being a scientist, had as little success as his colleagues in trying to avoid endless journalistic discussions about how Peter’s reforms were harmful or useful, reprehensible or worthy of imitation from the point of view of morality or the interests of the nation. In the same way, later generations of historians could not boast that they had completely overcome the temptation to build their conclusions about the results and methods of Peter’s activities in accordance with the norms of contemporary politics and morality..."
Thus, we see that this work is an important summary of historiographical material from the mid-19th century to the second half of the 70s of our century. It clearly showed a desire to take into account as fully as possible different points of view and concepts on the chosen problem, and a fairly broad approach to what needs to be included in the scope of research.
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