List of questions for a psychodiagnostic conversation. Conversation as an interactive method of clinical and psychological diagnostics An example of using the technique

Iovlev B.V., Shchelkova O.Yu. (Saint Petersburg)

Iovlev Boris Veniaminovich

Candidate of Medical Sciences, leading researcher at the Laboratory of Clinical Psychology, St. Petersburg Psychoneurological Institute named after. V.M. Bekhterev.

Email: [email protected]

Shchelkova Olga Yurievna

- member of the scientific and editorial board of the journal “Medical Psychology in Russia”;

Doctor of Psychological Sciences, Head of the Department of Medical Psychology and Psychophysiology at St. Petersburg State University.

Email: [email protected]

Annotation. The article discusses the features of teaching information and interpreting research results using the leading method of psychological diagnostics in medicine - the clinical-psychological method. Its integrating significance in the system of medical methods is shown. psychological diagnostics. Psychodiagnostic conversation is presented as the main methodological technique within the framework of the clinical-psychological method. The emotional and communicative aspect of the conversation as an interactive process based on the techniques of person-oriented psychotherapy is analyzed. The importance of the information-cognitive aspect of the relationship between the psychologist and the patient during a psychodiagnostic conversation is shown: the need to provide information to the patient, the content of the conversation, the form of asking questions, problems associated with the preliminary formulation of hypotheses and formalized assessment of the results.

Keywords: clinical-psychological method, psychodiagnostic conversation, emotional-communicative and information aspects, informality, empathy.

Psychological diagnostics is one of the main forms of professional activity of psychologists in various socially significant areas of life. In particular, psychological diagnostics is directly included in the decision of a wide range of practical problems in the field of medicine and healthcare. In clinical medicine, psychological diagnostics is a necessary element of the diagnostic and treatment process. With its help, the role of mental factors in the etiology, pathogenesis, treatment of various diseases, in the prevention of relapses and disability of patients is clarified. In preventive medicine, psychological diagnostics is aimed at identifying individuals at increased risk of mental maladaptation, manifested in the form of psychosomatic, borderline neuropsychic or behavioral disorders.

The methodological basis of psychological diagnostics in medicine is made up of a variety of complementary standardized and non-standardized methods and techniques of psychological research. Among them are both specially developed, medical-psychological methods themselves, and those borrowed from general, social, differential and experimental psychology. The origins of scientific medical psychodiagnostics lie in the clinical-psychological method (clinical method in psychology) (Wasserman L.I., Shchelkova O.Yu., 2003), which has an integrating and structuring significance in the system of methods of medical psychology. In turn, a conversation with a patient and observation of his behavior form the basis of the clinical-psychological method and, accordingly, have all its characteristic features, advantages and disadvantages (limitations).

Clinical-psychological method: features of data acquisition and interpretation

The clinical-psychological method began to take shape at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, combining the best traditions of classical psychiatry (careful, sympathetic observation, intuitive understanding of the sick person) with innovative trends towards experimental, empirical research of mental functions and conditions. The clinical-psychological method is aimed at an informal, individualized study of the personality, the history of its development and the whole variety of conditions of its existence (Wasserman L.I. et al., 1994; Shchelkova O.Yu., 2005). In a broad sense, the clinical-psychological method allows you to study not the disease, but the patient, not so much to classify and diagnose, but to understand and help. At the same time, it is addressed to both the present and the past of a person, since personality cannot be understood outside the processes of its development. Thus, the clinical-psychological method integrates all information available to the psychologist related to the genesis of the patient’s personality and the development of pathological conditions.

The information obtained using the clinical psychological method is concretized in the psychologist’s understanding of unique and stable patterns of experiences, behavior, personality traits of the person being studied, the most significant aspects of his subjective life history and system of relationships. This makes the clinical-psychological method one of the most important research tools for diagnosing personality in the clinic, especially in connection with the pathogenetic theory of neuroses and psychotherapy, which is based on the one created by V.N. Myasishchev (2004) concept of personality as a system of relationships. That is why this method occupies a leading position in the system of methods of medical psychology, which traditionally appeals to the patient’s personality and his social functioning.

At the stage of clinical psychological research, the main directions of a more in-depth and differentiated study of personality are determined using highly specialized or multidimensional experimental methods, projective and psychosemantic techniques, the motivation of the subject for further instrumental research is formed and contact is established with a psychologist, on whose character the reliability of the psychodiagnostic results depends.

The following distinctive features of the clinical-psychological method (“clinical approach in psychodiagnostics”) are highlighted:

a) situational - increased attention to current circumstances, a specific situation in the life of the subject;

b) multidimensionality - the use of diverse sources of information about the subject with an emphasis on biographical information, history and dynamics of personal development;

c) ideographic - attention to unique characteristics and characteristics peculiar only to a given person;

d) individualization - a non-formalized, non-standardized method of obtaining and analyzing empirical information adapted to the characteristics of a given subject;

e) interactivity - active interaction between the psychologist and the subject in the process of an individualized conversation;

f) “intuition” - the dominant load in obtaining information and its interpretation falls not on standardized procedures, but on the professional intuition and clinical experience of the psychologist (Shmelev A.G., 2002).

It is important that the clinical-psychological method fundamentally contains the main possibilities of the experimental approach to personality research, contained in personality questionnaires, projective techniques, and even in psychophysiological experiments, the analogue of which in the clinical method is observation of human expression. The clinical-psychological method in studying the patient’s personality differs from the experimental method of psychodiagnostics (primarily from standardized techniques) in the potential volume and nature of the information received, as well as its interpretation.

One of characteristic features obtaining information when using the clinical-psychological method is that in this case the patient acts not only as an object of research, but also at the same time as a subject collaborating with the researcher in obtaining the necessary information. At the same time, a joint analysis of the history of his personality with the patient is closely related to the essence of the pathogenetic method of treating neuroses (Karvasarsky B.D. - ed., 2002), as well as psychodynamic therapy of other mental illnesses (schizophrenia, depressive disorders, etc.) (View B .D., 2008).

Another feature of obtaining diagnostic information using the clinical-psychological method is the possibility of directly addressing events and experiences of the past, reconstructing the genesis of personality. Information about a person’s past cannot, at least directly, be obtained using experimental psychological methods, even questionnaires. The questions contained in the questionnaires may be addressed to the patient’s past, but they are of a general, not individualized nature. Questionnaires cannot contain all the questions necessary to describe the unique life of each patient, all those questions that will be asked to him in a conversation by an experienced clinician or psychologist. In addition, the questionnaire does not allow the subject to tell everything that he would like to tell the experimenter. It is obvious that the above features of obtaining diagnostic information using the clinical-psychological method can be fully attributed to the study of the present.

A characteristic feature of clinical psychological research is also that each established fact can be interpreted in the context of all information about the patient that the psychologist has, regardless of how this information was obtained (unlike tests, where the conclusion integrates information in the context of all data obtained by the same psychodiagnostic method). In this case, the interpretation is made on the basis not only of the information received from the patient, but also of all professional knowledge, the entire personal life experience of the researcher, necessary to qualify individual manifestations of the subject’s personality and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

The noted features of the interpretation of clinical-psychological research data and the conditions for its effectiveness are closely related to the problem of the dependence of the success of its implementation and the adequacy of the interpretation of the results on the qualifications of the researcher. Almost all authors writing about psychodiagnostics note that if in the hands of an experienced medical psychologist this method is an ideal diagnostic tool that allows one to obtain information about the subject, characterized by both great pragmatic value and high validity, then in the absence of qualifications the unformalized nature of the results obtained can create the basis for an unjustifiably broad interpretation of data, overdiagnosis, attributing to the subject uncharacteristic features (including through the mechanisms of projection and countertransference - one’s own personal characteristics and emotional states) (Gurevich K.M. - ed., 2000; Anastasi A., Urbina S., 2001; Wasserman L.I., Shchelkova O.Yu., 2003).

In addition to the subjective interpretation of clinical and psychological material, many authors consider the significant disadvantages (limitations) of this method to be the impossibility of obtaining comparable data with its help due to its lack of formalization. However, there is a clear idea that informality follows from the essence of the clinical-psychological method, aimed not only at cognition (study using specially developed psychodiagnostic tools), but also understanding another person. It comes from an understanding of the individual as a whole, the exclusivity of each person. Therefore, the context of conclusions that are made on the basis of clinical methods of studying personality is fundamentally wider than the context of conclusions based on experimental methods; In clinical methods, the systematic nature of the conclusions drawn is more pronounced. All this, in our opinion, makes conclusions based on the clinical method potentially more valid and reliable.

On modern stage development of psychological diagnostics, it becomes obvious that a full-fledged study of personality should include both methods of meaningful analysis of a person’s experiences, motives, and actions, and methods that allow high degree reliability and statistical validity to objectify the structural features and degree of expression of the studied psychological phenomena and disorders. This involves the integrated use in one study of both clinical-psychological and experimental, in particular test, methods of psychodiagnostics, the data of which are analyzed in the unified context of the nature of the disease and the life situation of the subject.

Psychodiagnostic conversation: implementation of the clinical-psychological method

Psychodiagnostic conversation is one of the leading methods of medical and psychological diagnostics, both advisory and aimed at solving various expert problems. A conversation between a psychologist and a patient is both a diagnostic tool and a tool for forming and maintaining psychological contact. Since the conversation, as a rule, precedes instrumental research, it is aimed at developing in the subject an adequate attitude towards the psychodiagnostic procedure, mobilizing him to carry out experimental techniques and, in the optimal case, to self-knowledge.

During the clinical conversation, the psychologist not only receives the diagnostically significant information he needs, but also has a psychocorrective effect on the patient, the results of which (according to the mechanism feedback) provide valuable diagnostic information.

The conversation method refers to dialogic (interactive) techniques that involve the psychologist entering into direct verbal-nonverbal contact with the subject and achieving the best diagnostic results through specific features this contact, relevant to the diagnostic task (Stolin V.V., 2004). The factor of personal contact, the socio-psychological situation of interaction between the diagnostician psychologist and the patient deserve much attention, however, until recently, only a few works were known in the field of “ social psychology psychological research" (Druzhinin V.N., 2006).

Establishing positive relationships between participants in a psychodiagnostic conversation requires special technology carrying out, which involves, along with other components, the ability to win over the interlocutor, using techniques of person-oriented psychotherapy (Karvasarsky B.D. - ed., 2000; Rogers K., 2007). For example, the empathic ability of a psychologist allows him to respond in accordance with the patient’s expectations, creating an atmosphere of closeness and common interests during the conversation. The use of so-called “predictive” or “cognitive” empathy allows the psychologist to understand not only what the patient is experiencing, but also how he does it, i.e. “true, truthful cognition occurs without a clear influence on the perception and assessment of the phenomenon of the “desired vision” (Tashlykov V.A., 1984, p. 92). An empathic approach is manifested not only in the psychologist’s ability to feel the patient’s emotional state, but also in the ability to convey to the patient that he is fully understood. This kind of broadcast is carried out mainly through non-verbal channels. Since nonverbal behavior is only to a small extent accessible to self-control, the psychologist must fully accept the patient, that is, experience true positive emotions towards him. This is also facilitated by the authenticity (congruence) of the psychologist’s personality, which manifests itself in the fact that the psychologist’s non-verbal, observable behavior is identical to his words and actions; emotions and experiences in contact with the patient are genuine.

In addition to the aforementioned triad (empathy, acceptance, authenticity), which relates to the emotional-communicative aspect of relationships, in the process of a diagnostic conversation, the psychologist also needs the adequacy and subtlety of social perception, which allows one to freely navigate the communication situation and helps to take into account the individual characteristics of the interlocutor and choose the optimal tactics of interaction with him. A high level of reflection and autoperception (adequacy of self-perception) in contact with the patient also influences the understanding of his behavior and assessment of the communication situation as a whole. Mastering the noted communicative and perceptual skills is a necessary task for a psychologist engaged in psychotherapeutically oriented diagnostic work.

The informational and cognitive aspect of the relationship during a psychodiagnostic conversation is of great importance for both parties (psychologist and patient). Along with the doctor, the psychologist is the most important source of information necessary for the patient to correctly understand the nature of his illness, current mental state and assessment of his life situation, to form an adequate “model of expected treatment results” (Reznikova T.N., 1998). Research shows that with increasing awareness, the patient's overall satisfaction, ability and willingness to cooperate increases; informed patients provide a more reliable history and more accurate description of symptoms; information and reassurance of the patient in conversation increases the patient’s own activity and responsibility in the treatment process, and prevents regressive tendencies.

The most important thing when considering the information-cognitive aspect of a diagnostic conversation is the problem of correctly asking questions. There is an opinion that one of the most common errors is posing a question in a suggestive form, when its very wording contains a suggested answer. In this case, the patient reports only that information to which the psychologist directs him with his direct questions, while significant areas of the patient’s experiences remain unclear.

Another type of error when asking questions by a psychologist arises in a situation where the test subject’s answers, in combination with the available theoretical and research data about the individual and the professional experience of the clinician himself, lead to the development of preliminary hypotheses (Anastasi A., Urbina S., 2001). On the one hand, this makes the clinical conversation more flexible and focused, but on the other hand, there is a danger of unintentionally influencing the patient's responses and interpreting the information obtained solely in the context of the formed hypothesis.

The content (topic) of a clinical-psychological conversation can be varied, but the biographical focus of the conversation is of key importance for understanding the psychogenesis and current state of the patient. In this capacity, the conversation acts as a means of collecting a psychological history. Possible options for the content of a clinical conversation between a pathopsychologist and a patient before the experimental work, after the experiment, and also during the experiment are presented in the works of B.V. Zeigarnik - ed. (1987) and V.M. Bleichera et al. (2006).

A formalized assessment of a conversation is difficult, but a medical psychologist must be sensitized to certain diagnostically informative parameters. Such parameters may include: pauses, which can be interpreted as resistance or as a manifestation of intellectual difficulties; deviations from the topic; use of speech cliches, cliches; spontaneous statements off topic; long latency period in responses; chaotic construction of phrases; signs of “emotional shock”, similar to those in the Rorschach technique or “special phenomena” in “Pictograms” (Khersonsky B.G., 2000); emotionally expressive manifestations; a rich scale of informative speech signs - tempo, volume, intonation; behavioral reactions and motor manifestations during a conversation (Shvantsara J., 1978).

Thus, conversation is the main clinical and psychological diagnostic method, the purpose of which is to obtain information about the individual and other psychological characteristics the patient based on self-report about the features of his biography, subjective experiences, relationships, as well as behavior in specific situations. In addition, the conversation serves as a means of tentative diagnosis of the patient’s intellectual, cultural and educational level, the main areas of his interests and values, the nature of interpersonal communication, social adaptation and personality orientation. The conversation establishes personal contact between the psychologist and the patient; it is used not only as a clinical and psychodiagnostic, but also as a psychotherapeutic technique; During the conversation, the subject’s motivation for subsequent instrumental research is formed, which has a significant impact on the reliability of its results.

Literature

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Observation - the main empirical method of purposeful systematic study of a person. The observed does not know that he is the object of observation.

Observation is carried out using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure:

a) selection of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;

b) observation program: a list of those aspects, properties, features of the object that will be recorded;

c) a method of recording the information received.

When observing, a number of requirements must be met: the presence of an observation plan, a set of signs, indicators that must be recorded and assessed by the observer; preferably several expert observers whose assessments can be compared, building a hypothesis that explains the observed phenomena, testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations.

Based on observation it can be given expert review. The results of observations are recorded in special protocols, certain indicators and signs are identified that should be identified during observation of the behavior of the subjects in accordance with the observation plan. Protocol data is subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing.

Observation has several options. External observation is a way of collecting data about a person's psychology and behavior by directly observing him from the outside. Internal observation, or self-observation, is used when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly presented in his mind.

Free observation does not have a pre-established framework, program, or procedure for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature during the Observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer.

The following types of observation are distinguished:: cross-section (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes over a number of years), selective and continuous and special kind- participant observation (when the observer becomes a member of the study group).

Advantages of the method:

1. The wealth of information collected;

2. The naturalness of the operating conditions has been preserved;

3. It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means;

4. It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects.

Flaws:

1. Subjectivity;

2. Inability to control the situation;

3. Significant time investment.

Method of introspection (introspection). The subject carefully observes the dynamics of the states he experiences at each stage of executing the instructions. The subject, who has undergone special training, describes how he feels when he finds himself in a particular situation.

Introspection has two disadvantages:

1. Extreme subjectivity, since each subject describes his own impressions or experiences, which very rarely coincide with the impressions of another subject;

2. The sensations of the same subject change over time.

Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method of obtaining information based on verbal communication.

One type of survey is a conversation. Conversation as a psychological method involves direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the subject of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. Types of interviews: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires.

History ( lat. from memory) - information about the past of the person being studied, obtained from himself or - with an objective history - from people who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to obtain answers from the interviewee to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.

Advantages and disadvantages of the conversation method.

Contents and plan of the conversation. Conversation - widespread in psychology and pedagogical practice an empirical method of obtaining information about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. Responses are recorded either by tape recording or shorthand. A conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since a teacher or researcher subjectively evaluates the student’s answers and behavior, while influencing the student with his behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and questions, determining one or another degree of openness and trust-mistrust of the subject.

Organizing the conversation. There are a number of requirements for conversation as a method. The first is ease. You can't turn the conversation into a question. A conversation brings the greatest results when the researcher establishes personal contact with the person being examined. It is important to carefully think through the conversation, present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks, problems to be clarified. The conversation method involves, along with answers, asking questions by the subjects. Such a two-way conversation provides more information on the problem under study than just the subjects’ answers to the questions posed.

Types of tests and types of tasks in tests. Test (from English - sample, test, check) is a standardized technique for psychological measurement and diagnosis of the severity of mental and behavioral properties and personality states. A test is a standardized, often time-limited, test designed to establish comparable quantitative and qualitative individual psychological differences.

By standardization we mean that these techniques must be applied in the same way at all times, from the situation and instructions given to the subject, to the way the data is calculated and interpreted. Comparability means that test scores can be compared with each other regardless of where, when, how, or by whom they were obtained. Of course, if the test was applied correctly. In psychodiagnostics, there are various classifications of tests.

They can be divided:

According to the characteristics of the test tasks used for verbal tests and non-verbal (practical) tests;

According to the forms of the examination procedure - group and individual tests;

By focus: intelligence tests, personality tests, special ability tests, achievement tests, creativity tests;

Depending on the presence or absence of time restrictions - speed tests and performance tests;

According to the method of implementation - blank, manipulative, hardware, computer, situational-behavioral;

On psychometric grounds, tests are divided into those based on individual difference scales and criterion-referenced tests;

According to the purpose of application, school readiness tests, clinical tests, vocational selection tests and others are distinguished. - by composition - monometric and complex (test batteries).

Criteria-Based Tests (KORT) are designed to determine the level individual achievements with respect to some criterion based on a logical-functional analysis of the content of tasks. Specific knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful completion of a particular task are usually considered as a criterion (or objective standard). The criterion is the presence or absence of knowledge. This is the main difference between CORT and traditional psychometric tests, in which assessment is carried out on the basis of correlating individual results with group results (orientation to the statistical norm). An essential feature of CORT is that in them individual differences are reduced to a minimum (individual differences affect the duration of assimilation, and not the final result).

Speed ​​tests - a type of diagnostic techniques in which the main indicator of test subjects’ work productivity is the time to complete (volume) of test tasks. Typical speed tests usually include a large number of similar tasks (items). The volume of material is selected in such a way that in the allotted time (constant for all subjects) not one of the subjects has time to cope with all the tasks. Then the indicator of productivity will be the number of correctly completed tasks. Example: proofreading test, intelligence tests. An indicator of the effectiveness of performing speed tests can also be a direct measurement of the task completion time (Schulte table).

Performance tests are focused on measuring or ascertaining the result achieved by the test subject when performing a test task. The speed of work is not taken into account or is of secondary importance. A time limit may apply but serves the purpose of standardizing the study or to save time. These are most personality methods, questionnaires, projective tests, questionnaires.

Verbal tests . In them, the material of test tasks is presented in verbal form. This implies that the main content of the subject’s work is operations with concepts, mental actions in verbal and logical form. Verbal tests are often aimed at measuring the ability to understand verbal instructions, skills in operating grammatical language forms, and mastery of writing and reading.

Tests reflecting verbal intelligence factors most closely correlate with the criteria general culture, awareness, academic performance. results verbal tests very sensitive to differences in the linguistic culture of the subjects, level of education, and professional characteristics. Difficulties arise in adapting verbal tests to the conditions of examining subjects of a different nationality.

Nonverbal tests (practical). In them, the material of test tasks is represented by non-verbal tasks. Nonverbal tests reduce the influence of language and cultural differences on the examination result. Completing the task in a non-verbal form also distinguishes the examination procedure for subjects with speech and hearing impairments, as well as persons without education. Practical tasks turned out to be convenient when conducting mass test studies.

Blank tests (they used to be called "pencil and paper tests"). The use of forms is common in almost all types of test methods. The subject is offered a special survey form, brochure, questionnaire, etc., which contains instructions and examples of solutions, work assignments and a form for recording answers.

Advantages: simplicity of examination technique, no need for special equipment. In subject tests, the material of test tasks is presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, parts geometric shapes, structures and units technical devices and so on. The most famous are Koos cubes, the test of complex figures from the Wechsler set, and the Vygotsky-Sakharov test. Subject tests are mostly administered individually. Hardware tests require the use of special equipment to conduct research and record the data obtained.

Used to assess psychophysiological properties, study reaction time, typological features nervous system, to study the characteristics of perception, memory, thinking. The advantages of hardware tests include higher accuracy and objectivity of examination results, and the ability to automate the collection of primary data. The disadvantages are the high cost of the necessary equipment and complexity technical support psychodiagnostic laboratory. In most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.

Computer tests - an automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer. Test tasks are presented on the display screen, and the test subject enters answers from the keyboard; The examination protocol is immediately created as a data set on magnetic media. Standard statistical packages make it possible to very quickly carry out mathematical and statistical processing of the results obtained in different directions.

If desired, you can obtain information in the form of graphs, tables, diagrams, profiles. Using a computer, you can obtain an analysis of data that is almost impossible to obtain without it: the time it takes to complete test tasks, the time it takes to obtain correct answers, the number of refusals to make a decision and seeking help, the time spent by the test taker thinking about an answer when refusing a decision; time to enter the answer /if it is complex/, etc. These features of the test subjects are used for in-depth psychological analysis during the testing process.

Individual tests - interaction between the experimenter and the subject occurs one on one.

Advantages: the ability to observe the subject (facial expressions, involuntary reactions), hear and record statements not provided for in the instructions, record functional states.

They are used in working with children of infant and preschool age, in clinical psychology - testing people with somatic or neuropsychic disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. Typically requires a lot of time and high level qualifications of the experimenter. Group tests allow you to simultaneously examine a group of subjects (up to several hundred people). (This is not a socio-psychological diagnosis.)

Advantages:

Mass character;

Speed ​​of data collection;

The instructions and procedure are quite simple and the experimenter does not require high qualifications;

The uniformity of the experimental conditions is observed to a greater extent; - processing of results is usually more objective, often on a computer.

Flaws:

Limiting the possibility of observation;

There is less opportunity to achieve mutual understanding with the subject, to interest him, to secure cooperation - undetected illnesses, fatigue, anxiety, anxiety can affect the completion of the task.

Intelligence tests. Refers to general ability tests. Designed to measure the level of intellectual development (mental potential). Manifestations of intelligence are diverse, but they have something in common that allows them to be distinguished from other behavioral features. This commonality is the activation in any intellectual act of thinking, memory, imagination, all those mental functions that provide knowledge of the surrounding world. Accordingly, intelligence as an object of measurement is understood as those human characteristics that are related to cognitive properties.

This is reflected in numerous tests to assess various intellectual functions (tests logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, arithmetic, spatial visualization, etc.). These tests are quite clearly separated from other methods for measuring individual psychological characteristics - personality tests aimed at measuring behavior in certain social situations, interests and emotions of an individual.

In most intelligence tests, the test taker is asked on a special form to establish the logical relationships of classification, analogy, generalization, and others specified by the instructions between the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are composed. He communicates his decisions either in writing or by marking one of several options available on the form. The success of the test subject is determined by the number of correctly completed tasks, and the IQ is calculated from this number.

The success of the test subject is related to the fact (by G. Eysenck ):

To what extent in his previous experience has he mastered the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are constructed;

To what extent have they mastered exactly those mental actions that are necessary to solve test problems;

And can he arbitrarily actualize these actions;

To what extent are the mental stereotypes developed by the subject in his past experience suitable for solving test problems?

Thus, the test results reveal not the mental potential of the test subject, but rather those features of his past experience and training that inevitably affect his work on the test. This circumstance served as the basis for calling the results obtained when using intelligence tests “test” or “psychometric” intelligence.

Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.

Achievement Tests - assessment of the achieved level of development of abilities, skills and knowledge. Unlike intelligence tests, which reflect the influence of accumulated experience and general abilities, achievement tests measure the influence of special educational programs, professional and other training on the effectiveness of teaching a particular set of knowledge and the formation of various special skills. Thus, achievement tests are aimed at assessing a person's achievements after completion of training. Achievement tests used in school psychodiagnostics have noticeable advantages compared to the existing assessment of student performance.

Their indicators are focused on measuring uptake key concepts, themes and elements curriculum rather than a specific body of knowledge, as is the case with traditional school assessment. Achievement tests, thanks to a standardized form of assessment, make it possible to correlate the student’s level of achievement in the subject as a whole and in its individual essential elements with similar indicators in the class or in any other sample of subjects. This assessment is more objective and less time consuming (as it is often a group test) than traditional school assessments.

They cover a larger number of topics. Tests provide an opportunity for an unambiguous objective assessment of the student, while exams do not provide such an assessment. For example, in 1994 in Moscow, out of 50,000 graduates, 110 received gold medals, and in Novosibirsk, out of 8,000, 55 graduates received gold medals. Ratio 1:4.

Creativity test - techniques designed to study and evaluate creativity personality. Creativity - the ability to produce new ideas, find unconventional methods solving problematic problems. Factors of creativity - fluency, clarity, flexibility of thinking, sensitivity to problems, originality, inventiveness, constructiveness in solving them, etc. If solving creativity tests can be taken as one of the evidence of the presence of creative abilities in a person, then not solving them is not proof of the absence such.

The most famous tests for measuring the cognitive aspect of creativity were developed by Joe Guilford and his colleagues (1959) and Paul Torrance (1962). In domestic research, based on identifying a unit of measurement of creative abilities called “intellectual initiative,” an original “creative field” methodology has been developed. D.B. Epiphany (1983).

Special ability tests - techniques designed to measure the level of development of certain aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions, primarily ensuring effectiveness in specific, fairly narrow areas of activity. Unlike intelligence tests, which are aimed at broad areas of activity, special ability tests are aimed at specific areas of activity and often serve as a supplement to intelligence tests.

They emerged for the purpose of professional selection and career guidance abroad. In foreign psychodiagnostics, the following groups of ability tests are distinguished: sensory, motor, technical (mechanical) and professional (counting, musical, reading speed and reading comprehension, etc.). Complex batteries of abilities are most widespread abroad.

Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.

The tests consist of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made answer options. When calculating test scores, the selected answers receive an unambiguous quantitative interpretation and are summed up. The total score is compared with quantitative test norms, and after this comparison, standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.

The popularity of the test method is explained by the following main advantages (below, traditional oral and written exams are taken as a comparison):

1. Standardization of conditions and results. Test methods are relatively independent of the qualifications of the user (performer), for whose role even a laboratory assistant with secondary education can be trained. This, however, does not mean that in order to prepare a comprehensive conclusion on a battery of tests, it is not necessary to involve a qualified specialist with a full-fledged higher psychological education.

2. Efficiency and efficiency. A typical test consists of a series of short tasks, each of which usually takes no more than half a minute to complete, and the entire test usually takes no more than an hour (in school practice this is one lesson); A group of subjects is tested simultaneously, thus saving significant time (man-hours) on data collection.

3. Quantitative differentiated nature of the assessment. The granularity of the scale and the standardization of the test allows us to consider it as a “measuring instrument” that gives a quantitative assessment of the properties being measured (knowledge, skills in a given area). In addition, the quantitative nature of the test results makes it possible to apply in the case of tests a well-developed psychometric apparatus, allowing one to assess how well the work is performed. this test on a given sample of subjects under given conditions.

4. Optimal difficulty. A professionally done test consists of tasks of optimal difficulty. In this case, the average test taker scores approximately 50 percent of the maximum possible number of points. This is achieved through preliminary tests - a psychometric experiment. If during the test it becomes known that approximately half of the examined contingent can cope with the task, then such a task is considered successful and is left in the test.

5. Reliability. This is perhaps the most important advantage of the tests. The “lottery” nature of modern exams with the drawing of “lucky” or “unlucky” tickets is known to everyone. The lottery for the examinee here results in low reliability for the examiner - the answer to one fragment of the curriculum, as a rule, is not indicative of the level of mastery of the entire material. In contrast, any well-constructed test covers the main sections of the curriculum (the area of ​​knowledge being tested or the manifestations of some skill or ability). As a result, the opportunity for “tail-leaders” to become excellent students, and for an excellent student to suddenly “fail,” is sharply reduced.

6. The most important social consequence of the above advantages of the test method is fairness. It should be understood as protection from examiner bias. Good test puts all subjects on equal terms.

7. Possibility of computerization. IN in this case This is not just an additional convenience that reduces the human labor of qualified performers during mass examination. As a result of computerization, all testing parameters are improved. It is possible to provide information security. It is possible to create a "bank" test tasks", which allows you to technically prevent abuse by unscrupulous examiners. The selection of tasks offered to a particular subject can be made from such a bank by the computer program itself directly during testing, and the presentation of a particular task to a given subject in this case is as much a surprise for the examiner as for the subject.

8. Psychological adequacy. This is the most important psychological consequence of optimal complexity. The presence in the test (compared to traditional exam options) of a larger number of short tasks of average difficulty gives many test takers (especially anxious, unconfident ones) a chance to believe in themselves and activate a psychologically optimal “to overcome” attitude. When such a subject remains face to face with one or two very complex and large tasks and does not see how he can cope with them at all, then he loses heart and does not reveal all his capabilities.

And if there are a lot of tasks and some of them clearly begin to “give in” (the test subject is confident that he can cope with them), the person during the testing process becomes encouraged and begins to “fight” for the maximum result. The property of optimal complexity not only ensures the measuring (discriminating) power of the test, but also ensures the optimal psychological mood of the subjects. A test situation of optimal complexity is an optimal stimulus - people experience normal level stress (tension) necessary in order to show the highest result. Lack of stress (if light dough), and even more so an excess (in the case of a difficult one) distorts the measurement results.

Disadvantages of testing:

1. The danger of “blind”, automatic errors. The blind faith of unqualified performers that the test should work correctly automatically sometimes gives rise to errors and incidents: the test subject did not understand the instructions and began to answer in a completely different way than required by the standards of the instructions, the test subject for some reason used distorting tactics, a “shift” occurred in the application stencils-key to the answer form (for manual, non-computer scoring), etc.

2. The danger of profanity. The apparent ease of conducting tests attracts people who do not want to get seriously acquainted with psychodiagnostics.

3. Loss individual approach, "stressogenicity". The test is for everyone. It is quite possible to miss the unique individuality of a non-standard person (especially a child). The test subjects themselves feel this, and it makes them nervous - especially in the situation of certification testing. People with reduced resistance to stress even experience a certain violation of self-regulation - they begin to worry and make mistakes in basic questions for themselves.

4. Loss of an individual approach, “reproduction”. Knowledge tests are designed to identify ready-made, standard knowledge. Most tests are not aimed at creative, constructive activities.

5. Lack of trust. The testing procedure can give the test subject the impression that the psychologist has little interest in him personally, in his problems and difficulties. Dialogical methods in this regard have an undoubted advantage.

6. Inadequate complexity. Sometimes unskilled “testologists” impose tests on a child that are too difficult for his or her age. He has not yet developed the necessary concepts and conceptual skills to adequately comprehend both the general instructions for the test and the meaning of individual questions.

Tests cannot be made the only comprehensive method of any diagnosis; they require the parallel use of other diagnostic methods. The best guarantee against profanity and profanity is a serious and qualified interest in what experimental and scientific work the test developers have done, how fully this work and its results are reflected in the accompanying documentation. These are, first of all, issues of reliability, validity and representativeness.

Questionnaires as a standardized self-report.

Questionnaires are a large group of techniques, the tasks of which are presented in the form of questions or statements, and the task of the subject is to independently report some information about himself in the form of answers. Theoretical basis This method can be considered introspectionism - the psychology of introspection. The questionnaire method was initially considered as a type of self-observation. But given the given answer options, this self-observation, which is given a standardized character, in many formal characteristics comes close to objective testing.

A research instrument that asks respondents to answer a variety of written questions. A group of psychodiagnostic techniques in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements. Designed to obtain data from the words of the subject (standardized self-report).

Types of questionnaires.

A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, but requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a lot of time to conduct the research. The answers of the subjects obtained during an oral interview significantly depend on the personality of the person conducting the interview, and on the individual characteristics of the person answering the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the interview situation.

A written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account in advance the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions and, based on this, change them. A free survey is a type of oral or written survey in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.

Personality questionnaires.

Standardized questionnaires, with the help of which the degree of expression of the subjects’ personality traits or other personality characteristics is clearly and quantitatively assessed. As a rule, there are no “right” or “wrong” answers in personality questionnaires. They only reflect the degree of agreement or disagreement of the subject with a particular statement. Based on the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires) and with free answers (open questionnaires).

In closed questionnaires, options for answering the question are provided in advance. The test taker must choose one of them. The most common is a two- or three-alternative answer choice (for example: “yes, no”; “yes, no, I find it difficult to answer”). The advantage of closed questions is the simplicity of the registration and data processing procedure, the clear formalization of assessment, which is important for mass surveys. At the same time, this form of response “coarsens” the information. Often, subjects have difficulties when it is necessary to make a categorical decision.

Open questionnaires allow for free responses without any special restrictions. Subjects give answers at their own discretion. Standardization of processing is achieved by assigning random responses to standard categories. Advantages: obtaining detailed information about the subject; conducting a qualitative analysis of responses. Disadvantages: difficulty in formalizing answers and their assessments; difficulties in interpreting the results; the procedure is cumbersome and time consuming.

Personality Trait Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality traits. Directly observable personality traits act as the source material for constructing questionnaires. In contrast to the construction of typological questionnaires, this approach requires the grouping of personality traits and those not surveyed. In personality trait questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out gradually in the severity of traits. Example: (16 personality factors) - Cattell questionnaire, USC.

Typological questionnaires - group personality questionnaires, developed on the basis of identifying personality types as integral formations that cannot be reduced to a set of traits (or factors). This approach requires grouping the subjects themselves, and not their personal characteristics. In typological questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out on the basis of comparison with the corresponding /average/ personality type. Example: G. Eysenck, MMPI.

Motive Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires designed to diagnose the motivational-need sphere of the individual, which makes it possible to establish what a person’s activity is aimed at (motives as the reasons that determine the choice of direction of behavior) and how the dynamics of behavior are regulated.

Interest Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure interests and the choice of professional activity. Interest questionnaires, depending on the saturation of personal indicators, can be classified as both personal questionnaires and questionnaires.

Values ​​Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires designed to measure the values ​​and value orientations of an individual. Values ​​are formed in the process of assimilation of social experience and are found in interests, attitudes and other manifestations of personality.

Attitude Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure a person’s relative orientation in a one-dimensional continuum of attitudes.

Biographical questionnaires - a group of questionnaires to obtain data about a person’s life history. Most often, questions relate to age, health, marital status, level and nature of education, special skills, career advancement and other relatively objective indicators. They help gather the information needed to reliably interpret test scores.

Question forms: open and closed (dichotomous and alternative). Forms for presenting results. Ways to increase the reliability of questionnaires (multiple duplication of questions, introduction of a “lie scale”, abandonment of direct questions, etc.).

Specifics of the questionnaire survey. Questioning is an empirical method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that make up a questionnaire. Preparing the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, or group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

Questionnaires are used to obtain any information about a person that is not directly related to his psychological and personal characteristics. They require a strictly fixed order, content and form of questions, and a clear indication of the form of answers. Questionnaire surveys are classified according to the content and design of questions (open, closed, semi-open). Respondent is a person answering questions in a questionnaire or interview.

Features of interviewing. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to obtain answers from the interviewee to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions.

Abstract on the topic "Conversation as a method of psychological and pedagogical research." The essence of the conversation method, types of conversations, as well as preparation and conduct of the conversation are considered. The appendix contains material from a conversation with parents “Tell me about your child.”

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Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...3

1.Conversation method: its meaning and place among other methods…………………4

2. Types of conversations…………………………………………………………………………………6

3. Preparation and conduct of the conversation……………………………………………...8

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………11

Literature……………………………………………………………………………….12

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………13

Introduction

The topic of the essay is relevant, since with all the variety of methods of psychological and pedagogical research, scientists of all times in conversations received information that could not be obtained by any other means. In conversations, dialogues, and discussions, people’s attitudes, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions are revealed. Pedagogical conversation as a research method is distinguished by the researcher’s purposeful attempts to penetrate inner world interlocutor, to identify the reasons for certain of his actions. Information about the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attitudeproblems of interest to the researcher are also obtained through conversations.
The object is the methods scientific research, the subject is conversation, as a method of scientific and pedagogical research.
The following goals and objectives are set in the work:
1. analyze the scientific literature on the research topic and define the concept of “conversation”;
2. identify the main types of conversations in personality research, consider the structure of preparing and conducting the conversation.

1. The conversation method: its meaning and place among other methods

Conversation is a dialogic teaching method in which the teacher, by posing a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned.

A conversation is a question-and-answer method of active interaction between a teacher and students, used at all stages of the educational process: to communicate new knowledge, to consolidate, repeat, test and evaluate knowledge

Conversation is a method of collecting information based on verbal communication. It is a type of survey and represents a relatively free dialogue between the researcher and the subject on a specific topic.

Conversation is one of the most well-known methods of creative teaching. Socrates used it masterfully. Therefore, a conversation through which a student independently discovers new knowledge is called Socratic. The leading function of this method is stimulating, but it also performs other functions with no less success. There is no method so versatile and effective in all respects.

Conversation is an active, stimulating method. With the help of targeted and skillfully posed questions, the teacher encourages students to recall knowledge they already know, generalizing and developing it, quietly achieving the assimilation of new knowledge through independent reflection, conclusions and generalizations.

A conversation is a dialogue: the teacher’s questions and the students’ answers. It forces the student’s thought to follow the teacher’s thought, as a result of which the students advance step by step in mastering new knowledge. Another advantage of conversation is that it maximally activates thinking, serves as an excellent means of diagnosing acquired knowledge and skills, contributes to the development of students’ cognitive powers, and creates conditions for the operational management of the learning process. The educational role of conversation is also great.

It is important to emphasize that in conversation, as in other teaching methods, knowledge can develop deductively or inductively. Deductive conversation is based on what students already know general rules, principles, concepts, through the analysis of which they come to particular conclusions. In the inductive form, conversations start from individual facts and concepts and, based on their analysis, come to general conclusions.

IN primary school conversation is most effective for:

Preparing students to work in class;

Introducing them to new material;

Systematization and consolidation of knowledge;

Current monitoring and diagnostics of knowledge acquisition.

Compliance with all necessary conditions conducting a conversation, including collecting preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective means of psychological and pedagogical research. Therefore, it is advisable that the conversation be conducted taking into account data obtained through methods such as observation and questionnaires. In this case, its goals may include checking preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained using these methods of primary orientation in the studied characteristics of the subjects.

1. Types of Conversations

Several ways to classify conversations have been proposed. Conversations are distinguished by purpose: 1) introductory, or organizing; 2) communication of new knowledge; 3) synthesizing, or fixing; 4) control and correction.

According to the level of cognitive independence of students, reproductive and heuristic conversations are distinguished.

Reproductive conversation involves the reproducing activity of students (familiar ways of operating with familiar educational material). Heuristic conversation is aimed at organizing the search activity of students, element-by-element training in creative search when solving problematic problems. Its main function is that the teacher, using specially selected questions and reasoning, leads students to certain conclusions. Students, at the same time, reproduce previously acquired knowledge, compare, contrast, etc. In a heuristic conversation, the teacher poses a problem and breaks it down with the help of questions in such a way that each question follows from the previous one, and together they lead to a solution to the problem.

In psychology, the following main types of conversations are distinguished:

- standardized conversation– persistent program, strategy and tactics;

- partially standardized– a stable program and strategy, tactics are much freer;

Free – the program and strategy are not determined in advance or only in basic terms, tactics are completely free.

During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student ( individual conversation) or students of the whole class ( frontal conversation).

Let us dwell in more detail on the classification of conversations by purpose:

1.Introductory (preparatory)The conversation usually takes place before the start of academic work. Its goal is to find out whether the students correctly understood the meaning of the work ahead, whether they have a good idea of ​​what and how to do. Before an excursion, practical exercises, or learning new material, such conversations have a significant effect.

2. Conversation-message (explanatory) can be: catechetical (question-and-answer, not allowing objections, with memorization of answers); Socratic (soft, respectful on the part of the student, but allowing doubts and objections); heuristic (putting the student in front of problems and requiring his own answers to the questions posed by the teacher). Any conversation creates an interest in knowledge and develops a taste for cognitive activity. All types of conversations are used in elementary school. Teachers are increasingly introducing complex heuristic (discovery) conversations that encourage children to think independently and move towards the discovery of the truth. Therefore, during a heuristic conversation, they acquire knowledge through their own efforts and reflections.

3. Synthesizing, final, or consolidatingConversations serve to generalize and systematize the knowledge students already have.

4. Control and correction (checking)conversation is used for diagnostic purposes, as well as when it is necessary to develop, clarify, or supplement the students’ existing knowledge with new facts or provisions.

3. Preparing and conducting a conversation

To successfully conduct a conversation, the teacher needs serious preparation for it. It is necessary to determine the topic of the conversation, its purpose, draw up an outline, select visual aids, formulate the main and auxiliary questions that may arise during the conversation, think over the methodology for organizing and conducting it.

It is very important to formulate and ask questions correctly. They must have a logical connection with each other, collectively reveal the essence of the issue being studied, and contribute to the assimilation of knowledge in the system. The content and form of questions should correspond to the level of development of students. Easy questions do not stimulate active cognitive activity or a serious attitude towards knowledge. You should also not ask “prompting” questions that contain ready-made answers.

The technique of question-and-answer teaching is very important. Each question is asked to the entire audience. And only after a short pause for reflection, the student is called to answer. Trainees who “shout out” answers should not be encouraged. The weak should be asked more often, giving everyone else the opportunity to correct inaccurate answers. Long or double questions are not asked.

If none of the students can answer the question, you need to reformulate it, break it into parts, and ask a leading question. You should not achieve the imaginary independence of students by suggesting leading words, syllables or initial letters that can be used to give an answer, especially without thinking.

The success of a conversation depends on contact with the audience. It is necessary to ensure that all students take an active part in the conversation, listen carefully to questions, think about the answers, analyze the answers of their comrades, and strive to express their own opinions.

Every answer is listened to carefully. Correct answers are approved, erroneous or incomplete answers are commented on and clarified. The student who answered incorrectly is asked to discover the inaccuracy or error himself, and only after he fails to do this, they call on his comrades for help. With the permission of the teacher, students can ask questions to each other, but as soon as the teacher is convinced that their questions have no cognitive value and are asked for imaginary activation, this activity must be stopped.

The teacher should know that conversation is an uneconomical and difficult method of teaching. It requires time, effort, appropriate conditions, as well as a high level of pedagogical skill. When choosing a conversation, you need to weigh your capabilities and the capabilities of the students in order to prevent the “failure” of the conversation, the consequences of which will be difficult to eliminate.

To increase the reliability of the results of the conversation and remove the inevitable shade of subjectivity, special measures are used. These include: 1. The presence of a clear conversation plan, thought out taking into account the personality characteristics of the interlocutor and steadily implemented; 2. Discussion of issues of interest to the researcher from various angles and connections; 3. Varying questions, posing them in a form convenient for the interlocutor; 4. The ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in questions and answers. The art of conversation requires long and patient learning.

The progress of the conversation may be recorded with the consent of the interlocutor. Modern technical means make it possible to do this unnoticed by the subjects.

In conclusion, it should be noted the advantages and disadvantages of conversation as a method of psychological and pedagogical research.

Advantages of the conversation method:

Activates students;

Develops their memory and speech;

Does open knowledge students;

Has great educational power;

It is a good diagnostic tool.

Disadvantages of the conversation method:

Requires a lot of time;

Contains an element of risk (a student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by other students and recorded in their memory);

A stock of knowledge is required.

Conclusion

I believe that this essay has fully achieved the goals and objectives of the study. The scientific literature was analyzed, the concepts of conversation were examined from the points of view of various authors, the main types of conversations in personality research were identified, the structure of preparing and conducting a conversation, as well as its advantages and disadvantages, was considered.

Conversations are most widely used in educational practice. With all the richness and diversity of ideological and thematic content, the conversations have the main purpose of attracting students themselves to evaluate events, actions, and phenomena of social life and, on this basis, forming in them an adequate attitude to the surrounding reality, to their civic, political and moral responsibilities.

The appendix contains a protocol of a conversation with parents on the topic: “Tell me about your child.”

Literature

1. Andreev, I.D. On the methods of scientific knowledge [Text]/ I.D. Andreev. – M.: Nauka, 1964. – 184 p.
2. Ailamazyan, A.M. Conversation method in psychology [Text] / A.M. Ailamazyan.- M.: Smysl, 1999.-122 p.
3. Bryzgalova S.I. Introduction to scientific and pedagogical research [Text]: textbook. 3rd ed., rev. and additional / S.I. Bryzgalova. – Kaliningrad: KSU Publishing House, 2003. – 151 p.
4. Pidkasisty, P.I. Pedagogy [Text]: textbook for students pedagogical universities and colleges/ P.I. Faggot. – M.: Russian Pedagogical Agency, 1996. - 455 p.
5. Podlasy I. P. Pedagogy [Text]: textbook for students of higher pedagogical educational institutions/ I.P. Podlasy. – M.: Education, 1996. - 432 p.
6. Slastenin, V.A. Pedagogy [Text]: Proc. aid for students higher ped. textbook institutions / V. A. Slastenin, I. F. Isaev, E. N. Shiyanov. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002. - 576 p.

Application

CONVERSATION WITH PARENTS

Topic: Tell us about your child

Diagnostic capabilities.

Conversations will allow you to get a first impression of the child.

Material : protocol with a list of questions, pen.

Progress of the conversation

A psychologist, in an individual conversation with the parents of a future first-grader, solves the problem of a comprehensive and detailed (detailed) acquaintance with the atmosphere in which the child lived, with the characteristics of his development and the level of pre-school preparation.

Based on the results of the conversation, a protocol is drawn up with fairly complete, meaningful, significant answers from the parents to the psychologist’s questions.

questionnaire

FULL NAME. _______________________________________________

Date of birth________ Gender_____ Date of examination_______

Place of diagnosis _________________________________

1. State the last name, first name and patronymic of your child.

2. What is the composition of your family? Does the child have older brothers or sisters who are in school?

3. Who is primarily involved in raising the child?

4. Has the child attended kindergarten(if “yes”, then at what age, did you willingly go there)?

5. Are there any differences in the views of family members on education?

6. What methods of education (reward and punishment) are used in the family and how does the child react to them?

7. What games does he prefer - mobile or tabletop (such as construction), individual or group, with the participation of other children or adults?

8. How independent is he? Does he know how to keep himself busy or does he constantly require the attention of adults?

9. Does he perform any duties around the house?

10. How does the child communicate with peers - does he have friends and do they come to visit him?

11. Does he take the initiative in communication or does he wait until someone speaks to him, or perhaps even avoids communication altogether?

12. Do children willingly accept it in the game, are conflicts frequent?

13. How does the child communicate with adults - with family members and with strangers?

14. Does the child have a desire to go to school, is he in a hurry?
with the purchase of school supplies or does not remember about it?

15. Does the child ask to show him the letters or even teach him anything related to school?

16. How did parents prepare their child for school?

17. Does he know the letters (all or some)?

19. Does the child have the desire to go to school?

20. Tell us about the child what you yourself consider important and characteristic of him.

Procedure.

The conversation is conducted without the child. It is advisable to talk to both parents. The conversation should be as confidential and informal as possible, so that parents do not have the desire to present their child “in the best light.”

Questions should not be read from a piece of paper. It is better to take notes not during a conversation, but after the parents leave.

If it is not possible to conduct a detailed conversation, you can limit yourself to a questionnaire that parents fill out in writing.

Conversation is a psychology-specific method for studying human behavior, since in others natural sciences communication between the subject and object of research is impossible.

Conversation- obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication.

Conversation- a dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other.

Conversation is included as an additional method into the structure of the experiment:

• at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and
• at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview.

Researchers distinguish:

• clinical conversation - component"clinical method"
• targeted “face-to-face” survey - interview.

Clinical talk is not necessarily carried out with a clinic patient. This is a way of exploring the whole personality,

Its goal is that during a dialogue with the subject, the researcher seeks to obtain the most complete information about his individual personal characteristics, life path, the content of his consciousness and subconscious, etc.

The clinical conversation is most often carried out in a specially equipped room.

Interview - targeted survey. The interview method has become widespread in social psychology, personality psychology, and occupational psychology.

The main area of ​​application of interviews is sociology . Therefore, according to tradition, it is classified as sociological and socio-psychological methods.

An interview is defined as " pseudo-conversation "- the interviewer must always:

• remember all the time that he is a researcher,
• don't lose sight of the plan
• lead the conversation in the direction he needs.

There are a lot of specific methodological recommendations regarding the construction and conduct of interviews.

Rules for the conversation:

• The content of the questions asked must correspond to the task facing the psychologist.
• The questions asked by the psychologist should not be of a purely clinical nature, i.e. should not be aimed at identifying signs of a disease state.
• In the conversation, the psychologist must obtain psychological information regarding the characteristics of cognitive activity (memory, thinking, attention, speech).
• It is also advisable to include in the conversation questions that allow you to determine the peculiarities of orientation in place, time, and personal identity, characterizing the state of consciousness at the time of the examination.
• The conversation conducted with children should, in addition, give a general idea of ​​the level of intellectual development and the correspondence of this level to the child’s age.
• When talking with children, special attention should be paid to issues related to the characteristics and motives of behavior, attitudes towards family and school, interests, inclinations, difficulties in learning, the nature of relationships with peers and adults, attitudes towards one’s defect, and the examination situation.

Except diagnostic function related to obtaining information about the features mental activity and the patient’s personality, the conversation also fulfills “tuning” (psychocorrective and psychotherapeutic) function .

The result and process of further experimental research largely depend on the subject’s attitude to the examination situation, on his motivation, attitude towards work and cooperation with the experimenter, and on his emotional state.

Many subjects perceive the examination situation as an expert one (and in some cases it is such), that is, a situation during which the intelligence and personality of the subject will be subject to a certain assessment.

Any expert situation should evoke a certain emotional response in a person. However, if the excitement, anxiety, desire to make a favorable impression (or fear of making an unfavorable one) caused by such a situation acquires an exaggerated character, then such a reaction can lead to disruption or inhibition of the subject’s activity.

The opposite reaction to an experimental situation is also inadequate - when a person is indifferent and disinterested in the upcoming work.

To this end, during the conversation, the psychologist must spend some effort on creating a positive attitude in the patient for further activities and cooperation:

• Subjects who take the examination lightly or dismissively must be convinced of its significance in terms of treatment, the prospect of discharge, acceptance of an expert opinion, etc.
• In other subjects, it is necessary to remove the fear of the examination, convince them of the fundamental possibility of completing the proposed tasks, and instill in them confidence in their abilities.

During the conversation, a certain mood for further activity is created, and the subjects’ inadequate attitudes are corrected.

Pathopsychological research in general, and conversation in particular,

are not strictly algorithmic , but must flexibly follow the logic of the development of the relationship between the psychologist and the subject.

There is not and cannot be a unified conversation pattern for everyone.

• The conversation should be structured in accordance with principles and technology of clinical interview used in psychological counseling and psychotherapy.
• The basis for a successful conversation is the ability to establish, trusting relationship with the subject.

Compliance with deontological principles is mandatory for a pathopsychologist.

• The art of conversation is what questions And as asked psychologist. In a conversation, you should avoid direct questions, “head-on” questions, especially if they relate to topics that are painful for the patient (which can be questions of an evaluative nature, touching on conflicting, unpleasant moments of his life and experiences).

You should not ask closed questions that require any definite answer. In a clinical conversation, preference should be given to open-ended questions that stimulate the patient’s speech activity.

• To establish an emotional and trusting contact with the patient, the conversation should be informal character.

However, an apparently relaxed and informal conversation should be well thought out and clearly planned by a psychologist.

The conversation program should be built in advance, based on an analysis of preliminary data about the future subject (obtained from the anamnesis, from conversations with the attending physician, relatives).

The form of the conversation and the nature of the questions asked are influenced by:

• age,
• educational (cultural) level of the patient,
• features of receiving and processing information characteristic of it,
• the possibility of a negative attitude towards the study,
• speech characteristics of the future subject, etc.

The basic professional skills of a psychologist include the ability to listen to an interlocutor and conduct a conversation. The basis of any conversation is verbal communication. The ability to conduct a conversation is an entire art, which includes knowledge of the patterns of conversation, understanding the structure and content of questions, the order in which they are presented, the ability to plan a conversation and set up the interlocutor for an open dialogue. Using Conversation in diagnostic work allows you to collect a large layer of psychological information, including attitudes, personal motives, features of the current life situation, the functional state of the person being examined, and much more. Like observation, the conversation has no significant age restrictions; it can be used during the examination of individuals in preschool, school, teenage and older age groups. This is the undeniable advantage of the conversation method. In addition, the diagnostician has the ability to sensitively respond to changes in the state of the subject, taking into account the nature of the feedback, and flexibly change the strategy and manner of conducting the conversation. It is live, partner communication, direct transmission of information that contributes to a holistic perception of personality, understanding of the complexity and individuality of each specific person being examined.

Conversation plays an invaluable role in establishing contact, preceding any psychodiagnostic examination. That is why conversation skills are among the basic professional skills in the work of a psychologist. A conversation can act in a diagnostic examination as the main method of collecting diagnostic information. So, for your reference, Appendix 5 provides a version of a standardized conversation to identify motivation for school learning among older preschoolers and junior schoolchildren. Also, conversation can act as an additional method that enriches the data of other methods. For example, during a modified version of the Dembo-Rubinstein “Staircase” technique, intended for diagnosing children’s self-esteem, the conversation is organically integrated into the diagnostic procedure. Moreover, the use of this technique without a conversation is unacceptable, since in this case the procedure is disrupted and important diagnostic information (self-esteem criteria, values ​​and personal meaning of concepts) is lost.

Important to remember!

Psychodiagnostic conversation- this is a way of obtaining information about the mental properties, psychological characteristics of a person, the dynamics life path based on speech communications.

In order to understand the breadth and diversity of the conversation method, let's study its typology. Below are the main types of conversation; the criteria for determining the type were the features of planning the conversation and the strict adherence to the rules of conduct.

• 1. Standardized conversation - the most rigorous option for conducting a conversation. When conducting such a conversation, the goals and list of questions are clearly defined, and the activity is entirely on the side of the diagnostic psychologist. It is unacceptable to make changes, add or delete any questions. The diagnostician determines in advance the information blocks in the structure of the conversation and their sequence. A standardized conversation is used when interviewing a large number of people (for example, a school class or work team) on one topic. Thanks to strict standardization and a unified algorithm, the diagnostician has the opportunity to collate and compare the information received. This type of conversation is practically not used when working with young children.
• 2. Partially standardized conversation - The specificity of this conversation is that the diagnostician adheres to a predetermined strategy, but the manner of conducting the conversation is more flexible. During the conversation, the diagnostician can swap questions and make certain additions. This type of conversation is used if contact has already been established with the subject, and the topic of the conversation is simple. The time spent in this case is insignificant, the experience of the person asking the questions may not be great. This type conversations are most common in diagnostic practice. Just as with a standardized conversation, a psychodiagnostician has the ability to compare data. However, a significant disadvantage is the relative severity of the conversation, which can cause resistance and defense mechanisms in the person being examined.
• 3. Free conversation- the strategy is defined in the most general form, and the manner of conduct is completely free. The diagnostician asks questions without prior preparation, focusing on the go, taking into account the answers of the person being examined, which maintains a relaxed atmosphere and promotes relaxedness, and as a result, greater sincerity in the answers of the person being examined. This type of conversation is more often used by professional psychologists with many years of practice behind them. It is the high level of professionalism, skill and rich practical experience that allows them to conduct a free type of conversation, without preparing a plan and an approximate list of questions in advance. For beginning psychologists, this type of conversation is difficult to implement in practice.
• 4. Unprogrammed (uncontrollable) conversation - a variant of psychoanalytic conversation. What exactly to talk about and in how much detail is decided by the person being examined. In this case, initiative and activity are completely on the side of the subject.

Despite the variety of types of conversations that can be explained by practice, there is a logic of conducting a conversation, which includes stable structural blocks, the observance of which is invariable regardless of the type of conversation. Taking into account and following the stages of the conversation ensures the integrity and completeness of the psychodiagnostic conversation.

The stages of conversation are as follows.

First stage - introduction to the conversation. The main tasks of this stage are familiarization with the objectives of the examination, setting up the interlocutor for communication, and familiarization with the conditions and rules of the work of a psychodiagnostician. The most important thing at this stage is establishing contact. The most important point is information about who initiated the meeting. If the initiator was a psychologist, then at this stage the diagnostician explains the topic of the upcoming conversation, trying to arouse interest and develop positive motivation for the conversation in the person being examined. The conditions of anonymity, the duration of the conversation and the possible further use of the information received are reported. It happens that parents initiate the conversation and bring their teenage child to the meeting. The teenager himself may not be at all in the mood for dialogue, but he does not dare to go against the will of his parents. In this case, it is especially difficult for the diagnostician to establish contact. In such a situation, it is important to show understanding and tact. The requirements for psychodiagnostic conversations with children are high: with them the role of conversation is more important than with adults. It is necessary to take into account the time factor (if the child did not open up at the first meeting, let him feel that the result was obtained, express the hope that next time there will be more). If the meeting took place on the initiative of the person being examined, who needs professional advice, then the psychodiagnostician is obliged to demonstrate a willingness to cooperate, tolerance for the views and positions of the interlocutor. The importance of the first, installation stage of the conversation also lies in the possibility of choosing the stylistic coloring of the conversation, the verbiage and expressions used. A psychodiagnostician must flexibly change the repertoire of phrases and expressions depending on the age, gender, social and educational level of the person being examined. For example, when communicating with a small child, it is advisable to use the form of address by name (as the child is called in the family). Addressing yourself with “You” indicating your first and patronymic is preferable when conducting a conversation with mature people. In this way, a respectful, comfortable atmosphere is achieved that promotes the development of positive motivation and a willingness to provide reliable information.

Second phase - survey. At this stage, the main task of a psychodiagnostician is to collect factual information about the living conditions of the person being examined, his personal characteristics, attitude to various events, characteristics of emotional reactions in various situations, etc. The content of the second stage is determined primarily by the goals of the diagnostic conversation. It is advisable to use general open-ended questions on the topic of the conversation, thereby stimulating the interlocutor to freely talk about the events of his life and his attitude towards them.

Third stage - clarification. In the process of communication, cognitive distortions and inaccurate interpretation of the interlocutor’s words may arise. It happens that interlocutors attach different semantic content to the same words. To avoid a situation where the diagnostician misunderstands the statement of the person being examined, clarifying, additional questions and requests to explain what meaning this or that expression has for a person help. Ignoring this stage increases the risk of distortion of the information received.

Fourth stage - interpretation. This stage is implemented to a greater extent during a standardized conversation. The psychodiagnostician evaluates and interprets the collected information. This is one of the most labor-intensive stages of the conversation, since here the psychodiagnostician analyzes all the material: the responses of the subject, his spontaneous speech reactions, and behavior during the conversation.

Fifth stage - final. At this stage, it is important to pay attention to what feelings the person will leave you with, it is necessary to relieve discomfort and emotional stress, if they arise. It is unacceptable to end the conversation with a confrontation with the subject. If subsequent meetings are expected, then the end of the conversation should help to increase the person’s readiness for further productive work. In essence, this is the stage of summing up intermediate or final results of the conversation and providing feedback to the subject. The content of the feedback is completely dictated by the goals and objectives of the conversation, as well as the state of the subject.

Important to remember!

At the final stage of the conversation it is necessary Always express gratitude and appreciation to the person being examined for the work done and interest in the examination. This position promotes further cooperation and forms a positive image of the diagnostic psychologist.

Depending on the request and the goal, the psychodiagnostician determines the main topic of the conversation and specifies the tasks. As we already know, in a conversation there can be varying degrees of standardization - the rigidity of the plan. Taking into account the purpose and topic of the conversation, the diagnostic psychologist independently determines the strategy of his behavior in communication. The required number of semantic blocks in a conversation, the possibility of adding and deleting questions during communication - these questions remain at the discretion of the psychodiagnostician.

It is equally important to plan the duration and conditions of the conversation. The duration of the conversation should not be more than an hour or an hour and a half; a conversation that is too long tires the interlocutor and makes the person want to end the conversation as soon as possible. It will be useful to use auxiliary materials in the conversation: toys, various figures, drawings, colored pencils and felt-tip pens. This allows you to captivate the child and interest the adult, as well as get Additional information about the subject. Recording of the information received can be carried out both at the time of the conversation and after its completion. It is best to take brief notes during the conversation, and write a more detailed description after the end of the meeting. It is effective to use a voice recorder or any other recording technology. However, it is necessary to obtain the informed consent of the subject for this type of recording.

In the structure of a conversation, questions are the main element. The ability to ask questions correctly and formulate them accurately is the basic, fundamental skill of a psychologist in general and a psychodiagnostician in particular. Various classifications of the types of questions used in conversation are widely known. Thus, one of the classifications is based on the degree of openness of the questions. These are, first of all, open and closed questions. Open questions do not require an answer option; the subject himself formulates an explanation for such a question. This type of questions includes the following questions: “how?”, “why?”, “where?”. For example: “Where do you plan to go after graduation?”, “Why are you not interested in this type of leisure?”, “How would you describe your state at that moment?” The psychodiagnostician, by asking open-ended questions, allows the subject to independently construct the content of his answer. Thanks to their use, the interlocutor himself explains his position, his plans and experiences.

Another type, closed questions, involves ready-made answer options. For example: “Is this difficult for you?”, “Do you like working in a large team?”, “Tell me, do you have close friends?” A kind of dichotomy of answers is used (yes-no, agree-disagree). In this case, the possibility of answering in more detail or giving a completely different answer is practically excluded. By asking a closed question, the psychodiagist reserves the right of the subject to either agree or disagree with the statement. A large number of closed questions in a conversation creates a tense atmosphere and completely deprives the person being examined of activity. Therefore, this type of question must be used with special care, only for the specific purpose of clarifying the speaker’s position and obtaining certainty of choice.

The following classification of questions is based on different degrees of focus on the subject of conversation: direct, indirect and projective questions.

Direct questions are aimed directly at diagnosing a phenomenon and directly relate to the subject of conversation.

Indirect questions touch on the subject of conversation more indirectly, bypassing a direct indication of the phenomenon of interest.

Projective questions may include a description of a hypothetical situation, unrealistic life circumstances, or are asked from the perspective of a fictional character.

The use of indirect and projective questions in a conversation allows you to obtain more detailed and reliable information than from direct questions. Nevertheless, regardless of the specific type of questions, there are a number of general requirements for their formulation:

the question should be short, preferably without adverbial phrases;

• - the question must be understandable to the interlocutor;
• - should be aimed not at evaluating actions, but at analyzing specific actions;

it is desirable that the question does not contain the particle “not”;

• - the question should not be leading to a specific answer;
• - the question should be tactful, especially if the issue of the intimate sphere is raised.

The effectiveness of the conversation is largely determined by the position of the listener. Listening means not interrupting or interrupting your interlocutor, maintaining constant attention, maintaining steady eye contact with the interlocutor, and taking into account non-verbal information. During the conversation, you need to pay attention to pauses (resistance - a defensive reaction, an emotional shock reaction to a question, there may be instability of attention, absent-mindedness, lack of interest in the question, misunderstanding of the question). When conducting a conversation, it is important to consider both verbal and non-verbal channels of information transmission. The information received when these channels diverge is usually called incongruent, i.e. in speech the subject says one thing, and at the non-verbal level another. If a psychodiagnostician focuses only on the speech message and analyzes exclusively the meaning of verbal statements, then incongruence is not captured. The discrepancy between the indicated channels of information transmission allows us to construct a number of diagnostic hypotheses: a person does not trust the diagnostician, the issue under discussion raises psychological defenses, the interlocutor is closed and insincere.

Reflection Challenge

Do you agree with the following statement: men interrupt women almost twice as often, are attentive only for the first 15 seconds, then think: “What should I add?” Give arguments for and against this statement.

Active listening is an energy-intensive process that follows its own laws and requires attention, patience, and tact. Active listening includes non-reflective and reflective techniques. Non-reflective listening is aimed more at understanding the interlocutor, while using a minimum set of words and non-verbal support. Most often, non-reflective listening techniques are used in situations where the interlocutor needs to speak out with an urgent desire to express his opinion or discuss disturbing topics. The practice of using short remarks is effective: “I understand”, “Please continue”, “Yes?”, “That’s how it is.” Replies of this kind are called “empathic quacking.” Such responses express interest in the conversation, stimulate further narration, and at the same time create free space for the speaker. A short remark, an affirmative tilt of the head, if done sincerely, encourages the interlocutor and makes him want to talk. At the same time, some short remarks can cause a backlash, for example, “Come on?”, “Is it really that bad?”, “Why is that?” This kind of phrase is inappropriate and will lead to closedness and reluctance to continue the conversation.

Reflective listening, in contrast to non-reflective listening, is aimed more at the accuracy and correctness of perception of statements. Used when necessary to clarify the meaning of verbal expressions. Helps to avoid mistakes of misunderstanding each other, for example, those associated with the polysemy of words in the Russian language; allows you to check your understanding. The following techniques can be used.

• "Repetition". The goal is to check the accuracy of your partner's understanding. There are two versions: 1) verbatim repetition of the partner’s remark (echo technique, “Indeed, ... (the interlocutor’s message is given)”); 2) paraphrasing (reproducing the speaker’s thoughts in his own words, “In other words,...”).
• “Clarification”, clarifying the meaning of what was said (“Repeat, please, what should I do?”, “You can correct me if I misunderstood your idea”).
• "Summary". The conversation is summarized (“The main idea of ​​our conversation was this and that”). The goal is to summarize the main ideas of the interlocutor, to connect the main fragments of the conversation into a single whole. To summarize, the interlocutor reproduces his partner’s statements in an abbreviated, generalized form, highlighting the most essential elements (“So, you believe that...”).

The main difficulties that may arise when using the conversation method are associated with the influence of the personal qualities of the diagnostician, subjectivity in the analysis and processing of the collected information and the difficulty of formalizing the data obtained. It is extremely important to maintain a dialogic level of communication during the conversation - treating a person not as an object (although this is legitimate in certain situations), but as a subject (a free person), based on his orientation and readiness for dialogue. When conducting a conversation, it is necessary to focus on the client’s individual characteristics (pace of speech, speed of thinking), take into account character traits, self-esteem, age, gender. The need for a delayed diagnosis is associated with the error of premature conclusions; in this case, the material must be reworked. Thus, conducting a diagnostic conversation requires the successful implementation by a psychodiagnostician of professional skills of listening, observing, and speaking.