Political leaders. Developed countries Many political leaders especially in modern developing countries
Can be carried out on various social levels: at the level of a small social group, at the level of a socio-political movement, at the level of the entire society and at the level of interstate structural entities. The phenomenon of leadership is determined by the need to structure the social community and manage people.
Leadership can be formal, i.e. officially recognized and legally formalized (for example, the officially elected president of a country), and informal - a person actually performs the functions of the leader of a group, organization, heads a social movement, enjoys the trust of a significant number of citizens, but has no official status .
Functions of a political leader
The leader is endowed with special, sometimes unlimited powers. If he does not live up to the expectations placed on him, he may not only lose his leadership, but also suffer a more severe punishment.
The functions of a political leader are very diverse. They depend on the society and the state in which he has to govern, on the specific tasks facing the country, on the alignment of political forces. The most important of these functions are:
- integration of society, social community, class, party, etc. based on common goals, values, political ideas;
- determination of strategic guidelines in the development of society and the state;
- participation in the process of developing and making political decisions, identifying ways and methods of implementing program goals;
- mobilization of the masses to achieve political goals;
- social arbitration, support for order and legality;
- communication between the authorities and the masses, strengthening channels of political and emotional communication with citizens, for example, through the media or during various public events, including during election campaigns;
- legitimization of power.
From the listed functions it is clear how great the role of the leader is in society and in any social structure. Therefore, in a number of countries (France, Japan, the USA, etc.), the selection and training of political leaders begins in childhood and adolescence. There are even special schools and universities for this. A good school for preparing a political leader is his participation in social movements and active membership in a political party. At the same time, along with the professional abilities of a potential leader, great importance is attached to his moral quality.
Unfortunately, our country does not yet have a well-functioning system for training, selecting and nominating political leaders. Therefore, leadership positions are often occupied by insufficiently competent people.
Qualitative characteristics of a political leader
Political leaders have their own qualitative characteristics (“political status”, “political weight”, “political capital”, “political charisma”, “morality”, etc.).
Political status - it is the general position held by a political leader in a country's political system or in the world community. According to A.V. Glukhova, political status presupposes:
- place in the hierarchy of political power;
- the totality and scope of political rights and freedoms;
- the totality and scope of status responsibilities, the space and nature of the status field of responsibility;
- the real opportunity of certain groups, layers, individuals to participate in political life and influence it.
Thus, the popularly elected president of the country has the highest political status, since he is the representative of the entire people. Countries that are permanent members of the UN formally have a higher status than countries that are not. Consequently, the leader of a UN member country will have a corresponding status in the international arena. Three main levels of a leader's informal political status can be distinguished.
Internal (intrastate) informal political status that is “endowed” to a leader by the country’s political system or civil society. For example, in the late 80s - early 90s. XX century B. N. Yeltsin was “endowed” by a significant part of Russians with the informal status of “a fighter against the CPSU and the totalitarian regime”, defending a democratic alternative to the development of Russia. This status largely contributed to his obtaining the formal status of president of the country and his victories in the fight against the CPSU and in the conflict with parliament (1993).
Internal informal political status recognized by international organizations and institutions. For example, during an internal political conflict, the leader of separatist rebels is given the status of a fighter for freedom and democracy. This status provides him with international support, and captured members of armed formations are subject to the rules of the 1949 Geneva Conference on humane treatment of prisoners of war. Without such status, prisoners would be treated as criminals. A clear example of such a development of events is the first Chechen war (1994-1996). Many international organizations and institutions endowed Chechen militants and their leaders with the “status” of fighters for freedom and independence of the Republic of Ichkeria and provided them with all kinds of support. It was only when irrefutable evidence emerged linking Chechen militants with international terrorism that their status changed and they lost a significant part of international support. But this “epiphany” was preceded by thousands of innocent victims.
External (international) informal political status recognized by international organizations and institutions. For example, such political leaders as Mahatma Gandhi (India, 30-40s of the XX century) and N. Mandela (South Africa, 60-70s of the XX century) for a long time were in opposition to the ruler of those times. goals in their countries to the political regime. Nevertheless, their political status was recognized throughout the world.
Political weight- this is the overall influence (real or symbolic) and authority of the leader in the political sphere. When people talk about political heavyweights, they mean those political leaders who are able to have a significant impact on the political process, for example on making a political decision or resolving a political conflict. For example, the political weight of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin was due to the fact that he was supported by the absolute majority of Russians; The political weight of the US President in the international arena is determined by the economic and military power of this country.
Political capital- this is the entire set of “merits” acquired by a political leader (ranks, titles, positions, statuses, political practices, decisions made, forecasts made, etc.) in the past and in the present.
According to D.P. Zerkin, “political capital implies a number of characteristics. In particular, the possession of some part of political power; inclusion in the political elite; political experience and authority, etc. 1 From our point of view, such a sign as “possessing some part of political power” is optional for a leader. A former or actual politician with political capital may be in opposition or out of politics altogether. But the very possession of political capital can contribute to its return to real politics (C. de Gaulle, F. Roosevelt) or influence the political process (be in demand) in a different capacity (for example, former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger is periodically involved (as a private person) to solve certain political problems).
The accumulation of political capital can be facilitated by successes in other areas of activity, for example, Academician A.D. Sakharov became a famous politician largely due to his contribution to the development of nuclear physics. However, the main criterion for assessing the “capital intensity” of a politician is his successful experience in practical political activity and the resulting trust of the political elites and broad social strata. For example, US President F. Roosevelt, thanks to his effective political activity, was elected to this post four times.
Political capital, like any other type of capital (financial, social, symbolic, etc.), can be accumulated (“conquered”) and multiplied, or it can be wasted (lost) or even “go bankrupt.” Social revolutions in their most severe form demonstrate the moment of bankruptcy of the existing regime and the ruling politicians. P. A. Sorokin gave the following description of Louis XVI, Nicholas II and their governments on the eve of the Great French Revolution (1789) and the October Revolution in Russia: “Before our eyes - whole gallery physical and mental impotents, mediocre rulers, feminine and cynical dwarfs.” The concept of “bankruptcy” can characterize the end of the policy of M. S. Gorbachev, who tried to build “socialism with a human face.” B. N. Yeltsin gradually squandered his rather “solid” political capital after 1993.
Political capital can be transformed into other types of capital (social, cultural, military, symbolic, etc.). To many famous politicians their previous activities in other spheres of life helped them make a career (President of France Charles de Gaulle - former military man, US President D. Reagan - film actor, President of the Czech Republic V. Havel - writer, famous political and public figure A.D. Sakharov - scientist - nuclear scientist).
Political charisma - presupposes that a political leader has certain qualities that distinguish him favorably from others. Typically, charisma is attributed to an outstanding political leader or a cruel tyrant. For example, A. Macedonsky, Peter I, Napoleon, V.I. Lenin, I.V. Stalin, F. Castro and others are considered charismatic personalities. However, both political organizations and political institutions can be endowed with charismatic qualities. For example, the CPSU in the Soviet period, in fact, was a charismatic party - “the mind, honor and conscience of our era.” For many Russians, the current Communist Party of the Russian Federation is associated with the CPSU and is also endowed with charisma. For most Chinese, the Chinese Communist Party is also charismatic.
Morality - presupposes that a political leader has high moral qualities that are associated in the public consciousness with the ideals of goodness, justice, and honest performance of public duty. For example, the so-called liberal democrats led by B. N. Yeltsin, who carried out reforms of the Russian economy (liberalization, privatization, etc.) in the 90s. XX century, are associated in the public consciousness of Russians as immoral politicians who made huge fortunes from the ruin of the country, and the high authority of V.V. Putin was largely based on his moral qualities.
3.1. Scientists note that currently on the political map of the world there are about a hundred states in which an authoritarian political regime has been established. Explain why authoritarianism has become widespread in the modern world. What is its danger?
3.2. In modern Russia, processes of reforming the political system are being carried out: strengthening the executive vertical of state power, modernizing the electoral system, transforming the civil service, etc. Based on a systematic approach to considering the political sphere, as well as media materials, identify other, no less important areas of political reforms . Explain your answer.
3.3. Many political leaders, especially in modern developing countries, try to justify their political decisions on traditional religious grounds for the population.
installations. Explain why. Use your knowledge of the subsystems of the political system and their relationships in your answer.
4.3. In 1969, French President Charles de Gaulle was forced to resign after citizens did not support his local government reform project in a national referendum. The connection between what phenomena of the political system can be traced in the given historical fact? Give reasons for your answer.
4.4. In country Z there is a political system in which the demands received at the “input” are not taken into account by the authorities. Make a guess as to what results could result from ignoring citizens' demands. Explain your answer.
4.5. A political science teacher asked students to name environmental phenomena that influence the political system. The following were named: economy, culture, social structure of a given society, its population, political systems of other countries, international institutions, natural sphere, international ecological system. Which of the following phenomena relate to the internal and which to the external environment of the political system? Complete both groups of phenomena based on the material studied in the paragraph.
4.6. You are witnessing an argument between two comrades. The first argues that the political system is a relatively closed, autonomous whole. The second, on the contrary, emphasizes that the political system does not have clearly defined boundaries, because it is closely related to the environment. Which of the disputants is right? Give reasons for your answer.
5 - reasoning.
5.1.
“In order to know the properties of the state, it is necessary to first study the inclinations and morals of people” (Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), English philosopher).
5.2.
“Total devotion is possible only when ideological loyalty is empty” (Hannah Arendt (1906-1975), German-American philosopher).
Society includes many phenomena that are qualitatively different from each other, and at the same time has laws that cannot be reduced to the sum of individual laws of economic, political, legal or aesthetic life.
This means that the mechanical addition of information known to political science, art history and other special sciences does not give us sufficient knowledge about society. If we want to understand the common life of people in all its real complexity, we should consider it as a real systemic whole, composed of certain parts, but not reducible to them.<...>
Society... is one of the self-developing systems that, while maintaining their qualitative certainty, are capable of changing its conditions in the most significant way. By comparing 16th-century Japan and 20th-century Japan, we can imagine that we have visited different planets with colossal differences in the way people live.
And yet we are talking about... the same people, located at different stages of their historical development, in which the present stems from the past and contains important rudiments of the future.
Of course, one can argue, as some theorists do, that medieval Japan is much more similar to feudal France than to the modern Land of the Rising Sun, which has become one of the leaders of the world community. But this does not give grounds to tear apart the integral history of the country, which is linked together not only by a common name, geographical location and the language of communication, but also stable cultural stereotypes, reproducible features of the national mentality (in particular, the century-old psychology of collectivism, duty and discipline, which largely determined the current prosperity of the Japanese).
Questions and tasks:
become businessmen; 17% - economists; 13% - bankers; 11% - bandits; 5% - managers; 1% - astronauts; 21% named other professions. A survey of parents on the topic “What worries you most about children?” indicates that 26% named aggressiveness and cruelty; 25% - immorality; 24% - drug addiction; 15% - laziness. (Arguments and Facts. - 2002. - No. 28, 29; Komsomolskaya Pravda. - 2002. - December 26.) Is it possible to draw conclusions about the value orientations of modern youth based on these data? If yes, which ones?
The modern information revolution leads to the formation of a new class in post-industrial societies, which we called the “class of intellectuals.”Western sociologists drew attention to this back in the late 50s; Moreover, it is very characteristic that no negative consequences were visible from this process at that time. Since, according to popular belief, “information is the most democratic source of power,” most researchers came to the conclusion that the formation of a dominant class that is non-capitalist in nature leads to overcoming the class character of society, making it classless in the long term. However, real socio-economic processes increasingly contradict such assumptions. With each new stage of the technological revolution, the “intellectual class” gains more and more power and redistributes more and more of public wealth in its favor. In the emerging new economic system, the process of self-increasing value of information goods turns out to be largely divorced from material production. As a result, the “class of intellectuals” turns out to be dependent on all other layers of society to a much lesser extent than the ruling classes of feudal or bourgeois societies were dependent on the activities of the peasants or proletarians they exploited. This creates the preconditions for the emergence of another class on the historical stage, uniting in its ranks those who are unable to actively participate in high-tech production. His share in social wealth is steadily declining, leaving no opportunities for improving his skills and replenishing the “class of intellectuals.” This social group, for the time being associated with the lower strata of the proletariat, by the beginning of the 90s acquired a pronounced class definition, and it is impossible not to take it into account when analyzing the problems of modern society. V.L. Inozemtsev
C1. The formation of what new class of post-industrial society marks the second? What reason does he give for the appearance of this class? What, according to most sociologists, should be the consequence of the emergence of a new class?
C3. What other new class does the author characterize? Based on social science knowledge, name any two social groups that can be included in this class. Briefly explain your choice. Help with at least something! Please!
Are the following judgments about modern culture true? A) Modern culture presents numerous forms and varieties of culture: mass,elite, folk, screen, etc. B) Works of modern culture are accessible only to a narrow circle of art connoisseurs and highly educated intellectuals. 1) only A is true 2) only B is true 3) both judgments are true 4) both are false
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Developed countries generally include the 24 high-income industrialized countries of North America, Western Europe, and the Pacific. Among the industrial ones, the most significant role is played by the countries of the so-called Group of 7. The Big “7”: USA, Japan, Germany, Canada, Great Britain, Italy, France.
The International Monetary Fund identifies the following states as economically developed countries:
Countries qualified by the WB and IMF as countries with developed economies at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain, USA.
The more complete group of developed countries also includes Andorra, Bermuda, the Faroe Islands, Vatican City, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Liechtenstein, Monaco and San Marino.
Among the main characteristics of developed countries, it is advisable to highlight the following:
1.GDP per capita averages approximately 20 thousand dollars and is constantly growing. This determines the high level of consumption and investment and the standard of living of the population as a whole. The social support is the “middle class”, which shares the values and basic foundations of society.
2. The sectoral structure of the economy of developed countries is evolving towards the dominance of industry and a pronounced tendency to transform the industrial economy into a post-industrial one. The service sector is developing rapidly, and in terms of the share of the population employed in it, it is the leader. Scientific and technological progress has a significant impact on economic growth and economic structure.
3. The business structure of developed countries is heterogeneous. The leading role in the economy belongs to powerful concerns - TNCs (transnational corporations). The exception is a group of some small European countries where there are no world-class TNCs. However, the economies of developed countries are also characterized by the widespread prevalence of medium and small businesses as a factor of economic and social stability. This business employs up to 2/3 of the economically active population. In many countries, small businesses provide up to 80% of new jobs and influence the sectoral structure of the economy.
The economic mechanism of developed countries includes three levels: spontaneous market, corporate and state. It is consistent with a developed system of market relations and diversified methods of government regulation. Their combination provides flexibility, rapid adaptability to changing conditions of reproduction and, in general, high efficiency of economic activity.
4. The state of developed countries is an active participant in economic activity. The goals of state regulation are to create the most favorable conditions for the self-expansion of capital and maintain the socio-economic stability of society. The most important means of state regulation are administrative and legal (developed systems of economic law), fiscal (state budget funds and social funds), monetary and state property. The general trend since the beginning of the 60s has been a decrease in the role of state property from an average of 9 to 7% in GDP. Moreover, it is concentrated mainly in the field of infrastructure. Differences between countries in the degree of state regulation are determined by the intensity of the redistributive functions of the state through its finances: most intensively in Western Europe, to a lesser extent in the USA and Japan.
5. The economies of developed countries are characterized by openness to the world economy and a liberal organization of the foreign trade regime. Leadership in world production determines their leading role in world trade, international capital flows, and international currency and settlement relations. In the field of international labor migration, developed countries act as the receiving party.
Developing countries
Developing countries today represent the largest group of countries (more than 130), which sometimes develop so significantly in terms of per capita income, economic structure, and social structure of society that sometimes doubt arises as to the advisability of including them in one classification group.However, while recognizing the extreme diversity of the Third World, it is necessary to evaluate the common things that unite its participants not only formally, but also in reality, discovering a common position on world problems. The commonality of approaches to world problems is found in a common policy, for the more effective implementation of which developing countries create various interstate organizations (for example, the Organization of African Unity).
Without pretending to make an unambiguous assessment, in our opinion the following can be determined: General characteristics third world countries:
1) The extent of poverty.
Most developing countries are characterized by a very low standard of living. It should be taken into account that the bulk of the population of these countries has a low standard of living not only in comparison with developed countries, but also in comparison with the few rich groups of the population in their countries. In other words, in poor countries there are rich people, but there is no middle class. As a result, there is a system of income distribution where the income of the top 20% of society is 5-10 times higher than the income of the bottom 40%.
2) Low level of labor productivity.
According to the concept of the production function, there is a systemic relationship between the volume of production and the combination of factors that create it (labor, capital) at the existing level of technology. But this concept of technical dependence must be complemented by a broader approach. For example, factors such as management, employee motivation, and the effectiveness of institutional structures need to be taken into account. In third world countries, labor productivity is extremely low compared to industrialized countries. The reason for this may be, in particular, the absence or severe shortage of additional factors of production (physical capital, management experience).
To increase productivity, it is necessary to mobilize domestic savings and attract foreign capital to invest in physical factors of production and human capital. And this requires an improvement in the system of general and special education, reforms, land tenure reform, tax reform, the creation and improvement of the banking system, and the formation of a non-corrupt and effective administrative apparatus. It is also necessary to take into account the attitude of workers and management to improve their skills, the ability of the population to adapt to changes in production and society, attitude towards discipline, initiative, and attitude towards authority. The impact of low income on labor productivity in third world countries is reflected in the poor health of the bulk of the population.
It is known that poor nutrition in childhood has an extremely negative impact on the physical and intellectual development of the child. An irrational and inadequate diet, lack of basic personal hygiene conditions can in the future undermine the health of workers and negatively affect work motivation. The low level of productivity in this situation is largely due to apathy, physical and emotional inability to withstand competition in the labor market.
3) High population growth rates. The most obvious indicator characterizing the differences between industrialized countries is the fertility rate. No developed country reaches a birth rate of 20 births per 1,000 people. population. In developing countries, the birth rate varies from 20 people (Argentina, China, Thailand, Chile) to 50 people (Niger, Zambia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda). Of course, the death rate in developing countries is higher than in industrialized countries, the improvement in health care in third world countries makes this development not so significant. Therefore, population growth rates in developing countries today average 2% (2.3% excluding China), and in industrialized countries - 0.5% per year. Therefore, in third world countries, approximately 40% of the population are children under the age of 15 (less than 21% in developed countries). In most third world countries, the burden on the economically active part of the population (from 15 to 64 years old) to support the disabled part of society is almost 2 times higher than in industrialized countries.
4) High and growing unemployment rate.
Population growth in itself is not a negative factor in economic development. But in conditions of economic stagnation, additional jobs are not created, so high natural population growth generates huge unemployment. If we add hidden unemployment to visible unemployment, then almost 35% of the labor force in developing countries is unemployed.
5) Large dependence on agricultural production and export of fuel and raw materials.
Approximately 65% of the population in developing countries lives in rural areas, compared to 27% in industrialized countries. Agricultural production employs more than 60% of the labor force in third world countries and only 7% in industrialized countries, while the contribution of the agricultural sector to the creation of GNP is about 20% and 3%, respectively. The concentration of labor in the agricultural sector and the primary sector of industry is due to the fact that low incomes force people to care primarily about food, clothing, and housing. Agricultural productivity is low due to an excess of labor relative to the natural area available for cultivation, as well as primitive technology, poor organization, lack of material resources and poor quality of labor.
The situation is complicated by the land tenure system, in which peasants are most often not owners, but tenants of small plots. This nature of agricultural relations does not create economic incentives for productivity growth. But even in countries where land is abundant, primitive tools do not make it possible to cultivate an area of more than 5-8 hectares.
In addition to the dominance of the agricultural sector in the economy, third world countries export primary products (agriculture and forestry, fuel and other minerals). In sub-Saharan Africa, primary production accounts for more than 92% of foreign exchange earnings.
6) Subordinate position, vulnerability in the system of international economic relations.
It is necessary to highlight the stark disparity in economic and political power between Third World countries and industrialized countries. It is manifested in the dominance of rich countries in international trade, in the ability of the latter to dictate the terms of technology transfer, investment and foreign aid.
A significant, although less obvious, factor in the persistence of underdevelopment is the transfer of a system of Western values, behavior and institutions to developing countries. For example, in the past, the implantation in the colonies of educational systems and programs that were inappropriate for them, the organization of trade unions and administrative systems according to Western models. Today, the high economic and social standards of developed countries have an even greater impact (demonstration effect). The lifestyle of the Western elite and the desire for wealth can contribute to corruption and the theft of national wealth in developing countries by a privileged minority. Finally, the brain drain from third world countries to developed countries also negatively affects the economic development of the emigration of qualified personnel. The cumulative impact of all negative factors determines the vulnerability of developing countries from external factors that can have a major impact on their economic and social situation.
The diversity of developing countries necessitates a certain classification that could reflect their differentiation.
The classification of developing countries developed by the UN allows us to distinguish 3 groups of countries: least developed (44 countries), developing countries that are not oil exporters (88 countries) and OPEC member countries (13 oil exporting countries).
Another classification is proposed by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which includes some countries and territories not covered by UN statistics. This classification includes low-income countries (61 countries), middle-income countries (73 countries), newly industrialized countries (11 countries), and oil-exporting OPEC members (13 countries).
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has developed its own classification system. This classification includes 125 countries (developing and developed), each with a population of more than 1 million people. These countries are then divided according to per capita income into four groups: low income, middle income, upper middle income, high income. The first three groups cover 101 countries, most of which are developing countries. The remaining 24 high-income countries are divided into 2 groups: 19 countries are typical industrialized countries, and 5 countries (Hong Kong, Kuwait, Israel, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates) are classified by the UN as developing countries.
To assess the degree of differentiation of developing countries, 7 indicators can be used:
1) Size of countries (territory, population and per capita income).
Of the 145 UN member countries, 90 countries have a population of less than 15 million people. Large countries neighbor small ones. A large territory usually provides advantages: possession of natural resources and large potential markets, less dependence on imported raw materials.
2) Features of historical development and the colonial period.
Most developing countries were in the past colonies of Western European countries, the USA, and Japan. The economic structures and social institutions of the colonies were created according to the model and likeness of the metropolises.
3) Provision of material and labor resources. Some developing countries are very rich in mineral resources (Gulf countries, Brazil, Zambia), others are very poor (Bangladesh, Haiti, Chad, etc.).
4) The role of the private and public sectors.
In general, the private sector in the economy is more developed in Latin America and Southeast Asia than in South Asia and Africa.
5) The nature of production structures.
There is a certain differentiation in the sectoral structure of the economies of developing countries, although most of them are agricultural and raw materials. Subsistence and commercial agricultural production provides employment for the majority of the population. But in the 70s - 90s, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Malaysia sharply accelerated the development of the manufacturing industry and actually turned into industrial countries.
6) The degree of dependence on external economic and political forces.
The degree of dependence on external factors is influenced by the country’s provision with material resources, the structure of the economy and foreign economic relations.
7) Institutional and political structure of society.
The political structure, interests of social groups and alliances of the ruling elites (large landowners, comprador part of big business, bankers, military) usually predetermine the development strategy, and can be a brake on progressive changes in the economy and society, preserving economic backwardness if the changes that occur seriously infringe on their interests.
It should be noted that whatever the balance of power between the military, industrial and large landowners in Latin America, between politicians, senior officials and tribal leaders in Africa, between oil sheikhs and financial magnates in the Middle East, most developing countries are open or is veiledly controlled by small but rich and powerful elites. Democratic attributes (elections to local authorities and parliament, freedom of speech) are often just a screen that covers the real power in the country.
Industrialized countries
Industrialized countries include the 24 countries that are members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). These are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Iceland, Spain, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand. Norway, Portugal, San Marino, USA, Finland, France, Sweden, Switzerland. Japan. Since 1996 Singapore began to be classified as an industrialized country.Main features of industrialized countries:
1) High level of GDP per capita. In most industrialized countries this figure ranges from 15 to 30 thousand dollars per capita per year. Industrialized countries have a GDP per capita per year that is approximately 5 times the world average.
2) Diversified structure of the economy. At the same time, the service sector currently accounts for more than 60% of the GDP of industrialized countries.
3) Social structure of society. Industrialized countries are characterized by smaller income gaps between the poorest and richest 20% of the population and the presence of a powerful middle class with high living standards.
Industrialized countries play a leading role in the world economy. Their share in the world gross product is more than 54%, and their share in world exports is more than 70%. Among the industrialized countries, the most important role is played by the so-called Group of Seven, or C-7, countries. These are the USA, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan. They provide 47% of the world's gross product and 51% of world exports. Among the seven countries, the United States dominates.
In the 90s, the US economy consistently ranked 1st in terms of competitiveness, but US economic leadership in the world tended to weaken. Thus, the share of the United States in the GDP of the non-socialist world decreased from 31% in 1950. up to 20% currently. The US share in the exports of the non-socialist world decreased especially significantly - from 18% in 1960 to 12% in 1997. The US share of global foreign direct investment has fallen from 62% in 1960 to 20% today. The main reason for the relative weakening of the US position in the world economy is the high rates of economic growth in Japan and Western Europe, which quickly, using American assistance under the Marshall Plan, restored the war-ravaged economy and carried out profound structural changes in the economy, creating new industries. At a certain stage, Japanese and Western European sectors of the economy achieved international competitiveness and began to successfully compete in the world market with American companies (for example, German and Japanese automobile corporations).
However, despite the relative weakening of the US economic position, the US role in the world economy after World War II has always been leading. Firstly, compared to any country in the world, the United States has the largest GDP - more than 7 trillion. dollars per year and, accordingly, the most capacious domestic market in the world. But the main factor in the economic leadership of the United States is leadership in the field of scientific and technological progress and the implementation of its results in production. The United States today accounts for 40% of global R&D (research and development) spending. The US share in global exports of high technology products is 20%. The US leads most notably in the area of information technology. Currently, 75% of the data banks of all industrialized countries are concentrated in the United States. In addition, the United States leads in world food production, providing, in particular, more than 50% of world grain exports.
After the collapse of the USSR and the world socialist system, the United States became the only world superpower, which is the economic, political and military leader of the modern world. The preservation and strengthening of the US's leading role in the world is officially enshrined in the US National Security Concept.
The second center of economic power is Western Europe.
In Western Europe, two models of market economies predominate: democratic corporatism and the social market model.
Both models have a lot in common, so there is no hard boundary between them:
1. Democratic corporatism.
Typical for countries such as Sweden and Austria. This model is characterized by a high share of state entrepreneurship in the production of goods and services and in investments. The promotion of economic growth and general welfare is achieved through the coordination of public and private interests. The labor market is characterized by strong trade unions and sectoral labor agreements. Preference is given to adapting the labor force to the labor market by professional retraining. The state pursues an active employment policy and provides a high level of unemployment benefits.
2. Social market model.
This model is more typical for Germany. The share of state entrepreneurship in the production of goods and services and in investments is insignificant. This model provides support for both individual groups of the population (youth, low-income people) and entrepreneurs who cannot resist large corporations (small businesses, farmers). The social market model is based on an unspoken consensus of social and political forces.
The economic development of Western Europe after the Second World War is inseparable from the integration process that swept across Western Europe.
The economic development of Western Europe in the post-war period, which took place in the context of deepening and expanding integration, was dynamic and successful. Western Europe quickly restored its war-ravaged economy and created modern competitive industries, increasing its share in world production and exports compared to the United States.
The world leadership of Western Europe can be characterized by the following components:
1) Western Europe today is the main center of international trade, providing more than 50% of world exports, ahead of the United States and Japan. Western Europe today accounts for more than 40% of the world's gold and foreign exchange reserves.
2) Western Europe is a leader in the pharmaceutical industry, in certain branches of transport engineering, and in some branches of light industry. In addition, Western Europe is a major center of international tourism.
Main economic problems
The share of Western Europe in the world economy has decreased slightly over the past 20 years, economic growth rates have been low, and many traditional industries have experienced a crisis (metallurgy, textile industry). European firms have failed to achieve high competitiveness in the electronics and telecommunications sector, where the United States leads. In the sphere of mass production of knowledge-intensive goods, Western Europe lags behind Japan and the newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia. But the main economic and social problem of Western Europe remains mass unemployment, the level of which reaches 10% of the labor force, which is significantly higher than in the USA and Japan.
The third center of the world economy is Japan. The concept of hierarchical corporatism is currently used to characterize Japan's economic model.
The characteristics of this model include the following features:
1) insignificant participation of the state in the production of goods and services, in sales, in investments.
2) active participation of the state in stimulating business activity and changing the structure of the economy.
3) in the labor market, the simultaneous conclusion of labor agreements at the firm level is practiced. Labor relations are characterized by corporate paternalism (lifetime employment system, the company is our common home).
4) Firms and the state pay special attention to improving the skills of the workforce and involving workers in production management.
In the economic literature, the concept of the Japanese economic miracle is used to characterize the economic development of Japan, which emphasizes the phenomenal success of the country, which has transformed from a second-rate and isolated country into a world power with a dynamic and competitive open market economy.
Population of developed countries
The population of developed countries is aging.For the majority of the population in developed countries, wages are the main source of subsistence; they usually range from 2/3 to 3/4 of national income.
The average standard of living of the population of developed countries is largely determined by unearned income, and the inequality of individuals is primarily due to uneven ownership of property. For example, in the United States, 1% of the population owns 19% of the country's total wealth.
Loans are provided, firstly, to increase food production and improve the living standards of the poorest people in food-deficit least developed countries. Second, to improve food production capacity in other developing countries to improve the living conditions of the poorest.
78% of the population of developed countries and 40% of the population of developing countries of the world will live in cities and urban agglomerations. The highest rates of urbanization are typical for Europe, North and Latin America, and Oceania.
The most complex at present is the complex of ethical problems associated with the inevitable decrease in the level of consumption of material goods by the population of developed countries and changes in social relations.
The reasons for the increasing role of environmental management in the service sector are related to both the aggravation ecological situation, and with the formation of an ecological worldview among the population of developed countries.
The age pyramid of the population of developing countries sharply narrows from the base to the top, while the wall of the age pyramid of the population of developed countries is almost vertical, and sometimes even has a negative slope - until the rise reaches the oldest age classes. These stark differences are partly explained by the fact that developing countries have higher birth rates and lower survival rates.
A person’s organization is also characterized by his neatness, discipline, commitment, and law-abidingness. The population of developed countries possesses these qualities to a much greater extent than the population of other countries. This is due to various reasons, including traditions and the education system.
But there are also pessimistic scenarios. The decline in the population of developed countries opens Eldorado to the countries of the big demographic explosion. Disadvantaged peoples, but on the rise in population growth, can appropriate - by goodness or force - the lands and resources of peoples of wealth, but in decline. These latter will gradually mix with the aliens until they lose their individuality. They will disappear, as many nations have already disappeared when they find themselves in a similar situation.
In recent decades, the population of developed countries has been focused on searching for social compromises. The majority of residents prefer to solve social problems rationalistically, without extremes, on the basis of rules defined by existing laws.
The scientific and technological revolution is also associated with a change in the position of man as a consumer of material and spiritual goods. In conditions of satisfying the most pressing needs of the overwhelming majority of the population of developed countries, the evolution of needs that stimulate production is moving in the direction of not quantitative, but qualitative improvement in all aspects of people's lives. At the same time, we can trace both the process of unification of the needs of various groups and strata of society, erasing the visible boundaries between these social formations, and the process of individualization of needs associated with a more general movement aimed at increasing the autonomy of the individual in the light of the less rigidity and greater mobility of social connections of modern man.
When analyzing the quality of life in a country, the distribution of the population by income is of significant importance. Distribution curve typical for Russia in the late 80s. It has been repeatedly noted that in a normally functioning economy, the differentiation of personal incomes can be approximated by a logarithmically normal distribution law.
Thus, 25% of the planet's population living in developed countries consumes 80% of the world's gross product. Dynamics of the fertility rate. In developed countries, the overall population growth rate (minus mortality) is 0 6% / year, and in developing countries it reaches 2 1% / year. Using these data as initial data, it can be obtained that the doubling time of the population of developed countries is 117 years , and developing ones - only 33 5 years.
The population below working age is projected to decrease by 5 5 million people. The risk of dying at a younger age among the Russian population is noticeably higher than among the population of developed countries. The population of working age is more likely to die due to external causes, which include accidents, poisoning, and injuries. Older and middle-aged populations are most likely to die from cardiovascular disease.
The gap between the two groups of countries in per capita indicators is especially pronounced. In developing countries, per capita production of heavy industry products is 30 times less, and metalworking products are 60 times less than per capita of developed countries.
The rudimentary state of technology in less developed countries moves these countries away from the forefront of technological progress. The vast amount of technological knowledge accumulated by developed countries could be used by less developed countries without significant research costs. For example, the use of modern experience in crop rotation and contour farming does not require additional capital investments, but significantly increases labor productivity. Large grain losses can be avoided by simply increasing the height of the bins by a few inches. Such technological changes may seem quite trivial to the population of developed countries. But for poor countries, the increased productivity resulting from such changes could mean ending hunger and reaching a level sufficient to survive.
Levels of developed countries
The stage of economic development of a country largely determines its level of economic development, i.e. degree of economic maturity of the national economy. Based on the level of economic development, countries (more precisely, their economies) are divided into two large groups - developed and less developed. Almost all developed countries belong to an international organization called the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and therefore it is often identified with the club of developed economies, although the OECD also includes several less developed countries (Turkey, Mexico, Chile, Central and Eastern European countries ). Less developed countries are often referred to as developing countries or emerging market countries, although these terms are sometimes given a narrower meaning. Therefore, cautious researchers refer to the entire group of less developed countries as emerging market and developing countries or developing and transition economies.There are various subgroups among developed and less developed economies, although they are more often called groups. For example, the group of twenty (G20) is the most major economies world - from developed countries these are the seven leading developed economies plus the country holding the EU presidency plus Australia and South Korea, and from less developed countries these are the BRICS countries (eng. BRICS - Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) plus Mexico, Argentina , Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia. These countries account for 90% of world GDP, 80% of world trade and two-thirds of the world's population.
Among developed countries, the Group of Seven (G7) of the largest developed economies is often analyzed - these are the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada (at political meetings of this group, Russia is also included in it). There is also a group of developed newcomer countries such as South Korea, Singapore, Fr. Taiwan and Hong Kong.
Among the less developed countries, the abbreviation BRICS identifies the five leading economies on their continents. At the same time, other groups are analyzed: these are the newly industrialized countries (NICs) at the stage of active industrialization, led by China, India and Brazil; countries with economies in transition, which include former socialist countries transitioning to a market economy; countries that export fuels, as well as countries that export other raw materials, where fuel or other raw materials account for more than half of their exports; least developed countries, whose GDP per capita is less than $750, the human development index is low, and economic growth is highly unstable; debtor countries, which the International Monetary Fund (IMF) classifies as countries with a negative current account balance over the past four decades, as well as poor countries with large external debt. Many countries fall into several groups at the same time, such as Russia: it is part of BRICS, is a country with a transition economy and belongs to fuel exporting countries.
The typology of countries by level of economic development differs among different international organizations. The following is the IMF typology, combined with its statistics on the share of groups, subgroups and individual countries in world GDP production (calculated at purchasing power parity (PPP) of national currencies, i.e. in American prices).
Traditional and socialist economic systems
The traditional economic system (traditional economy), often called pre-capitalist, continues to dominate only in the backward countries of Asia and Africa, which are still at that stage of economic development when labor and land remain the main economic resources.
The traditional system is characterized by the dominance of such forms of ownership as communal (mainly in the form of communal ownership of land), state (again, mainly of land), and previously such forms of ownership as feudal (characterized by ownership of land under the conditions of fulfilling feudal duties). In this system, the freedom of economic agents is greatly constrained by the community, state and feudal lords. Economic decisions are made not only in conditions of constrained private property rights, but also on the basis of time-honored traditions (in medieval Russia they tried to “live in the old days”), which also reduces the independence and, accordingly, the activity of economic agents.
Previously, the traditional system dominated all countries for thousands of years and hence its name. There are no longer states in the world in which it dominates, but there are many countries where it coexists with the market system. Such islands traditional economy in the market system are called structures.
The socialist economic system (socialist economy, socialism) now functions only in the DPRK and Cuba, although in the last century it existed in our and many other countries. It is based on the dominance of public, primarily state, property (predominantly state-owned or cooperative enterprises), which greatly constrains the independence of economic agents. In such a system, it is not customary to reward entrepreneurs other than managers of state-owned firms. Key economic decisions are ultimately made by the main owner - the state, mainly in the form of directives (orders) for enterprises.
The shortcomings of the socialist economic system have led to the transition of the vast majority of the states of this system to the market system, and therefore their economies are often called transitional, and they are countries with transition economies.
Socially developed countries
The world economy is a system of national economies of individual countries, united by the international division of labor, trade and production, financial, scientific and technical ties. This is a global geo-economic space in which, in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production, goods, services, and capital circulate freely: human, financial, scientific and technical. The world economy is an integral, but at the same time contradictory system of national economies. Not all countries (and there are about two hundred of them) are equally involved in the world economy. From the point of view of the level of their development and the socio-economic organization of production, the center and periphery are quite clearly visible in the complex structure of the world economy. The center is mainly industrialized countries with an efficient, more or less regulated market economy, capable of quickly adapting to the global economic situation and mastering the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and exporting high-tech products. The periphery is primarily developing countries, as a rule, with raw materials specialization, an insufficiently effective mechanism for self-development, and a relatively low level of integrated economy.The center is a relatively small group of industrialized countries (24 states (USA, Canada, Western European countries, Japan, Australia, New Zealand)), which account for almost 55% of world GDP and 71% of world exports. These countries have highly efficient and well-organized economies and are developing according to the “social market economy” type. Their economic mechanism, which has high elasticity, allows them to flexibly adapt to the global economic situation. They quickly implement the achievements of scientific and technical thought.
The periphery consists mainly of developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of common features can be identified:
The multistructured nature of the economy with the predominance of non-market relations and non-economic levers of economic organization;
Low level of development of productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture;
Raw material specialization.
In general, they occupy a dependent position in the world economy.
Center and periphery are two advantages of a single world economy. They are not isolated, but, on the contrary, closely interconnected. However, economic cooperation between them is quite contradictory, since they are aimed at solving different problems.
Having achieved a high standard of living, developed countries are creating a qualitatively different structure of production and consumption, which is increasingly associated with the leisure and service industries, while in many developing countries there is not even enough food. In general, the difference in living conditions between the center and the periphery of the world economy continues to increase.
Main groups of countries: developed countries with market economies, countries with transition economies, developing countries. The most complete picture of groups of countries in the international economy is provided by data from the largest international organizations in the world - the UN, the IMF and the World Bank. Their assessment is somewhat different, since the number of member countries of these organizations is different (UN - 185, IMF - 182, World Bank - 181 countries), and international organizations monitor the economies of only their member countries.
For the purposes of economic analysis, the UN divides countries into:
Developed countries (states with market economies);
countries with economies in transition (formerly socialist or centrally planned countries);
developing countries.
Let us consider the features of each of the selected subsystems. Countries with developed economies are considered to be those states that are characterized by the presence of market relations in the economy, a high level of rights and civil liberties in public and political life. All countries with developed economies belong to the capitalist model of development, although the nature of the development of capitalist relations has serious differences here. The level of GDP per capita in almost all developed countries is not lower than 15 thousand dollars per year, the state-guaranteed level of social protection (pensions, unemployment benefits, compulsory health insurance), life expectancy, quality of education and medical care, level cultural development. Developed countries have passed through the agricultural and industrial stage of development with the predominant importance and contribution to the creation of GDP from agriculture and industry. Now these countries are at the stage of post-industrialism, which is characterized by the leading role in the national economy of the sphere of intangible production, creating from 60% to 80% of GDP, efficient production of goods and services, high consumer demand, constant progress in science and technology, strengthening the social policy of the state .
The IMF includes, first of all, the leading capitalist countries, called the Group of Seven (G7), which includes the United States, Japan, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy and Canada, as a group of countries with developed economies. These states occupy a dominant position in the world economy, primarily due to their powerful economic, scientific, technical and military potential, large population, and high level of total and specific GDP. Further, the group of developed countries includes relatively small countries in comparison with the G7 potential, but highly developed economically, scientifically and technologically, the countries of Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand. States such as South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan (the so-called dragon countries of Southeast Asia) and Israel began to be considered economically developed. Their inclusion in the group of developed countries was a credit for the rapid progress in economic development in the post-war period. This is truly a unique example in world history, when people who represented absolutely nothing back in the 1950s. countries captured world economic leadership in a number of positions and turned into important global industrial, scientific, technical and financial centers. The level of GDP per capita and quality of life in the dragon countries and Israel have come very close to those of leading developed countries and in some cases (Hong Kong, Singapore) even exceed most of the G7 states. However, in the subgroup under consideration there are certain problems with the development of the free market in its Western understanding; it has its own philosophy of the formation of capitalist relations.
The UN includes South Africa among the developed countries, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) also includes Turkey and Mexico, which are members of this organization, although they are more likely developing countries, but they are included in it on a territorial basis (Turkey belongs to part of Europe, and Mexico is part of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Thus, the number of developed countries includes about 30 countries and territories.
Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. At the end of the 90s. they accounted for 55% of world GDP, 71% of world trade, and most international capital flows. The G7 countries account for more than 44% of world GDP, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are members of integration associations, of which the most powerful are the European Union - EU (20% of world GDP) and the North American Free Trade Agreement - NAFTA (24%).
Countries with economies in transition
This group includes states that, since the 80-90s. make a transition from an administrative-command (socialist) economy to a market economy (therefore they are often called post-socialist). These are 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, 15 countries are former Soviet republics, and according to some classifications they also include Mongolia, China and Vietnam (although formally the last two countries continue to build socialism). Sometimes this entire group of countries is classified as developing (for example, in IMF statistics), based on the low level of GDP per capita (only the Czech Republic and Slovenia exceed 10 thousand dollars), and sometimes only the last three countries are classified as such.
Countries with economies in transition produce about 6% of world GDP, including countries of Central and Eastern Europe (excluding the Baltics) - less than 2%, former Soviet republics - more than 4% (including Russia - about 3%). Share in world exports - 3%. China produces about 12% of world GDP. There are countries here that have achieved significant success in economic development over ten years of market reforms: Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. In some of them, the standard of living has almost come close to the standards of Western European countries, and economic growth rates remain consistently high and even exceed Western European ones. Major structural changes in the economy have already been carried out, and the issue of integration into the single European market is on the agenda.
Other states, such as Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Albania, Macedonia, are at the stage of transformation of the entire economic system, and they have yet to solve rather complex problems of the transition period. There are also countries that are experiencing stagnation and have already stopped moving towards a market orientation. These include, for example, Belarus, where market reforms have stalled and there is a serious threat of a return to the old administrative-command system. Countries that have been seriously affected by military operations as a result of violations of their territorial integrity and numerous ethnic conflicts also belong to this group. Such states now simply have no time for reforms; they are faced with the problem of restoring their war-damaged economies. These are Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
If we try to identify subgroups in this youngest group of countries, then it is possible different classification. One group includes the former Soviet republics, which are now united into the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). This is made possible by a similar approach to economic reform, a similar level of development of most of these countries, and unification in one integration group, although the subgroup is quite heterogeneous.
Another subgroup can include the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, including the Baltic countries. These countries are characterized by a predominantly radical approach to reform, a desire to join the EU, and a relatively high level of development for most of them. However, the strong lag behind the leaders of this subgroup and the less radical nature of the reforms lead some economists to the conclusion that it is advisable to include Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and some republics of the former Yugoslavia in the first subgroup.
China and Vietnam can be identified as a separate subgroup, carrying out reforms in a similar way and having a low level of socio-economic development in the first years of reform, which is now rapidly increasing.
From the previous large group of countries with administrative-by the end of the 90s. only two countries remained: Cuba and North Korea.
Developing countries (DC)
The group of developing countries (less developed, underdeveloped) includes states with market economies and low levels of economic development. Of the 182 member countries of the International Monetary Fund, 121 are classified as developing. Despite the significant number of these countries, and the fact that many of them are characterized by large populations and vast territories, they account for about 40% of world GDP, their share in the world export 26%.
They represent the periphery of the world economic system. This includes African countries, countries of the Asia-Pacific region (except Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the dragon countries of Southeast Asia and the Asian CIS countries), countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Subgroups of developing countries are also distinguished, in particular, a subgroup of Asia-Pacific countries (West Asia plus Iran, China, countries of East and South Asia - all other countries in the region), a subgroup of African countries (sub-Saharan Africa minus Nigeria and South Africa - all other African countries beyond with the exception of Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, Tunisia).
The entire group of developing countries is very heterogeneous, and, rather, it would be correct to call them third world countries. Developing countries include, in particular, those states that, in many indicators of the level and quality of life, are higher than any developed country (United Arab Emirates, Kuwait or the Bahamas). GDP per capita and the volume of government social spending here correspond to or even exceed those of the G7 countries. In the group of developing countries, there are medium-sized states with a good level of development of economic and social infrastructure; there are also a significant number of countries with extremely backward national economies, the majority of whose population is below the poverty line, which corresponds, according to the UN methodology, to one dollar of expenditure per day for each inhabitant. It also cannot be said that all of them are economies of the agricultural or agrarian-industrial type.
The name of the group - developing countries - rather reflects the model of their national economy, in which the role of market mechanisms and private entrepreneurship is extremely small, and subsistence or semi-subsistence farming, the predominance of the agricultural and industrial sectors in the sectoral structure of the economy, and a high degree of state control are of primary importance for development. interference in the economy and low levels of social protection. Due to the general nature of the above-mentioned features, it is quite legitimate to classify most of the transition economies as developing countries, the standard of living in which has significantly decreased due to ineffective management of economic transformations. Due to such difficulties in classification and the diversity of developing countries, the easiest way to classify them is by exclusion. Accordingly, developing countries should be considered those states that are not included in the group of countries with developed market economies and are not former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe or former republics of the former USSR.
For the purposes of specific economic analysis, developing countries are divided into:
Countries are net creditors: Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia;
countries - net debtors: all other RS;
energy exporting countries: Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Venezuela, Vietnam, Gabon, Egypt, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Cameroon, Qatar, Colombia, Congo, Kuwait, Libya, Mexico, Nigeria, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador;
energy importing countries: all other DCs;
Least developed countries: Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Bhutan, Vanuatu, Haiti, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Djibouti, Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Zambia, Yemen, Cape Verde, Cambodia, Kiribati, Comoros, Laos, Lesotho, Liberia, Mauritania, Madagascar, Rwanda, Western Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia.
Problems of developed countries
Functional illiteracy, which will be discussed in the article, is somewhat similar to an iceberg: the visible but smaller part is on the outside, the larger but hidden part is on the inside. This phenomenon is complex and multifaceted. Currently, it is being studied by scientists and comprehended by the general public in many countries. They argue about it, look for approaches, develop special programs, etc. The information presented below represents one attempt to approach this problem and in no way pretends to be a comprehensive analysis of it. However, in our opinion, they are necessary, because For Russia, this problem is likely to become extremely acute in the near future. In the early 1980s, a number of developed countries were struck by reports of the presence in them, hitherto considered cultural, of a paradoxical phenomenon called “functional illiteracy.” This was the beginning of widespread awareness of a new process, which later led to significant reforms in educational systems and sociocultural policies. “The nation is in danger,” “there is a reading crisis,” “are we becoming proletarians?” - these and other similar expressions reflected the acute concern of different sections of society in America, Canada, Germany, France and other countries about new social cataclysms.What exactly were we talking about? Functional illiteracy is not adequate to the traditional concept of illiteracy. According to UNESCO, this term applies to any person who has lost significant reading and writing skills and is unable to comprehend short and simple text related to Everyday life. The problem turned out to be so acute that 1990, at the initiative of UNESCO, was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly as the International Year of Literacy (IGY). During 1991, the results of relevant activities in many countries and international organizations. Currently, on their basis, legislative acts, decisions, plans and programs are being developed to continue and develop the movement to overcome and prevent illiteracy in its various forms.
How does functional illiteracy manifest itself in everyday life, why has it come to be regarded as a phenomenon that poses a danger to society, what are the reasons for the development of this process? Experts from different countries interpret this phenomenon differently and focus on its different aspects. The terms used are also different: “functional illiteracy”, “secondary illiteracy”, “semiliterate”, “dyslectic”, “dyslexic” (“semi-literate”). those who do not speak a dictionary, with poor vocabulary"), etc. In recent years, in the USA, the term “family litOracy” associated with this problem is widely used - “family literacy”, as well as the term “at-Risk” - “those who belong to at risk” or “is at risk”. But what is meant here by “danger” and “risk” is not at all what is usually meant, because this “risk” is associated precisely with a low level of education, in other words, with functional illiteracy. This term took root in the United States after the report “A nation at risk”.
Illiteracy statistics in the USA
To illustrate the scale of this phenomenon, here are some impressive figures. According to American researchers, one adult in four has poor literacy skills. There is also such a thing as passive literacy, when adults and children simply do not like to read. In the report A Nation at Risk, the National Commission cites the following figures, which it considers to be “risk indicators”: about 23 million American adults are functionally illiterate, having difficulty performing basic tasks of daily reading, writing and arithmetic, about 13% of all Seventeen-year-old US citizens may be considered functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy among young people may rise to 40%; many of them do not have a range of intellectual skills that one would expect from them: about 40% cannot draw conclusions from a text, only 20% can write an essay with a convincing argument, and only 1/3 of them can solve math problem, requiring step-by-step actions.
According to D. Kozol (1985), data from various sources show that approximately 60 to 80 million Americans are illiterate or semi-literate: from 23 to 30 million Americans are completely illiterate, i.e. actually cannot read or write; 35 to 54 million are semi-literate—their reading and writing skills are far below what is needed to “cope with the responsibilities of daily life.” The author makes a compelling case for how "illiteracy takes a heavy toll on our economy, affects our political system, and, more importantly, the lives of illiterate Americans."
According to researchers, this problem is especially serious because it is latent in nature. Adults usually try to hide the defects of their education and upbringing - inability, ignorance, poor level of information content and other skills and qualities that interfere with success in the modern information society.
A functionally illiterate person really has a hard time even at the everyday level: for example, it is difficult for him to be a buyer and choose the necessary product (since these people are guided not by the information about the product indicated on the packaging, but only on the labels), it is difficult to be a patient (t Because when buying a medicine, the instructions for its use are unclear - what are the indications and contraindications, side effects, rules of use, etc.), it is difficult to be a traveler (to navigate road signs, terrain plans and other similar information if you have not been before in this place; the problem is to calculate in advance and plan travel expenses, etc.). Other problems include paying bills, filling out tax receipts and bank documents, processing mail and letters, and so on. Functionally illiterate people experience problems related to raising children: sometimes they cannot read a letter from a teacher, they are afraid of visiting him, it is difficult for them to help their child with homework, etc. Problems with household electrical appliances, the inability to understand the instructions for them, lead to their damage, and sometimes to household injuries to the owners. Those who are functionally illiterate cannot operate computers and other similar systems. According to experts, functional illiteracy is one of the main causes of unemployment, accidents, accidents and injuries at work and at home. The losses from it amounted, according to experts, to about 237 billion dollars.
Millions of indigenous residents of developed countries, who studied at school for a number of years, have either practically forgotten and lost the skills and abilities of reading and basic calculations, or the level of these skills and abilities, as well as general educational knowledge, is such that it does not allow them to “function” effectively enough in an increasingly complex society. In Canada, 24% of people aged 18 years and over are illiterate or functionally illiterate. Among the functionally illiterate, 50% had nine years of schooling and 8% had a university degree. The results of a survey in 1988 indicate that 25% of the French did not read any books during the year, and the number of functionally illiterate people is about 10% of the adult population of France. Data presented in a 1989 report by the Ministry of National Education indicate a low level of school preparation: approximately one in two students entering college can write reasonably well, 20% of students do not have reading skills. Meanwhile, success in learning is closely related to the level of reading activity.
According to French researchers, not all functionally illiterate people can be classified as persons rejected by society in a professional or economic sense. However, all of them are, to one degree or another, culturally limited and cut off from social and intellectual communication. Regardless of age, economic status and life experience, a functionally illiterate person can be characterized as follows: poor performance at school, a negative attitude towards cultural institutions due to the inability to use them and the fear of being judged by experts, etc. From the characteristics it follows that the difficulties experienced by these people are not so much pragmatic difficulties as cultural and emotional ones.
Weak readers
The group of people closest to the functionally illiterate, or to some extent coinciding with them, can be called “weak readers” - weak readers, who are characterized by “passive reading”. This includes adults and children who do not like to read. This group of readers was recently studied by French sociologists.
The definition of “weak reader” indicates a level of mastery of cultural skills and experience, depending primarily on education, social background and especially on changes in family, professional or social relationships. The authors emphasize that a “weak reader” is usually thought of as someone who does not have time to read. In reality, we are talking about a psychological reason: neither his life circumstances nor his professional orientation contribute to the transformation of reading into a permanent habit. He reads occasionally and does not spend much time on it, considering this activity inappropriate. When reading, such people usually look for “useful” information, i.e. information of a practical nature. In addition, those around them most often read little and rarely (or not at all) talk about books. For this category of readers, the world of culture is beyond the limit - the barrier of his own lack of education: the library evokes a feeling of timidity and is associated with an institution intended for initiates, bookstores also offer too much choice, which is more of an obstacle than an incentive to read. School literary education, received in childhood and falling on unprepared soil, rather caused rejection from literature (largely due to the compulsory nature of education), rather than contributing to the development of interest in reading and self-education skills.
Experts have not yet come to a consensus on whether a “reading crisis” really existed and still exists, or whether the reason lies in something completely different - the ever-increasing gap between the level of “school production” provided by modern educational systems and the requirements of the “social order” with aspects of society and its social institutions.
Features of modern development of society are informatization, the development of high technologies and the complication of the fabric of social life. The competitiveness of developed countries and their participation in the global division of labor market increasingly depend on the level of education of workers, their skills and abilities for continuous professional development (“lifelong learning” - lifelong learning, i.e. continuous self-education). The aforementioned A Nation at Risk report states: “... these shortcomings come at a time when the demands placed on highly skilled workers in new fields are becoming ever more complex. For example...computers, computer-controlled equipment penetrates into all aspects of our lives - into homes, factories and workplaces. One estimate is that by the end of the century, millions of jobs will involve laser technology and robotics. Technology is radically transforming many other activities. These include health care, medical, energy, food processing, maintenance, construction, science, education, military and industrial equipment."
As we see, the attitude towards the level of development of an individual’s reading culture, as well as the process of reading activity, has changed today and is acquiring paramount importance for society. According to French sociologists, the idea of reading as a skill acquired at school is not true enough, because in fact, reading is the result of cultural experience, the degree of mastery of which largely depends on social conditions, level of education and age.
Many researchers of “weak reading” and functional illiteracy believe that the roots and causes of the development of these phenomena lie in early childhood and stem not only from the school, but also from the preschool period of the child’s personality development. And a huge, decisive role here is played by the family, its sociocultural environment and the reading culture of the parents. The level of literacy and reading culture of children and adolescents today causes concern among parents, teachers, and librarians in different countries. Thus, in the Netherlands in 1984, among 12-year-old children, 7% were unable to understand the simplest text. In Poland, Germany and the USA, about 40% of school-age children have difficulty understanding the simplest literary texts.
There are practically no absolutely illiterate people in Sweden. However, among a population of 8.5 million, about 300-500 thousand adults have difficulty reading and writing. It is estimated that 5-10% of the 100,000 schoolchildren who graduate from Level 1 school each year cannot read and write with ease. Secondary school teachers say they encounter too many 16- to 20-year-old students who are unable to read what they want and need to read. These are young people whose life chances after leaving school are severely limited by their print inability. Swedish experts emphasize that this is a nationwide problem that is steadily worsening.
What lies at its core? Heated debates among experts have mainly focused on improving teaching methods, but some of them believe that, most likely, the main reason is the insufficient development of the child’s linguistic abilities in preschool age. Teachers emphasize that parents have neither the energy nor the opportunity to engage in the language development of their children. Many of them are unable to show children the value of books and reading. Too many students say their parents are so busy watching television that they don't have time to talk to their children. Here's what one teenager said: “My parents are much more interested in people from Dallas... than me! They can’t even imagine that I’m at least as interesting as these stereotypes,” which illustrates a typical picture of leisure time in such families. Meanwhile, it is parents who bear enormous responsibility for the child’s speech development in early childhood. Society cannot guarantee the correction of all previously made mistakes and negligence in family education. However, Swedish teachers believe that schools and society must ensure that students do not leave secondary school without adequate reading and writing skills.
Signs and characteristics of a weak reader (a person who cannot read)
What are the characteristics of “weak readers”? First of all, because they find it boring and tiring to read. But these readers have other characteristics as well. And the most typical of them are reading errors. Thus, these readers cannot always correctly correlate a symbol - a letter of the alphabet with the corresponding sound. This, firstly, leads to the fact that they have to pause in order to understand the text they read, and, secondly, it leads to guessing. Guessing when reading, changing several other things (this especially applies to long words). But even small errors with the replacement and rearrangement of letters lead to a change in the meaning of the text. The weakest are characterized by slow reading, abrupt, constant repetition of phrases, stuttering at the beginning of reading words, reading syllables. They make morphological and syntactic errors, errors from rearranging letters, etc., and also lose rhythm when reading. Many of them regard reading as hard work, boring, gloomy and dull, because they lack words and expressions. Many schoolchildren can read quite phonically, but words and images mean nothing to them. They read only because they have to. But at the same time, they never think about what they read and do not pay attention to the content. For them, reading is something unpleasant that must be endured and accomplished. Of course, those who lack words and expressions, and those who struggle with their extremely poor reading technique, do not enjoy it. Reading is hard work! Typically, adults involved in child development spend a lot of time and energy trying to find the truly best books for children and adolescents. When they begin to offer them, they often encounter stubborn resistance from such readers.
Educators emphasize that students whose reading skills are at the initial level cannot always, even if they want, read what is meant by “good literature.” And only towards the end of school do these students begin to realize that they need to improve their reading skills. As a rule, this leads them to low self-esteem and an inferiority complex. Young people enter life with half-reading, which gives them half-knowledge and half-understanding, so they feel half-capable of full-fledged activities. And this group of people is quite large today in any, even the most developed, society with cultural traditions.
So, from early childhood to old age, functional illiteracy accompanies a person, introducing troubles and additional suffering into his life. However, today modern developed countries are making a number of efforts to solve this problem, which affects large sections of the population and concerns almost all spheres of life.
Markets of developed countries
The economic development of countries is largely determined by the nature and depth of the social division of labor, during which the development of internal markets occurs. The conditions of their functioning affect the efficiency of production of both its individual types and the economic system as a whole. The internal market, which refers to the system of exchange within the national economy without the export-import sector, is the primary element of the entire system of functioning of the world economy.It includes internal connections that characterize the scale and forms of interaction various types production included in the economy. External relations serve the participation of the national economy in the world economy. Analysis of domestic markets shows the driving forces of economic processes in each individual country and, to a certain extent, in the subsystem as a whole.
If for the first half of the 20th century. While developing countries have been traditional destinations for capital flows, recent decades have been characterized by an increasing interweaving of capital from developed countries. The average annual growth rate of foreign direct investment in developed countries exceeds the growth rate of GNP and merchandise exports. Currently, in France and England, one fifth of all manufacturing products is produced through foreign investment, in Italy - a quarter, in Germany - about one third. England and the USA, which traditionally were the largest exporters of capital, now act as its main importers.
In the 1980s, Latin American countries experienced a period of severe economic crisis. The average rate of economic growth in the region fell from 6% in the 70s to 1.8% in the 80s, and inflation and unemployment increased significantly. There was a sharp decline in the influx of foreign investment, and many countries were forced to temporarily refuse to service their external debt.
Developing countries are among the main borrowers on the international capital market, attracting an average of about 26 billion US dollars per year. The majority of external debt is short-term floating-rate debt, with approximately 80% of the debt held by the government.
Tight monetary policy and fiscal expansion carried out by a number of developed countries, especially the USA and Great Britain, led to an increase in real interest rates and a decrease in the rate of economic growth in them.
Developing countries are characterized by a fundamentally different structure of financial markets and a pattern of interaction between fiscal and monetary policies than in developed countries.
The capacity of the financial market in developing countries is relatively small compared to the government's needs to finance the budget deficit. High investment risks and significant issue volumes lead to high costs of raising funds for the state, which necessitates the use of seigniorage to finance the gap between revenues and planned government expenditures.
As a result, the need to finance current government expenditures, including the costs of servicing previously accumulated debt, becomes the most important motive for the formation of money supply in the country.
The low capacity of the financial market and low confidence in the state on the part of investors are among the main reasons for the growth of money supply and the increase in the rate of inflation.
The factors listed above also necessitate the governments of developing countries to borrow from the international financial market by issuing bonds denominated in foreign currencies. The cost of funds raised in this way depends on interest rates in developed countries, as well as on the prices of exported and imported goods. The reasons for the increase in the cost of servicing external debt for developing countries may be an increase in interest rates in developed countries, a decrease in the cost of a unit of exports and an increase in the cost of a unit of imports.
The limited funds available for investment lead to competition for capital between the government and the private sector. The government's additional placement of its debt obligations leads to a reduction in investment in private production, that is, a substitution effect occurs between government spending and private investment. Foreign capital entering the financial market plays a dominant role in the pricing process. Prices of financial instruments are weakly dependent on fundamental economic indicators.
Due to the fact that in developing countries there is a high state participation in the capital of the banking system and a low professional level of banking personnel, the distribution of credit resources often does not depend on economic factors (profitability and profitability). This is associated with low investment efficiency. State participation also means that in the event of insolvency of the final borrower, servicing private debt can fall on the shoulders of the state budget.
The main foreign investors in emerging markets are the so-called qualified investors (banks, investment funds, speculative hedge funds), who are able to competently assess the risk and potential return of investments and invest their funds primarily in the most liquid instruments (government debt obligations and securities of export-oriented companies , belonging to the number of “blue chips”). Such investors are focused primarily on making short-term investments, making profits through arbitrage and speculative operations.
The insufficiency of domestic financial resources and the underdevelopment of domestic financial markets, causing the high cost of borrowed capital for the manufacturer, government intervention and the unfavorable structure of public debt are one of the main reasons for the high dependence of emerging markets on shocks in the international capital market. Other important factors in generating financial crises are expansionary monetary and/or fiscal policies and negative current account balances.
Less developed countries
A special category on a global scale are the least developed countries. These states have extremely low levels of poverty, very weak economies, and people and resources exposed to the elements.According to recent studies and calculations, 48 of the existing countries are classified as the least developed countries of the world. Changes to this list are made every 3 years. Checks and calculations are carried out by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). And the composition of the group of least developed countries is approved by the UN. A similar term to designate underdeveloped states was adopted in 1971. In order to be included in the list of least developed countries, it is necessary to satisfy three criteria put forward by the UN, and in order for a country to be excluded from the list, it is necessary to exceed the minimum threshold for two values.
Suggested criteria:
Economic vulnerability (instability of exports, agriculture, industry);
low level of income (GDP per capita is calculated for the past 3 years. To be included in the list - less than $750 US, to be excluded - more than $900 US);
low level of human resource development (the real standard of living is assessed by indicators of health, nutrition, adult literacy, education).
In any case, inclusion in the group of least developed countries, although based on economic indicators, is subjective.
List of underdeveloped states
Over the past 40 years, only 3 countries have been able to leave this list. These are the Maldives, Botswana and Cape Verde.
The list of least developed countries is also called the “Fourth World”. They are singled out from the “third world” countries largely due to the lack of any progress. Most often, states do not develop due to civil wars.
The bulk of the least developed countries are located in Africa (33 countries), the second largest group is located in Asia (14 countries), and one country is located in Latin America - Haiti.
Some of the most famous states include:
The least developed countries in Africa are Angola, Guinea, Madagascar, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia;
The least developed countries of Asia are Afghanistan, Nepal, Yemen.
A clear example of the difference between developed countries and countries of the “fourth world” can be represented by the fact that 13% of the entire world population is forced to survive on 1-2 dollars a day, while at the same time, a person in a developed country spends the same amount on a cup of tea.
The world community and underdeveloped states
Often, developed and developing countries, in order to help the least developed countries, relieve them of the obligation to pay duties and fulfill quotas when importing goods. The international community develops and adopts programs to support such states. A special role in such assistance is played by powers that have never owned colonies, but have the experience of an underdeveloped country behind them. These states can help exactly as needed, and not selectively and selectively, like countries with a long history of colonization, paying special attention to their former colonies and neighboring territories.
The last UN conference on least developing countries was held in Istanbul. A program of development, support and control for the next 10 years was adopted there, it is recorded in the “Istanbul Declaration”. Also, the Turkish Foreign Minister made a proposal to change the name of this group of countries. He proposed calling them “Developed Countries of the Future” or “Potentially Developing Countries.” This proposal was accepted for consideration. There are opinions that the conference in Turkey could become a turning point in the development of world states, the fight against poverty and entering a new stage of the world economy.
Politics of developed countries
Politics of developed countries. Demographic policy in economically developed countries is carried out exclusively by ECONOMIC MEASURES and is aimed at stimulating the birth rate. The arsenal of economic measures includes cash subsidies - monthly benefits for families with children, benefits for single parents, promotion of increasing the prestige of motherhood, paid parental leave.In some countries where positions are strong catholic church(for example, in Ireland, the USA, in Poland), according to her demands, laws have recently been discussed in parliaments that would provide for criminal liability for a woman who terminates a pregnancy and a doctor who performs an abortion. The attitude in Western countries to demographic problems is defined as egalitarian, including adherence to the principles of democracy, social justice and human rights.
They presuppose the exclusion of repressive measures and the superiority of individual decisions. Most industrialized capitalist countries have a vague attitude towards low birth rates.
Policies to increase the birth rate were noted in France, Greece, and Luxembourg. This does not mean that Western governments do not have demographic goals. Most likely, they do not express them explicitly. Germany has a policy of promoting birth rates. The German government in 1974 allowed the distribution of contraceptives and lifted restrictions on abortions in the first three months of pregnancy, but early the next year the country's supreme court ruled unconstitutional the authorization of abortions “at will” and limited the right to them only for “medical indications” or other extreme emergencies. circumstances.
Nowadays, Germany has adopted a complex system of incentives for demographic policy, which is divided into three main groups: Family benefits and allowances; Childbirth benefits; Housing benefits. 4.Russian Politics Russia entered the twentieth century with a record high birth rate. Even in 1915, when a significant proportion of men were drafted into the army, the country's population continued to grow.
The generation born in 1980-1987 will soon enter their childbearing age. The last large generation capable of replacing their fathers and mothers. The state demographic policy of Russia should be aimed at stimulating the birth of a second and third child, because this still remains an acceptable value and is possible with the creation of appropriate material and living conditions.
Expenditures on demographic policy should take first place in the state budget. The volume of benefits and incentive payments for two- and three-child families should reach a level at which such families will be financially more profitable than one-child families. The current situation in the field of demography in Russian Federation characterized by a number of negative trends. In Russia, there is a depopulation of the population, which is due to low birth rates on the one hand (the parameters of which are almost 2 times less than those required to replace generations) and a high mortality rate, especially in infancy and working age.
Among those who die of working age, men make up about 80%, which is 4 times higher than the mortality rate of women. The main causes of death are accidents, poisoning and injuries, diseases of the circulatory system and neoplasms. The health status and mortality rate of the population are reflected in the life expectancy of the country's population.
The average life expectancy of the country's population was 65.9 years. The difference in life expectancy between men and women is 12 years. The goal of demographic policy for the medium term is to take measures to reduce the mortality rate of the population; creating prerequisites for stabilizing birth rates. In this regard, the main tasks of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of demographic policy are: developing the main directions of action for the implementation of the demographic policy of the Russian Federation for the long term, including specific measures for the implementation of the Concept of demographic policy, taking into account the prospects for the socio-economic development of the Russian Federation, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation Federation, individual ethnic groups of the population and regional characteristics of demographic processes; development and implementation of a set of federal target programs to protect public health, including the prevention and treatment of arterial hypertension among the population of the Russian Federation; providing oncological care to the population of the Russian Federation; prevention and control of AIDS, etc. development of measures providing for certification of workplaces in order to identify adverse factors on the health of workers, as well as procedures for economic incentives for employers to improve working conditions and labor protection; development and implementation of measures to prevent crime, drunkenness and drug addiction.
The ongoing All-Russian Population Census, as well as the creation of the State Population Register of the Russian Federation, will be of great importance for obtaining the most complete and reliable information about the country’s population in its various aspects, conducting a wide range of studies on the formation and adjustment of demographic policy.
In the area of creating family living conditions that make it possible to raise several children, the main focus should be to ensure that the demographic aspect is taken into account when developing and implementing state housing policy, including: maintaining a system of housing standards, ensuring a favorable system of housing standards for families with children; promoting the development of market forms of ensuring affordable housing that best meet the housing needs of families in the active phase of the reproductive cycle; taking into account the number of children in a family in need of improved housing conditions when determining the amount of assistance from the state (free subsidies for the purchase of housing, assistance in repaying mortgage loans, etc.). The natural population decline in Russia was 4.8 people per 10 thousand citizens. As ITAR-TASS reports, such data was presented today by the Minister of Labor and Social Development of the Russian Federation, Alexander Pochinok, speaking in the State Duma.
He said that last year the Russian population dropped to 145.6 million people.
A. Pochinok noted a generally unfavorable demographic trend in the country.
Moreover, the minister clarified, such forecasts were calculated taking into account the positive migration balance. Without taking this factor into account, according to A. Pochinok, the population of Russia could reach 171 million people, as a result of which the country would drop from seventh place in the world in terms of the number of its citizens to fourteenth. Such a demographic situation, according to A. Pochinok, could lead to “catastrophe” of the Russian pension system and a labor shortage in the country.
To prevent a demographic crisis, serious, consistent measures are needed, the minister said. The government has already developed a concept for the demographic development of the Russian Federation, which provides for the implementation of a number of social programs, in particular, to reduce the level of sudden mortality, protect working conditions, and combat tuberculosis and drug addiction. A. Pochinok also noted that in order to increase the birth rate in the country, it is necessary to significantly increase the socio-economic standard of living of people. “In order for families to give birth to children today, they need confidence in the future,” the minister said. 5. Conclusion Difficulties in the socio-economic development of Third World countries contributed to the growing priority of demographic policy, i.e. purposeful activities in the field of regulation of demographic processes.
This was facilitated by the position of industrialized Western countries, which believe that control over population growth is also a necessary condition for socio-economic development.
In a joint communiqué of heads of state and government of leading Western countries in Houston, it was noted that sustainable development in a number of countries requires that population growth be in a reasonable balance with economic resources, and maintaining this balance is a priority for countries supporting economic development.
The importance of demographic policy varies for different subsystems and countries, depending on the level of their economic development and the stage of demographic transition. In particular, a fifth of all countries, where 26% of the world's population lives, believe that population growth or natural increase has little impact on the country's development and there is no need to achieve special goals in this area.
Demographic policy, being part of socio-economic policy, is not always clearly manifested. It is most definitely carried out when its direct goal is to influence demographic development. Demographic policy influences two aspects of the reproductive behavior of the population - the realization of the need for children and the formation of the individual and family's need for a number of children that would correspond to the interests of society.
This is achieved by economic, administrative, legal and socio-psychological measures. Characteristic feature These measures are characterized by their longevity due to the fact that demographic processes are characterized by significant inertia, determined by the stability of standards of demographic behavior. The peculiarity of the measures taken lies in their impact on the dynamics of demographic processes mainly not directly, but indirectly, through human behavior.
Structure of developed countries
Developing countries are the countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America - former colonial, semi-colonial and dependent countries that became politically independent states after the collapse of the colonial system of capitalism. Composition and structure of developing countries: Capital-excess oil countries: Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia. NIS, including: city-states: Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore. Countries with a more capacious domestic market: South Korea, Brazil, Argentina, etc. Relatively developed small countries: Bahrain, Cyprus, Lebanon. Agricultural and raw materials exporters, including: oil exporters: Algeria, Iraq, Iran. Other agricultural and raw materials exporters: Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan, Malaysia, Morocco, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Philippines, Sri Lanka.Countries of endogenous development, including: large countries: Pakistan, India. Backward agricultural countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Bhutan, Mauritania, Nepal, Sudan, etc. Let us briefly consider the main characteristics of groups and subgroups: 1 Capital-rich oil countries. Main characteristics of the group: high GDP growth rates in the 70s; significant balance of payments surplus; massive export of capital; the highest level of per capita income; high degree of dependence on external development factors; one-sided diversified structure of GDP and exports. The main and rapid factor in the rise of the countries in this group was oil. A sharp and repeated increase in oil prices on the world market in the early 80s led to a significant influx of petrodollars into these countries, however, their economies were unable to absorb this influx. In recent years, the situation on the oil market has deteriorated sharply, oil production has decreased, which, combined with the fall in world prices, has sharply aggravated the economic problems of these countries. As a result of the budget deficit, foreign assets are gradually being “sold”. Economic restructuring and diversification of the industry structure are proceeding slowly. Newly industrialized countries (NICs). The main characteristics of the group: the highest GDP growth rates; relatively high level of GDP per capita; active involvement in the international division of labor; industrial specialization of export; export-oriented development strategy.
Within the group, there are certain differences between the countries included in it. Hong Kong, Singapore and Macau (to a lesser extent), in addition to the export of industrial products, have important intermediary functions in the world capitalist economy (re-export, transit, financial transactions, tourism, etc.). In city-states there is no agricultural sector; such a category as the internal market is practically inapplicable to them. The subgroup, including South Korea and Taiwan, has a relatively large domestic market; the existing agricultural sector is much less developed than the industrial sector. The involvement of South Korea and Taiwan in the international division of labor is somewhat lower than that of city-states.
Comparatively developed small countries. The following characteristics are common to this group: industrial specialization of exports; a fairly high level of GDP per capita. At the same time, serious economic problems for Cyprus and Lebanon are generated by internal and foreign political instability. For this reason, Lebanon has practically lost its role as a financial, trade, transit and tourism center in the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Bahrain's economic development is undergoing an evolution from a capital-rich oil exporter to an NIS group. Bahrain is gradually turning into a major trade and financial center of the Mediterranean-Middle Eastern region. Bahrain has virtually no agricultural sector and, accordingly, no agricultural exports. Agricultural and raw materials exporters. The most numerous and heterogeneous group. Factors that determine the similarity of agricultural and raw materials exporters: moderate GDP growth rates; relative balance of exports and imports; a higher share of the agricultural sector than in capital-abundant and newly industrialized countries; significant role of mineral raw materials in exports. According to the commodity structure of exports, three countries are distinguished in the group: Algeria, Iraq and Iran, forming a subgroup of oil exporters.
These oil exporters differ significantly from capital-abundant oil countries in a more diversified sectoral structure of the economy, a more capacious domestic market, the presence of an agricultural sector in the national economy, and smaller oil reserves. Among other agricultural and raw materials exporters, there are many countries that export oil: Indonesia, Tunisia, Egypt, Malaysia, Syria. In addition to oil, they export non-ferrous metal ores, natural rubber, timber, food and industrial goods. Countries of endogenous development. The main factors of similarity between countries are: low level of per capita income; low share of exports in GDP; significant share of the agricultural sector; relatively weak involvement in the international division of labor.
The main difference between the subgroup large countries is that they have already created the foundations of a perfect reproduction complex, and the import-substituting stage of industrialization has almost been completed. The export structure of these countries (especially India) is quite diversified, and the share of industrial goods in exports is growing. The countries of the subgroup have their own base of research and development work, they carry out nuclear and space programs. However, the growing industrial potential of large countries is under pressure from the backward and numerous agricultural periphery. As for the subgroup of backward agrarian states, the backwardness of their ecological structures, limited access to external resources, the narrowness of the export base, the underdevelopment of the domestic market, etc. does not allow these countries to achieve a change in their economic status in the future.
Newly developed countries
South KoreaArea: 98.5 thousand sq. km.
Population: 48,509,000
Capital: Seoul
Official name: Republic of Korea
Government structure: Parliamentary republic
Legislature: Unicameral National Assembly
Head of State: President
Administrative structure: Unitary country (nine provinces and six cities under central jurisdiction)
Common religions: Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity (Protestants) Member of the UN
Public holiday: Day of the Proclamation of the Republic (September 9), Day of the Foundation of the State (October 3)
EGP and natural resource potential. The state is located in East Asia, on the Korean Peninsula, washed by the waters of the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea, borders the DPRK at the thirty-eighth parallel, and has maritime borders with China and Japan. It also maintains the closest ties with Western countries and the USA. The government of the country is trying to intensify external Relations and economic cooperation with North Korea.
In the bowels of the country there are deposits of coal, iron and manganese ores, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, uranium, gold, silver, thorium, asbestos, graphite, mica, salt, kaolin, limestone, but its own mineral the base is not enough for economic development.
The country's population is almost 99.8% Korean, there is a twenty-thousandth Chinese community, the official language is Korean. Population density 490 people. sq. km. The urban population is about 81%. Before the outbreak of World War II, quite a lot of Koreans migrated to China, Japan and the USSR. About 3.3 million people. returned to the country after 1945. About 2 million Koreans fled from the Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the Republic of Korea. The largest cities are Seoul, Suwon, Daejeon, Gwangju, Busan, Ulsan, Daegu.
Seoul, the capital of the republic, the largest transport hub (Gimpo International Airport, Incheon seaport), cultural, scientific, financial and economic center of the country, is one of the most densely populated cities in the world.
The city was first mentioned in the 1st century. AD, in the XIV century. was called Hanyang, a modern name that means “capital”, the city received in 1948 after it was declared the capital of South Korea.
Together with Incheon, the city's economy accounts for about 50% of the country's industrial output. There are enterprises in the light, textile, automobile, radio-electronic, chemical, cement, paper, rubber, leather, and ceramic industries. Metallurgy and mechanical engineering are developed. The metro was built in 1974. The layout of the city in certain parts is very dependent on the hilly terrain. A number of areas of the old city are built up with modern high-rise buildings.
Seoul is home to the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Arts, Seoul National University, Korea University, Hanyang and Sogang Universities, the National Museum, a traditional dance theater, drama and opera theaters.
The country's economy ranks 12th in the world in terms of GDP. Developed high-tech mechanical engineering, electronics. The country owes large-scale American, Japanese and Western European investments to the policy of economic openness to foreign investors (since 1979). Since the late 80s of the last century, their own Korean conglomerate companies - the world-famous concerns Samsung, LG and others - began to compete with Western transnational companies. GNP per capita is about $18,000. Industry. Industry accounts for 25% of the country's GDP and employs a quarter of the working population. Most businesses are small, family-owned businesses, with a small number of firms listed on the national stock exchange. About 20 large companies produce up to a third of all industrial products. Industrial production in the Republic of Korea has shifted from textiles to electronics, electrical goods, machinery, ships, petroleum products and steel.
The mining industry is engaged in the development of graphite deposits, the extraction of kaolin, tungsten and low-quality coal, which is used in the energy sector. The economy of the Republic of Korea, like the Japanese economy, is evidence that a country can be rich thanks to imported raw materials.
Agriculture makes up a small percentage of GDP, but it fully supplies the population with food and creates food residues that are exported. It employs one seventh of the working population. After the land reform of 1948, a significant part of the large farms was restructured; currently, small family farms predominate here, which cultivate almost a fifth of the country's territory. Half of the land is irrigated. The government purchases most of the crop at stable prices.
The main crop is Rice (provides 2/5 of the cost of all industry products). In addition to rice, barley, wheat, soybeans, potatoes, vegetables, cotton, and tobacco are grown. Gardening, ginseng cultivation, fishing and seafood are developed; the industry fully meets the needs of the population, and surplus fish and seafood are exported). Family farms raise pigs and cattle.
Transport. The tonnage of the country's merchant fleet is more than 12 million deadweight tons. The main seaports are Busan, Ulsan, and Icheon. In the middle of the country, rivers are also used for navigation. Rail transport is much less developed than road transport, the length of roads is 7 and 60 thousand km. There are international airports in Seoul and Busan.
Foreign economic relations. The country's main foreign trade partners are the USA, Japan, and Southeast Asian countries. The country exports products from manufacturing industries - Transport equipment, electrical equipment, cars, ships, chemicals, shoes, textiles, agricultural products. Imports oil and oil products, mineral fertilizers, engineering products, and food.
Singapore
Area: 647.5 sq. km.
Population:4,658,000
Capital: Singapore
Official name: Republic of Singapore
Legislature: Unicameral Parliament
Head of state: President (elected for a term of 6 years)
Administrative structure: Unitary republic
Common religions: Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism
Member of the UN, ASEAN, member of the Commonwealth since 1965
Public holiday: Independence Day (August 29)
EGP and natural resource potential. Singapore is a country in Southeast Asia, on the island. Singapore and the surrounding 58 small islands, off the southern part of the Malay Peninsula. The island's greatest wealth is considered to be a convenient deep-water harbor in its southeastern part. From the north, the island of Singapore is separated from Malaysia by the Strait of Johor, about 1 km wide, the banks of which are connected by a causeway. It is separated from Indonesia in the west by the Strait of Malacca. The relief of the island is flat, the low-lying shores are significantly swampy, and have a significant number of bays such as estuaries. In the southwest there are clusters of coral reefs. The highest point of the island is the Bukittimah hump (177 m).
The climate is equatorial monsoon with no clearly defined seasons. Temperatures throughout the year are constant from 26 to 280C. High humidity and rain occur throughout the year, with 2440 mm of precipitation per year. The monsoon season lasts from November to February. On the islands there are remnants of tropical rainforests, mangroves, and rest cities for migratory birds. There are no mineral deposits in the country; even drinking water is supplied by piped water from neighboring Malaysia, and oil and natural gas deposits have been discovered only on the shelf off the Malacca Peninsula.
Population. Almost the entire population of the country lives in its capital, the city of Singapore; in addition to it, there are several other settlements on the island.
People from the predominantly southern provinces of China make up 77.4% of the country's population, 14.2% are Malays, 7.2% are Indians and 1.2% are from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Europe. Almost a third of the population professes Buddhism, a fifth - Confucianism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism.
Singapore - One of the most densely populated countries in the world with a density of more than 4884 people. per sq. km. Singapore, the capital of the state of the same name Singapore. Situated in the low-lying coastal area of the Kalang and Singapore Rivers on the southern shore of Singapore Island and the adjacent smaller islands of the Singapore Strait. It is connected to the Malacca Peninsula by rail and road.
The city began to be called Singapore in 1299 (translated from Sanskrit - “Lion City”). Due to its favorable location on the island of Singapore, the city has become a crossroads of sea routes for traders from India, China, Siam (Thailand) and Indonesian states. During its history, the city was repeatedly sacked and destroyed by the Javanese and Portuguese. Since 1824, Singapore was recognized as a possession of England and for more than a century served as its main naval and trading base as the “oriental pearl of the British crown.”
In 1959, Singapore became the capital of the “self-governing state” of Singapore, and since December 1965 the capital of the independent Republic of Singapore.
Singapore consists of several districts, contrasting with each other: the central or colonial and business districts, Chinatown.
Today Singapore is one of the largest commercial, industrial, financial and transport centers in Southeast Asia; one of the world's largest ports in terms of cargo turnover of more than 400 million tons per year; Changi International Airport operates here; the Singapore Currency Exchange is the fourth in the world after London, New York and Tokyo; the largest center of the electronics industry in Southeast Asia. The city has metalworking, electrical engineering, shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises. The city's oil refining industry processes more than 20 million tons of crude oil per year. Chemical, food, textile, light industry, primary processing of rubber and other agricultural raw materials are also developed. There are about 135 large banks in the city, one of the world's largest rubber exchanges.
Singapore is a significant scientific and cultural center of Asia. At the University of Singapore, which was founded in 1949, the Center for Economic Research operates; the city also has Nanyang University, the Polytechnic Institute, the Technical College, the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, the Institute of Architecture, scientific societies and associations. The National Library, founded in 1884, has more than 520 thousand volumes.
The city has the National and Art Museums, museums of philately, navy, World War II Memorials, a national theater, the Victoria Concert Hall, the Drama Center, numerous theaters and cinemas, the Chinese street opera "Wayang", a botanical garden with an orchid garden, and a marine aquarium. , a bird and reptile park and a zoo, numerous architectural monuments, Hindu, Confucian-Buddhist, Buddhist temples and Muslim mosques.
In the northeastern part, the so-called “city of the 21st century” is being built. A large oil refinery has been established on the islands of the new western port of Jurong. Singapore has several small islands, one of which, Sentosa Island, has become a resort area of the city.
Economy. The country is one of the largest commercial, industrial, financial and transport centers in Southeast Asia, the basis of which economy is formed by traditional foreign trade operations (mainly re-export), as well as export industries operating on imported raw materials. Singapore is the largest investor in the economies of Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. In terms of investment volumes, it is second only to Japan.
The government of the country took vigorous measures to stimulate economic development: provided significant tax benefits to industrialists whose enterprises produced export products; benefits were introduced for investors in industrial production and exporters. In the 1990s, Singapore became one of the largest regional and international centers of trade, finance, marketing and the development of new technologies. In terms of computerization, it has reached second place in Asia after Japan.
Industry. Industrial enterprises countries rely on imported raw materials. Products made from imported raw materials are often imported. The country has enterprises in the metalworking, electrical, radio-electronic, optical-mechanical, aviation, steelmaking, shipbuilding and ship repair, oil refining, chemical, food, textile, and light industries. Singapore ranks second in the world (after the USA) in the production of mobile well equipment for the development of offshore oil fields, second place (after Hong Kong) in the processing of sea containers, and third place (after Houston and Rotterdam) in oil refining. The country has a highly developed military industry. There are enterprises for the primary processing of tea, coffee, and natural rubber.
Agriculture occupies a small place in total production. They cultivate the coconut palm, rubber-bearing hevea, spices, tobacco, pineapples, vegetables, and fruits. Pig farming, poultry farming, fishing and marine fishing are developing.
Transport. Singapore is one of the largest (second largest in the world in terms of cargo turnover) ports in the world. The length of railways is 83 km, roads are over 3 thousand km. Merchant fleet tonnage 6,900,000 registered. gross. Changi International Airport is one of the best in the world in terms of quality and efficiency of passenger service. It receives up to 36 million passengers a year, on its territory there are more than 100 shops, 60 restaurants, a large swimming pool and several free cinemas, 200 Internet zones with a free worldwide network and the largest art gallery in Asia.
Foreign economic relations. The country exports office equipment, petroleum products, and television and radio equipment. The country's economy receives significant funds from the sale of exotic fish and orchids. Main foreign trade partners: USA, Japan, Malaysia, etc.
Location at the intersection of trade routes from European countries to countries Far East contributed to the growth of Singapore and its emergence as the largest re-export trade port in Southeast Asia. Today, re-export operations account for almost 30% of foreign trade. It is a financial and investment center of global scale. A major center for international trade and industrial exhibitions.
Imports consist of food necessary for the country (up to 90% of the country's needs). A replacement water supply from Indonesia has been built. More than 8 million tourists visit the country every year, which brings significant income to the country.
Taiwan (Ukraine is not recognized as a state)
Area: 36.18 thousand square meters. km.
Population: 22.7 million people.
Capital: Taipei
Official name: Republic of Taiwan
Government structure: Republic
Legislative body: National Assembly
Head of state: President (elected for 4 years)
Administrative structure: Unitary state
Common religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism
UN member
Public Holiday: Taiwan Day (October 10)
EGP and natural resource potential. The country's territory consists of the island of Taiwan, the Penghuledao archipelago (Pescadores Islands), the Kinmen Islands, the Mazu Islands, the Paracelsian Islands, the Pratas and Spratly Islands. More than half of the territory is occupied by mountains, there are active volcanoes, and there are frequent earthquakes. The flat areas of the islands are covered with tropical rainforests, the wood of which is an important natural resource of the country.
The climate ranges from subtropical to tropical monsoon with air temperatures ranging from 15 to 280C. 1,500 - 5,000 mm of precipitation falls annually. Typhoons occur from July to September. Mineral resources include oil, natural gas, coal, iron ore, salt, limestone, and marble. The country's population is 98% Chinese, the indigenous population of the islands - Guoashan - is 1.5%. The most widespread and officially recognized religion is Buddhism; Taoism, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Islam are also common.
Largest cities: Taipei, Kaohsiung, Taichung, Tainan. Taipei, the largest city on the island of Taiwan, the administrative center of Taiwan province, the capital of the country, the largest industrial and cultural center in which metallurgy and mechanical engineering enterprises operate (production of electronic calculators, tape recorders, televisions, computers), cement, chemical, woodworking, food industries. The Keelong seaport and Taoyuan and Songshan international airports are built here. Taipei became the main city of Taiwan in 1956. The tallest skyscraper “Taipei-101” (509 m, 101 floors) was erected here, which became the tallest building in the world. The lower floors of the skyscraper are reserved for restaurants and shops, and the upper floors for offices. It is here that the fastest elevators in the world operate, with the help of which in just 39 seconds you can rise to the 88th floor with an observation deck.
Economy. Both Taiwan and the PRC are putting forward programs to unite into a single country, but significant differences between the two countries do not allow this to happen. Since the late 1980s of the last century, travel has resumed, and cultural, scientific and personal ties are developing between citizens of the two parts of China. Since the 90s of the last century, economic and cultural contacts between Taiwan and mainland China began to actively develop. Taiwanese investment in China's economy is growing every year. Relations are regulated on both sides by non-governmental organizations.
Taiwan is an economically highly developed territory, one of the so-called “newly industrialized countries”. Its GNP since 1995 has allowed the country to enter the top twenty world leading countries; in terms of foreign currency reserves, the country ranks second in the world after Japan.
The country's industry is characterized by high-tech products known throughout the world. Taiwan produces so many goods and components for the global computer market, which is called the “Silicon Island”. Developed branches of the manufacturing industry: radio-electronic, chemical, instrument and shipbuilding, textile, leather and footwear, clothing. Taiwan is the world's largest producer of camphor. The industrialization of cranes has had a significant impact on its environment.
Agriculture. Only 30% of the territory is suitable for agricultural cultivation. The industry provides only 4% of GDP. Farmers harvest 2-3 crops per year. Rice, grains, sugarcane, betel nut, coconuts, bamboo, sorghum, tea, yutuyn, tropical fruits and vegetables are grown. Developed fishing, pig farming, poultry farming.
Transport. The length of the railways is about 4 thousand km. There are over 17 thousand km of roads. The main ports are Kaohsiung, Keelung, Taichung, Hualien, Suao.
Foreign economic relations. In terms of total foreign trade, Taiwan ranks 14th in the world. The country's exports include textiles, information technology, electronic products, sugar, camphor, and metal products. They import weapons, metals, oil, etc. The main trading partners are the USA, China, Japan.
Experience of developed countries
World experience has shown the active development of the following areas for retail trade: hypermarket chains, large retail enterprises such as shopping and entertainment centers (MECs), malls, convenience stores such as discounters and “pocket supermarkets” united in retail chains. Today, these same areas are the most promising in Moscow and the Moscow region.All over the world, hypermarket chains are economically sustainable entities, are in demand and continue to develop. The construction of hypermarkets in the Moscow region is favored by the changing rhythm and lifestyle of Muscovites and residents of the region. We are now reaching the level where families can go out on weekends (including out of town) and make comprehensive purchases, as well as use additional services(for example, such as a hairdresser, beauty salon, etc.), so it is worth considering it as the most promising direction for the development of trade. In addition, the hypermarket also becomes a place of relaxation, where visitors do not waste time, but spend it with pleasure. On its territory it is possible to locate a cinema, restaurants, cafes, children's rooms, etc., which is already being done.
Active expansion into the regions is also due to another factor - the shortage and high rental cost of land in Moscow. Prices for renting retail space ranged from $150 to $4,500 per sq. m. m per year, while the bulk of the supply consisted of areas in the price category from $500 to $1,000. At the same time, an increase in the level of consumer demand and tougher requirements for retail enterprises on the part of retail operators are already stimulating developers to improve the quality and efficiency of the concepts of the objects being built trade.
Today in the West the shopping type - the mall - is actively developing. In Russian practice, some experts consider the mall as a synonym for a hypermarket, while others note the difference between them, which lies in the principle of trade: the basis of the mall, as a rule, is a number of large stores called anchors. They are connected by covered galleries, which house many small shops (boutiques), restaurants, cafes, hairdressers, and dry cleaners. The galleries are closed in a ring through which the buyer passes.
The mall is a huge shopping, cultural and entertainment center designed to be visited by a large number of people at the same time. In Russia, so far there are only projects for the construction of European malls. Today, the closest thing to it is the Mega Mall located in Moscow, which shows good economic results, which gives reason to make forecasts regarding the active development of this format of the future retail enterprise.
However, experts say, it is premature to talk about widespread construction of malls. In the very near future, shopping centers will continue to actively develop. Shopping centers offer the buyer a fairly large assortment of products represented by different brands. Shopping centers serve the middle class, which, although they do not travel outside the Moscow Ring Road once a week to spend half their salary, at the same time do not have time to go shopping every day. The shopping center can be called a kind of compromise between a hypermarket and many separate small shops.
A shopping and entertainment center (SEC) is the same shopping center, only providing a wider range of services to the buyer. This is an opportunity to relax and do some shopping. The choice here is smaller than in a hypermarket or mall, but they are located closer to residential areas. Often, the owners of the shopping center resort to organizing concerts, performances or lotteries on the territory of the complex; all visitors are invited to join the game, which retains customers and stimulates repeated visits to the retail enterprise.
Chains of stores will also not lose their pace of development in the future. They will most likely replace single stores, which will find it increasingly difficult to independently maintain a foothold in the market. The development of networks is evidenced not only by their growing number, but also by the opening by networks of their own production of goods as an important condition for creating a company name and forming an image.
It is possible that single stores will cease to exist as a retail format altogether or will have little weight in trade. In any case, if they are not forced out as a result of competition between chains and shopping centers, then they may be attracted to the franchise market. One way or another, there is no clear future for single stores. An exception may be a store at the factory, but it should rather be positioned as a boutique, because... In any case, the manufacturing enterprise will have the financial means to support its company store.
An example is the Danone store, located two hundred meters from Red Square, which to this day perfectly fulfills its role: it helps strengthen the image of the Danone company, and also serves as a kind of advertising for fresh dairy products.
The store annually sells up to 600 tons of Danone products; it is visited daily by 1,500 to 3,500 people, not only Muscovites, but also residents of other Russian cities who come to Moscow and specially visit this retail enterprise.
Chain stores do not pose a “danger” to company stores, because... psychologically, the buyer considers the products of a company store to be fresher and more complete in range, and at a lower price than in any retail outlet, although this is not always the case.
A relatively new, but actively developing format in Russia is the discounter. In the West, it has long been widespread and enjoys well-deserved favor among the local population. Discount stores have a number of common features, such as: the use of simpler equipment, some of the goods in the store are offered directly in production or transport containers, a minimum number of personnel is used and, as a result of all this, a reduction in distribution costs and the establishment of more low prices.
The trade markup in discount stores is 16–18%, and for consumer goods the markup is set at a minimum level of 12%, while for cosmetics it is from 25% to 40%, which is higher than that of competitors. For a discounter, the zone of influence is defined as two bus stops (about 500 m). The retail space of a discounter in Russia averages about 1,500 square meters. m, while in the West - only 400 - 800 sq. m.
An example of the widespread use of discounters is Germany. Discounters - food, household goods, household and perfumery goods, shoe stores - are located one after another on the street, where apartment-type buildings predominate. A feature of German discounters is their division into cheap and more respectable (prestigious) ones. But the prices of goods in a store and its appearance may not be related.
For example, Aldi, Schlecker, DR (drogerie merkt), Kaiser’s stores have good finishing, wide aisles between rows of equipment, and the equipment itself is new and of high quality. At the same time, for example, Aldi is a classic discounter with a minimal assortment matrix (800 - 900 items).
There are no specialized discounters in Russia yet. There is no division into expensive and cheaper ones; most likely, such a division will occur in the future, when their number reaches the threshold level of competition in their format. Russian discounters can still boast a wider assortment than Western ones, which ranges from about 800 to 1,400 items.
The discounter is not the only format that is gaining increasing popularity in Europe. Today, stores operating on the principle of a “pocket supermarket” are also promising, in which, unlike large retail enterprises, prices are much higher. Quite interesting is the success of this format, which originated in the USA, and the trend of its spread, which is gaining momentum every year.
The "secret" of this store is its convenient location. It is located in close proximity to consumers' residences, in places where other trading enterprises are difficult to organize or their maintenance will not be economically profitable. Their peculiarity is a limited range and relatively high prices. However, similar shops in the USA and Europe are very popular.
One example is Klein Eiche (Little Country), located in Brandenburg (Germany) and serving an area of 2 thousand people.
"Klein Eiche" is a store of the SB chain. Its area is 100 sq. m. The employees (two salespeople and a cashier) strive to ensure that in a small area the buyer can get everything he needs - from the daily newspaper to meat cuttings, from fresh fruit to pet food. Present all product groups within an area of 100 square meters. m is impossible, so at Klein Eich you can easily place an order for almost any product. That is, if the product you need is not on sale today, then by leaving an appropriate entry, you can receive it tomorrow or at the agreed time.
The organizers of a “convenient store” strive to ensure that all goods on the sales floor are clearly visible, and the assortment matrix is clearly thought out. Next to the “pocket supermarket” there is usually a parking lot for 10 - 15 cars and flower beds. The area is equipped in such a way that purchases can be brought directly to your car using a shopping cart.
The company, as a rule, has “extended” working hours. The optimal operating hours are from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. or 24 hours a day. It is important to note that the service in such stores is built on a “family” principle. Customers should feel that they are always welcome. Prices in a "convenient store" are set 5 - 8% higher than average, but this does not deter the European buyer.
Global trade development trends show that Western business leaders achieve savings through a combination of technological process factors such as a reduction in the average annual cost of inventory, a rational number of employees, increased labor productivity, and an increase in “load” per square meter. m of retail space. The centralized model used in the West relies primarily on the advantages of Internet technology and makes it possible to consolidate orders to suppliers and quickly redistribute goods between stores depending on the level of demand. The work of Western networks is organized by region. The regional group includes 50-60 stores, which are connected through one distribution center. The maximum possible number of functions is centralized. There is a unified marketing policy, merchandising system, training center, each workplace is standardized, all procedures are written out. At the same time, nowhere in the world have the largest chains been created from scratch, by building or purchasing stores. Everywhere this happened through the voluntary association of already existing stores or the joining of wholesalers to this association.
Retail trade formats are developing around the world according to the same logic, and the Russian retail market repeats the main stages of development of markets in more developed countries. The evolution occurs against the backdrop of the inevitable displacement of traditional forms of trade by more modern ones.
First, food formats emerge that provide high customer traffic and rapid turnover of goods. At the first stages, formats are being developed that allow maintaining a high level of gross margin - supermarkets, soft discounters. The first supermarkets appeared in Russia in the mid-1990s: Seventh Continent, Perekrestok. Supermarkets attracted consumers with high-quality branded goods and a quality of service previously unseen by post-Soviet customers: 24-hour operation, modern design and a wide range. Low competition allowed supermarkets to maintain a fairly high price level, and low effective demand initially limited growth opportunities. With increasing competition and the emergence of several supermarkets in one region, company management faced the urgent issue of optimizing activities, which led to the development of network business. Savings in this case are achieved through discounts for large volumes of purchases, cost minimization, and centralization of management.
Soft discounters are the next stage of development after supermarkets in the evolution of retail formats. Its emergence was led by increased sensitivity to prices. In a soft discounter, prices are kept at a constantly low level, the assortment is reduced to goods that are sold most quickly, and services are minimized. The first representatives of this format in Russia were Kopeika and Pyaterochka.
Following soft discounters, hypermarkets began to actively develop, implementing the concept of “low prices and high quality in a large space.” This marked a new stage in increasing price aggressiveness and retail efficiency. Foreign players were the first to introduce the hypermarket format in Moscow and St. Petersburg: Ramstore, Auchan. The response to the success of hypermarkets was the emergence of hard discounters, which combined minimal prices with proximity and ease of transportation. This is the global trend in the evolution of formats, but in Russia the hard discounter has not yet developed, since this format places very high demands on the internal organization of the company and the quality of the use of modern management technologies.
Along with hard discounters, cash & carry stores are appearing in many countries. This format is presented in Russia by the German company Metro, as well as the St. Petersburg Lenta. The format is based on a focus on small wholesale trade and professional buyers - representatives of small and medium-sized businesses. The main clients of the Metro company are representatives of the restaurant and hotel business, the so-called HoReCa segment, small retail stores - traders who purchase goods in this network for subsequent resale, and representatives legal entities and individual entrepreneurs who do not belong to the first two groups, but purchase goods related to their activities.
However, the specificity of Russian cash & carry is that they also work with retail customers. Taking into account the product line and the size of the retail space, as well as the terminology accepted in modern Russian retail, Metro Cash & Carry can be conditionally classified as a hypermarket format.
Simultaneously with hypermarkets, hard discounters and cash&carry centers in Russia, a format was developing that offered a unique assortment in the places most convenient for the buyer - convenience stores.
The next stage in the evolution of retail is the development of non-food formats, specialized formats, the so-called category killers - DYI, BTE, perfume and cosmetic chains, pharmaceutical markets, drogeries, etc. The format of large chain department stores is entering the market; with the development of market infrastructure, distance trading is becoming more widespread.
The cycle of format evolution in Russia is faster than in Western and Eastern Europe. This is explained by the fact that the world has accumulated extensive know-how in retail; there are many examples of successful retail practices that are actively used by leading Russian players. In addition, the entry of major global players into the market also contributes to the active development of retail technologies in Russia.
Features of developed countries
Industrialized countries are countries that are members of the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development). These include Australia, Great Britain, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Spain, Iceland, Italy, USA, Finland, etc. There are 24 states in total. Developed countries have the following main features: - A high level of such economic indicator as GDP, calculated per capita per year.Basically, its value should be in the range of 15-30 thousand dollars. Developed countries have an annual GDP per capita that is five times higher than the world average. - Diversified economic structure. It is also necessary to consider the fact that today the volumes of the service sector can provide production of over 60% of GDP. - The structure of society with a social orientation. For states of this type, the main feature is the presence of a small gap in income levels between the poorest and the richest, as well as a powerful middle class that has fairly high living standards. The role of developed countries in the world economy Developed countries play a vital role in the world economy. Basically, their share in the total gross product is over 54%, and in world exports - over 70%. Among the states of this level, those that are part of the seven (Canada, USA, Germany, Great Britain, France, Japan and Italy) are of particular importance for the national economy. The listed developed countries provide about 51% of all exports and 47% of the total gross product in the world. The United States has maintained dominance among them over the past decades. The role of the USA in the world economy.
Thus, the American economy quite consistently occupied the first position in terms of competitiveness. However, recently this economic leadership of this state has weakened significantly. This fact is primarily manifested in a decrease from 30% to 20% in the share of the United States in the total GDP of states with a non-socialist economic orientation.
The main reason for this weakening of America's position in the economy of the whole world is the fact that such developed countries as Japan and the states of Western Europe began to actively develop. And the impetus for this was American aid. According to the US Marshall Plan, certain financial resources were allocated to restore the devastated economy as a result of military operations.
Thanks to these events, profound structural changes were made in the economy, and completely new industries were created. At this stage, both Japanese and Western European economic systems have achieved high competitiveness at the international level (an example is the Japanese and German automobile industry). However, we must not forget that, despite some weakening of the US influence on the world economy, the role of this state has always remained leading.
Group of developed countries
The group of developed (industrialized countries, industrialized) includes states that have a high level of socio-economic development and the predominance of a market economy. GDP per capita PPP is at least 12 thousand PPP dollars.The number of developed countries and territories, according to the International Monetary Fund, includes the United States, all countries of Western Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, Israel. The UN annexes the Republic of South Africa. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development adds Turkey and Mexico to their number, although these are most likely developing countries, but they are included in this number on a territorial basis.
Thus, about 30 countries and territories are included in the number of developed countries. Perhaps, after the official accession of Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Cyprus and Estonia to the European Union, these countries will also be included in the number of developed countries.
There is an opinion that in the near future Russia will also join the group of developed countries. But to do this, it needs to go a long way to transform its economy into a market one, to increase GDP at least to the pre-reform level.
Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In this group of countries, the “seven” with the largest GDP are distinguished (USA, Japan, Germany, France, UK, Canada). More than 44% of world GDP comes from these countries, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are members of integration associations, the most powerful of which are the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
, 1. The concept of forest resources, their classification..docx, SOC 4th grade.docx, General psychological workshop..docx.
Chapter 2 Political life of modern society
15. Political system and political regime
(to § 15 “Political system and political regime”)Text. Russian philosopher Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin (1882-1954) about the totalitarian regime.
<...>What is a totalitarian regime?
This is a political system that has infinitely expanded its intervention in the lives of citizens, including all their activities within the scope of its management and compulsory regulation. The word “totus” means “whole” or “whole” in Latin. A totalitarian state is an all-embracing state. It stems from the fact that the initiative of citizens is unnecessary and harmful, and the freedom of citizens is dangerous and intolerant. There is a single center of power: it is called upon to know everything, to foresee everything, to plan everything, to prescribe everything. Ordinary legal consciousness proceeds from the premise: everything that is not prohibited is permitted; The totalitarian regime inspires something completely different: everything not prescribed is prohibited. An ordinary state says: you have a sphere of private interest, you are free in it; a totalitarian state declares: there is only state interest, and you are bound by it. An ordinary state allows: think for yourself, believe freely, build your inner life as you want; a totalitarian state demands: think what is prescribed, do not believe at all, build your inner life according to the decree. In other words: here management is comprehensive; man is completely enslaved; freedom becomes criminal and punishable.
Ilyin A.I. About the totalitarian regime / A.I. Ilyin // Anthology of world political thought. In 5 volumes - M.: Mysl, 1997. - T. 4. - P. 672.
Questions And tasks. 1) Based on the text and material of the paragraph, think about which scientific approach to considering the political regime can be seen in the document. Explain your answer. 2) How is power organized under a totalitarian regime? 3) What are the ways and means of its implementation? Give reasons for your answer. 4) What are the features of a totalitarian political regime compared to other political regimes? Use the text and material of the paragraph in your answer. 5) Based on the characteristics of the concept “political regime”, knowledge about the totalitarian regime, supplement its characteristics given in the document. 6) Illustrate the totalitarian type of political regime using examples from history.
“The political system is a collection of
2.2. Are there any errors in the text below? If yes, then correct them.
The “entry” structures of the political system include: political parties, pressure groups, and justice authorities. The “output” structures of the political system are trade unions, creative unions, the bureaucracy, and ministries.
3.
Scientists note that currently on the political map of the world there are about a hundred states in which an authoritarian political regime has been established. Explain why authoritarianism has become widespread in the modern world. What is its danger?
In modern Russia, processes of reforming the political system are being carried out: strengthening the executive vertical of state power, modernizing the electoral system, transforming the civil service, etc. Based on a systematic approach to considering the political sphere, as well as media materials, identify other, no less important areas of political reforms . Explain your answer.
Many political leaders, especially in modern developing countries, try to justify their political decisions with traditional religious attitudes of the population. Explain why. Use your knowledge of the subsystems of the political system and their relationships in your answer.
4.
The Guinness Book of Records (1978) placed Mao Zedong (China) in 1st place in the category of “mass murders” - over 29 million people. As a result of repressions under Mussolini, 224 thousand died in Italy, in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge - more than 2 million, in the USSR during the period of Stalin's purges - 20-25 million, under Hitler's regime in Germany - 17 million people.
What conclusions follow from the data presented? Explain your answer.
In modern Britain there is no official text of the constitution. However, traditions, customs and rituals have such a strong influence in this country that the English government considers itself bound by them and adheres to them in its daily activities. The significance of which of the subsystems of the political system is illustrated by the given fact? Explain your answer. What other elements, along with those mentioned, does this subsystem include?
In 1969, French President Charles de Gaulle was forced to resign after citizens did not support his local government reform project in a national referendum. The connection between what phenomena of the political system can be traced in the given historical fact? Give reasons for your answer.
In the country Z a political system operates in which the demands received at the “input” are not taken into account by the authorities. Make a guess as to what results could result from ignoring citizens' demands. Explain your answer.
A political science teacher asked students to name environmental phenomena that influence the political system. The following were named: economy, culture, social structure of a given society, its population, political systems of other countries, international institutions, natural sphere, international ecological system. Which of the following phenomena relate to the internal and which to the external environment of the political system? Complete both groups of phenomena based on the material studied in the paragraph.
You are witnessing an argument between two comrades. The first argues that the political system is a relatively closed, autonomous whole. The second, on the contrary, emphasizes that the political system does not have clearly defined boundaries, because it is closely related to the environment. Which of the disputants is right? Give reasons for your answer.
Modern political scientists disagree on the question of how the transition from a totalitarian political system to an authoritarian system occurred in the Soviet Union. Some believe that this happened in the 1960s, during Khrushchev’s “thaw”. Others name a later period, namely the 1970s, i.e., a period of “stagnation” when ideological control was significantly weakened. What do you think about this?
Give reasons for your answer.
Political reforms in modern Russia: goals and their implementation (based on materials from periodicals).
Possibilities of the international information network Internet in strengthening communication ties between the political system and society.
“In order to know the properties of the state, it is necessary to first study the inclinations and morals of people” (Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), English philosopher).
“Total devotion is possible only when ideological loyalty is empty” (Hannah Arendt (1906-1975), German-American philosopher).
Ask your friends what they know about totalitarianism in our country. Evaluate their statements from the perspective of modern scientific knowledge.
The role of the political leader in the development of the state’s economy can be considered one of the central ones. The famous French political scientist Jean Blondel assessed it very accurately: “Modern political leaders do not have to choose: to implement a policy of constant development of their countries or not; they must pursue only such a policy, otherwise them not hold on to your post." (Blondel Jean. Political leadership. M., 1992. P. 130).
Leader-"standard bearer" -
Servant Leader " their
Leader-trader"
Leader - "firefighter""
It is important to keep in mind here that these types of political leaders are extremely rare in their pure form. Most often, political leaders in their political activities combine elements of each of the listed types of leaders.
So, the features of the political behavior of a particular political leader are influenced by various factors: character traits, situation, followers (voters). The economic topic (in all its aspects) is the focus of attention of a modern political leader during all periods of his stay in power. Moreover, even before taking power, during the pre-election campaign, the future political leader comes up with a program, which he is obliged to implement if elected. The central place in it is occupied by the issues of growing the welfare of the country (region, state, district).
The economic program of a leader of a national scale (president, prime minister) is, as a rule, distinguished by innovation, creativity, the scale of the tasks set, courage and, at the same time, justification for finding resources to bring it to life.
Ronald Reagan's eight-year presidency is impressive in this regard. His economic program was so original and specific that it went down in history as “Reaganomics.” The possibility of solving the problems put forward by this program seemed unrealistic to many, even economists with extensive experience. And it envisaged solving a complex of problems (a sharp reduction in the growth rate of inflation and the unemployment rate, eliminating the federal budget deficit), which, as past practice has shown, are simply impossible to solve simultaneously. However, the program was largely implemented successfully.
The further “Reaganomics” goes into the past, the more one is amazed not only by its courage and originality, but also by its careful thought. It is enough to pay attention to this, for example, detail: R. Reagan’s program envisaged a sharp reduction in the level of taxation. The calculation was simple:
tax cuts were supposed to stimulate an increase in production. Accordingly, budget revenues that decreased at first due to tax cuts were to be compensated in the near future by the increasing scale of these revenues in the context of industrial revival and recovery. But how to survive the period of reduced budget revenues? And this was thought out. A bold and unexpected decision: deposit rates were raised to an unprecedented level for the United States - 21% (the average was no more than 6-8%), and then capital poured into American banks from all countries of the capitalist world. Thus, the United States comfortably survived the time until the moment when positive production growth began to manifest itself due to a reduction in tax revenues to the budget. There are many such examples.
The economic role of political leaders is intensively manifested during the entire period of their stay in power. For example, American presidents develop and submit special annual messages to Congress. Their central topic is the state of the country's economy.
Above we were talking about political leaders of the rational type (in Max Weber’s terminology), that is, those elected democratically. However, economic problems are also addressed by charismatic and traditional leaders. However, for obvious reasons (they are not in danger of re-election), they are not keen to prioritize the economy;
This area is dealt with only insofar as it is necessary in the specific conditions of a particular country.
7. Modern trends in the development of political leadership
In recent decades, a number of new trends have emerged in the development of political leadership. Large-scale stressful situations for a huge number of people that the 20th century brought with it, and fundamental changes caused by scientific and technological progress, gave rise to global problems that challenge human civilization. These circumstances have placed new, increased demands on political leaders. Their responsibility for the destinies of people, for the present and future of the peoples and states they govern, has sharply increased. This - the first large-scale trend, which should be emphasized. Modern political leaders can no longer put forward development programs for their states without taking into account global problems humanity. They must consider their domestic policy as a component of a global, global process. Understanding this new trend and taking it into account in the course being pursued distinguishes high-level politicians. Examples are well known.
Another important trend in the development of political leadership - the increasing role and influence of informal political leaders. At one time (30s XX c.) Francis Twoshend was very popular in the USA. It is known that currently in the United States, public and private pension funds are an integral part of the social protection system. It is an economically powerful institution in the American economy. The financial assets they have are approaching the assets of American commercial banks. And it was the American Francis Townshend who first put forward the idea of creating a national pension fund for people over 60 years of age. He not only developed a plan for creating such a fund, but also made enormous efforts to promote it, led an entire movement in support of this plan, and became its leader. This movement really helped the country's President Franklin Roosevelt in implementing the Social Security program.
You can name other names of informal leaders. But the most outstanding informal leader XX century is our compatriot Andrei Sakharov. Robert Tucker calls him a new type of political leader. An outstanding scientist with worldwide fame, Academician A. Sakharov, realizing the scale of the catastrophe threatening humanity in the event of a nuclear war, issued a memorandum to the governments and peoples of the world. He became known in many countries of the world as a fighter for human rights and raised this problem to the level of a global task. The example of Academician A. Sakharov shows that, without being able to control public policy, an informal political leader can play a very significant role in the development of political processes.
The third important new trend in the development of political leadership in recent decades there has been a concentration of leaders' activity on economic and social problems. This is especially true for the political leaders of democratic states. The development of this trend is due to many circumstances. The main thing is that the growth of the nation’s well-being, associated with the activity of a particular political leader, is the most visible indicator for the recognition of a politician as a political leader. Another circumstance is related to the huge time frame of political activity (for example, it is known that the US President is elected for 4 years). High economic results and growth in the well-being of the nation are the strongest foundation for the hope of being elected for another term.
The fourth trend which is noted by the American political scientist Robert Tucker, - this is a decrease in the likelihood in modern conditions of the emergence of political leaders-heroes, such as Napoleon, for example. There are a lot of reasons. Among them:
the so-called limits of political leadership, which sharply limit the “freedom of activity of a politician”; separation of powers, relatively short periods of time in power (constitutional and legal norms), etc. In addition, as already emphasized, major political leaders appear during periods of deep crises. “Own time” was necessary for both de Gaulle and Winston Churchill. Crisis periods are war and the devastation associated with it, these are the deepest declines in production due to the cyclical nature of economic development. If we keep in mind the data typical of past crisis situations, then their the probability is currently significantly reduced for known reasons: a new world war threatens the very existence of humanity due to the possible use of nuclear weapons. As for economic crises like the crisis of the 1930s, modern states have learned their predict and prevent. It is for these reasons that modern times are characterized not by heroic leaders, but by political leaders who, in specific conditions, provide their countries with the three highest values: national security, the growth of the people's well-being and human rights.
As undemocratic regimes decline in the world and, accordingly, new democratic states become established, it reveals its independent effect. fifth trend - reducing the boundaries of power of a political leader. The length of time in power is reduced. But it's not only that. The development of this trend is facilitated by the improvement of the system of separation of powers. The example of modern Russia in this regard is very indicative - both in terms of reducing the length of stay at the top of the pyramid of political power, and in terms of the limitations of power functions. Although the president of the country is endowed with very great powers, the emergence of authoritarianism is significantly hampered by other branches of government (Federal Assembly, Supreme Court).
These are modern trends in the development of political leadership. In conclusion of this paragraph, it should be emphasized that it takes time to assess the actual role of a political leader. Only over time is the true significance of a political leader determined. And as an example, let’s talk about Franklin Roosevelt again: history was able to appreciate his true greatness only after many decades.
8. Modern theories of political leadership
Because the this topic attracts wide attention of political scientists all over the world; there are a lot of theories of political leadership in general and those relating to individual aspects of this problem. We will focus on three of them.
Trait theory. It focuses on the personal qualities of leaders. Dozens of qualities that a leader should ideally have are listed. For example, the American scientist Bogardus believes that a person becomes a leader thanks to such qualities as energy, intelligence, and character. A leader only reveals the abilities inherent in him by nature from birth, and already in childhood one can predict that this person will be a leader. A particularly rapid surge in the development of this theory was noted in the USA in the middle of the 20th century (Smith, Baird). Qualities such as humor, initiative, the ability to anticipate, the ability to attract attention, sociability, tact, and confidence are also highlighted.
It is obvious that a political leader needs many qualities, including those inherent in him by nature. But what makes him a professional politician is not only the combination and combination of various qualities and traits, but also the peculiarities of the political situation.
Situational concept. Its authors are American political scientists V. Dahl, V. Fidler, T. Hinton. They view leadership as a function of the situation, that is, as leader behavior that is quite suitable for one situation and may be completely unsuitable for another. The emergence of a leader is the result of place, time and circumstances. A great leader senses a situation and knows how to allow it to evolve to a point where he can exploit it. Let us recall an excellent example from the Patriotic War of 1812, when commander M. Kutuzov behaved in exactly this way. All great leaders have had the ability to turn a situation to their advantage.
The theories developed by American political scientists present the concept of differentiation of political leaders based on set of characteristics, among which the main place is given to the personal traits of the political leader himself and the specific situation in which he acts. On this basis, four types of political leaders are identified. These are figurative, metaphorical types: “standard bearer”, “minister”, “merchant” and “fireman”.
Leader-"standard bearer" - This is a great strategist. He forms his own political program and implements his ideas and goals. This is a person with a strong will and his own vision of reality. His adherents have practically no influence on him (for example, K. Marx, V.I. Lenin).
Servant Leader " focuses on its followers and strives to act as a spokesman their interests. Unlike the “standard-bearer” leader, he himself does not formulate tasks in accordance with his own vision of political realities, but it is his followers (voters) who determine the tasks that become central for the servant leader. Examples include R. Reagan, G. Kohl .
Leader-trader" as if he were selling his ideas, programs, and plans to voters in exchange for support. The peculiarity of this type of politician lies in the special nature of their relationship with voters. Such a leader's ability to persuade becomes important, as does the strategy he uses to gain support.
Leader-"firefighter"" engages in “extinguishing fires,” that is, reacts mainly to the problems that face its adherents, voters. “Firefighter” leaders actively respond to the demands of life, the political situation, and pressing problems that arise. Their actions are determined precisely by the urgent requirements of the moment.
It is important to keep in mind here that these types of political leaders are extremely rare in their pure form. Most often, political leaders in their political activities combine elements of each of the listed types of leaders.
So, the characteristics of the political behavior of a political leader are influenced by various factors: character traits, situation, followers (voters).
political elite.
In this chapter we continue the theme of political power. It has already been emphasized how great the role of the political leader - the head of state is in the system of power relations, how much he can do for the political and economic stabilization of the country, its security, and to improve the well-being of the people. However, the well-known saying “alone in the field is no warrior” is undoubtedly appropriate in this case. Without his headquarters, a team of assistants, advisers, experts and an entire system of legislative and executive structures, a political leader is not able to exercise political leadership of society. This requires a special institution - the political elite. It forms the most powerful basis for the formation and functioning of political power, participates in the development and implementation of political programs, economic and legal reforms, and much more.
1. The concept of "political elite"
It is known that any society is represented by managers and governed, that is, those who exercise political power in the country, and those in relation to whom this power is exercised. Different concepts are used to characterize managers, but the most common is “elite”.
The concept of "elite" comes from the Latin "eligere" (to select) and the French "elite" (selected). In the literature one can find many different definitions of the elite, when they mean the ruling part of society, ruling layer. If we summarize the various points of view, we can state that this concept denotes groups of people who have a high position in society, have prestige, power, wealth, and are active in political and other fields of activity.
There are two important points to emphasize in this definition. First: the concepts of “political elite” and “power elite” are not equivalent. They relate as part and whole. The concept of "power elite" includes various groups directly or indirectly participating in power processes. This includes political, economic, military, ideological and other types of elites. Thus, political elite - this is just part the ruling elite.
Second point: unlike all other groups that make up the ruling (ruling) elite, the political elite directly participates in the exercise of political power.
This circumstance gives us reason to place issues related to the political elite at the center of the chapter. Of course, the topic of the ruling elite, in particular the relationship between the economic and political elites, will also be considered.
So, political elite - This is a certain group, a layer of society that concentrates state power in its hands and occupies command posts, governing society. These are mainly high-ranking professional politicians endowed with power functions and powers. These are also senior civil servants, professionally prepared to participate in the development and implementation of political programs and in the development of social development strategies. Wanting to emphasize the main characteristics of the political elite, it is often identified with “political leadership”, “control structures”, “decision-making centers”, “central links of the political system”.
Years pass. The personal composition of the political elite is changing, but its official structure remains virtually unchanged. The political elite of modern states is represented by monarchs, presidents, vice-presidents, prime ministers, ministers, heads of legislative and executive bodies, deputies, members of the supreme court, state governors, heads of power structures in autonomies, territories, regions, the highest diplomatic corps, etc.
At one time, in a number of Western countries (including the USA, Great Britain, Germany) an analysis of the composition of the political elite was carried out. He showed that the most active age of its members is 50-65 years; from 60 to 80% graduated from one or two higher educational institutions; the overwhelming majority are large owners.
According to available estimates, in different countries the number of the political elite does not exceed 2-4 thousand people, that is, this is a very narrow and small layer. Our great compatriot, historian and philosopher N.A. Berdyaev rightly noted:
“Since the creation of the world, as a rule, the minority, and not the majority, has always ruled and will continue to rule. This is true for all forms and types of government, for the monarchy and for the republic, for reactionary eras and for revolutionary eras. There is no way out of minority government... One minority is replaced by another minority." This is true. To argue otherwise means to ignore historical experience and the facts of modern life. Where there is a state, there is also a political elite.
Society is divided into those who rule and those who are ruled, into those who make decisions and those who carry them out. Everything seems clear, except for one thing: why is the political elite so necessary that the state cannot function normally without it? What is the nature of this social phenomenon? Our task is to answer the questions posed.
The inevitability of dividing society into managers and managed is due to a number of objective and subjective factors.
1. Identification in the process of long-term evolution of the social division of labor as a special type of professional activity managerial work, requiring special, special training, competence, special knowledge and abilities. Human society has centuries-old traditions of dividing mental and physical labor, managerial and executive activities.
2. From the point of view of the need to manage society, it is inevitable that social division into leaders and performers, managers and managed. The hierarchy of social organization is manifested in the dominance of some people and the subordination of others.
3. The formation of a political elite is facilitated by the structure itself political organization society, the need to allocate a special apparatus for managing social processes. Principle of organization leads to the emergence of a hierarchy of power and the emergence of professional politicians focused on a political career. Political power is always exercised as the power of one social group over another.
4. The formation of a political elite is stimulated by the combination of a high status of managerial activity with the possibility of receiving various kinds of material and moral privileges, honor, and glory.
5. At the same time, there is an alienation of the majority of citizens from power and politics due to the existence of natural inequality of people in their mental, psychological, moral and organizational qualities and abilities for management activities. After all, not everyone is capable of managing large-scale organizations. Most ordinary people have no interest or desire to participate in political processes. It is the inability of the majority of citizens to govern that forces this function to be entrusted to political leaders, professional politicians.
Thus, the division of society into the political elite and the masses is based on objective factors of a political, social and economic nature.
The political elite is a group of people who possess the instruments of power. It has a complex structure and is internally differentiated. The criterion for identifying the main types of political elite is the volume of power functions. Based on this criterion, the following are distinguished: types, or levels, of the political elite: highest, middle, administrative.
Higher political elite includes leading political leaders and those who hold high positions in the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government (the immediate environment of the president, prime minister, speaker of parliament, heads of government bodies, leading political parties, political factions in parliament). This is a numerically quite limited circle of people (100-200 people) who make the most significant political decisions for the entire society, affecting the fate of millions of people.
Middle political elite is formed from a huge number of elected officials: parliamentarians, senators, deputies, governors, mayors, leaders of various political parties and socio-political movements, heads of electoral districts.
Administrative elite(bureaucratic) - this is the highest layer of civil servants (bureaucrats) occupying senior positions in ministries, departments and other government bodies.
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