Reign of Alexander III. The Tsar's children in Gatchina. Children of Alexander III Who became emperor after Alexander 3

The initial period of the reign of Alexander III. After the death of Alexander II, his second son Alexander III (1881-1894) ascended the throne. A man of rather ordinary abilities and conservative views, he did not approve of many of his father’s reforms and did not see the need for serious changes (primarily in solving the key issue - providing peasants with land, which could significantly strengthen the social support of the autocracy). At the same time, Alexander III was not devoid of natural common sense and, unlike his father, had a stronger will.
Soon after the assassination of Alexander II, which sowed panic in high circles, the leaders of Narodnaya Volya were arrested. April 3, 1881 involved in the assassination attempt on the late Emperor SL. Perovskaya, A.I. Zhelyabov, N.I. Kibalchich, N.I. Rysakov and T.M. Mikhailov were hanged, and G.M. Gelfman soon died in prison.
On March 8 and 21, meetings of the Council of Ministers were held at which the Loris-Melikov project was discussed. Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, former educator of Alexander III and prominent conservative K. P. Pobedonostsev sharply opposed the project, considering it a prototype of the constitution. And although the guardians of the project made up the majority, Alexander III postponed its consideration, after which they did not return to it.
April 29, 1881 A royal manifesto written by Pobedonostsev was published. It spoke of protecting the autocracy from any “encroachments,” that is, from constitutional changes. Having seen hints in the manifesto of abandoning reforms altogether, the liberal ministers resigned - D.A. Milyutin, M.T. Loris-Melikov, A.A. Abaza (Minister of Finance). Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich was removed from the leadership of the fleet.
The director of the Police Department, which replaced the III Division, became V.K. Pleve, and in 1884 - I.P. Durnovo. The political search was directly led by Lieutenant Colonel G.P. Sudeikin, who, largely with the help of converted revolutionaries, primarily S.P. .Degaev, almost completely defeated “People's Will”. True, in December 1883 he himself was killed by Degaev. who considered his cooperation with the police unprofitable, but this, of course, could not save the revolutionary movement.
In parallel with the police in March, the “Holy Squad”, which emerged in March 1881, fought against the revolutionaries, which included more than 700 officials, generals, bankers, including P. A. Shuvalov, S. Yu. Witte, B. V. Sturmer S. With the help of its own agents, this voluntary organization tried to undermine the revolutionary movement. But already at the end of 1881, Alexander III ordered the dissolution of the “Holy Squad,” the existence of which indirectly indicated the inability of the authorities to independently cope with “sedition.”
In August 1881, according to the “Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace,” the Minister of Internal Affairs and provincial authorities received the right to arrest, expel and bring to trial suspicious persons, close educational institutions and enterprises, ban the publication of newspapers, etc. . Any locality could be declared in fact a state of emergency. Introduced for 3 years, the “Regulation” was extended several times and was in force until 1917.
But the authorities did not limit themselves to repression alone, trying to carry out certain positive changes. The first government of Alexander III included several liberal ministers, primarily the Minister of Internal Affairs N. P. Ignatiev and Finance N. X. Bunge. Their activities are associated with such measures as the abolition in 1881 of the temporary obligation of peasants, the reduction of redemption payments, and the gradual abolition of the heavy poll tax. In November 1881, a commission headed by Loris-Melikov’s former deputy, M. S. Kakhanov, began work on a local government reform project. However, in 1885 the commission was dissolved, and its activities had no real results.
In April 1882, Ignatiev proposed to Alexander III to convene a Zemsky Sobor in May 1883, which was supposed to confirm the inviolability of the autocracy. This caused sharp criticism from Pobedonostsev, and the tsar, who did not want any elected representation, was also dissatisfied. Moreover, autocracy, in his opinion, needed no confirmation. As a result, in May 1882, N.P. Ignatiev was replaced as Minister of Internal Affairs by the conservative D.A. Tolstoy.
The period of counter-reforms. Ignatiev's resignation and his replacement by Tolstoy marked a departure from the policy of moderate reforms carried out in 1881-1882 and a transition to the offensive against the transformations of the previous reign. True, it was only about “correcting” the “extremes” committed under Alexander II, which were, in the opinion of the Tsar and his entourage, “alien” in the Russian environment. The corresponding measures were called counter-reforms.
In May 1883, during the coronation celebrations, Alexander III made a speech to representatives of peasant self-government - volost elders, in which he called on them to follow the “advice and leadership of their leaders of the nobility” and not rely on “free additions” to the peasants’ plots. This meant that the government intended to continue to rely on the “noble” class, which had no historical perspective, and did not want to solve the country’s most important problem - land.
The first major counter-reform was the university statute of 1884, which sharply limited the autonomy of universities and increased tuition fees.
In July 1889, the zemstvo counter-reform began. Contrary to the opinion of the majority of members of the State Council, the position of zemstvo chiefs was introduced, designed to replace peace mediators and justices of the peace. They were appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs from among the hereditary nobles and could approve and remove representatives of peasant self-government, impose punishments, including corporal, resolve land disputes, etc. All this created great opportunities for arbitrariness, strengthened the power of the nobles over the peasants and in no way did not improve the work of zemstvo bodies.
In June 1890, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were adopted. It introduced the class principle of elections to zemstvos. The first curia was noble, the second - urban, the third - peasant. For nobles, the property qualification was lowered, and for representatives of cities it was increased. As for the representatives from the peasants, they were appointed by the governor from among the candidates elected by the peasants. However, having again encountered the opposition of the majority of the State Council, Alexander III refrained from completely eliminating the election and all-class status of zemstvo bodies.
In 1892, a new city regulation was adopted, according to which the electoral qualification was increased, and the mayor and members of the city government became civil servants subordinate to the governors.
Counter-reforms in the field of justice lasted for several years. In 1887, the ministers of the interior and justice received the right to declare court sessions closed, and the property and educational qualifications for jurors increased. In 1889, cases of crimes against the order of government, malfeasance, etc. were removed from the jurisdiction of jury courts. However, the publicity of most courts, competitiveness, and the irremovability of judges remained in force, and the plans of the Minister of Justice appointed in 1894 in 1894 N V. Muravyov's complete revision of the judicial statutes of 1864 was prevented by the death of Alexander III.
Censorship policies have become stricter. According to the “Temporary Rules on the Press,” adopted in August 1882, the Ministries of Internal Affairs, Education and the Synod could close “seditious” newspapers and magazines. Publications that received a warning from the authorities were subject to preliminary censorship. Special circulars prohibited coverage in the press of such topics as the labor question, land redistribution, problems of educational institutions, the 25th anniversary of the abolition of serfdom, and the actions of the authorities. Under Alexander III, the liberal newspapers “Strana”, “Golos”, “Moscow Telegraph”, the magazine “Domestic Notes” edited by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, a total of 15 publications, were closed. The non-periodical press was also persecuted, although not as harshly as newspapers and magazines. Total in 1881-1894. 72 books were banned - from the freethinker L.N. Tolstoy to the completely conservative N.S. Leskov. “Seditious” literature was confiscated from libraries: works by L.N. Tolstoy, N.A. Dobrolyubov, V.G. Korolenko, issues of the magazines “Sovremennik” for 1856-1866, “Notes of the Fatherland” for 1867-1884. More than 1,300 plays were banned.
A policy of Russification of the outskirts of the empire and infringement of local autonomy was actively pursued. In Finland, instead of the previous financial autonomy, mandatory acceptance of Russian coins was introduced, and the rights of the Finnish Senate were curtailed. In Poland, now called not the Kingdom of Poland, but the Privislensky region, compulsory teaching in Russian was introduced, and the Polish Bank was closed. The policy of Russification was actively pursued in Ukraine and Belarus, where virtually no literature was published in national languages, and the Uniate Church was persecuted. In the Baltics, local judicial and administrative bodies were actively replaced by imperial ones, the population converted to Orthodoxy, German the local elite was forced out. The policy of Russification was also carried out in Transcaucasia; The Armenian Church was persecuted. Orthodoxy was forcibly introduced among Muslims and pagans of the Volga region and Siberia. In 1892-1896. The Multan case, fabricated by the authorities, was investigated, accusing Udmurt peasants of making human sacrifices to pagan gods (in the end, the defendants were acquitted).
The rights of the Jewish population, whose residence the government sought to limit to the so-called “Pale of Settlement,” were limited. Their residence in Moscow and the Moscow province was limited. Jews were prohibited from purchasing property in rural areas. In 1887, the Minister of Education I.P. Delyanov reduced the enrollment of Jews in higher and secondary educational institutions.
Social movement. After the assassination of Alexander II, liberals sent an address to the new tsar condemning the terrorists and expressing hope for the completion of reforms, which, however, did not happen. In conditions of intensified reaction, opposition sentiments are growing among ordinary zemstvo employees - doctors, teachers, statisticians. More than once zemstvo officials tried to act beyond the scope of their powers, which led to clashes with the administration.
The more moderate part of the liberals preferred to refrain from manifestations of opposition. The influence of liberal populists (N.K. Mikhailovsky, N.F. Danielson, V.P. Vorontsov) grew. They called for reforms that would improve the lives of the people, and above all for the abolition of landownership. At the same time, liberal populists did not approve of revolutionary methods of struggle and preferred cultural and educational work, acting through the press (the magazine “Russian Wealth”), zemstvos, and public organizations.
However, in general, government oppression (often quite senseless) stimulated discontent among the intelligentsia and contributed to its transition to radical positions.
The main ideologists of the reaction are the chief prosecutor of the Synod, K. P. Pobedonostsev, the editor-in-chief of Moskovskie Vedomosti and Russky Vestnik, M. N. Katkov, and the editor of the magazine Citizen, V. P. Meshchersky. They condemned liberal reforms, defended the narrowly understood identity of Russia and welcomed the counter-reforms of Alexander III. “Stand up, gentlemen,” Katkov wrote gloatingly about the counter-reforms. “The government is coming, the government is coming back.” Meshchersky was supported, including financially, by the par himself.
There is a crisis in the revolutionary movement associated with the defeat of Narodnaya Volya. True, scattered populist groups continued to operate after this. The circle of P.Ya. Shevyrev - A.I. Ulyanov (brother of V.I. Lenin) even prepared an assassination attempt on Alexander III on March 1, 1887, which ended with the arrest and execution of five conspirators. Many revolutionaries completely abandoned their previous methods of struggle, advocating an alliance with the liberals. Other revolutionaries, disillusioned with populism with its naive hopes for the peasantry, became increasingly imbued with the ideas of Marxism. In September 1883 former members“Black redistribution” who lived in Switzerland - P. B. Axelrod, G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, L. G. Deitch - created the social democratic group “Emancipation of Labor”, which began to publish Marxist literature in Russian language and laid theoretical basis Russian social democracy. Its most prominent figure was G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918). In his works “Socialism and Political Struggle” and “Our Disagreements,” he criticized the populists and pointed out Russia’s unpreparedness for a socialist revolution. Plekhanov considered it necessary to form a social democratic party and carry out a bourgeois democratic revolution, which would create the economic prerequisites for the victory of socialism.
Since the mid-80s, Marxist circles have emerged in Russia itself in St. Petersburg, Odessa, Kiev, Kharkov, Kazan, Vilno, Tula, etc. Among them, the circles of D. N. Blagoev, N. E. Fedoseev, M. I. stood out. Brusnev, P.V. Tochissky. They read and distributed Marxist literature and carried out propaganda among the workers, but their significance was still small.
Work question. The situation of workers in Russia, the number of which had noticeably increased compared to the pre-reform period, was difficult: there was no labor protection, social insurance, or restrictions on the length of the working day, but an almost uncontrolled system of fines, low-paid female and child labor, mass layoffs, and reductions in wages were widespread. All this led to labor conflicts and strikes.
In the 80s, the government began to take measures to regulate relations between workers and employers. In 1882, the use of child labor was limited, and a factory inspectorate was created to oversee this. In 1884, a law introduced training for children who worked in factories.
An important milestone in the development of the strike movement and labor legislation was the strike at Morozov’s Nikolskaya manufactory in Orekhovo-Zuevo in January 1885. It was organized in advance, 8 thousand people took part in it, and it was led by P. A. Moiseenko and V. S. Volkov . The workers demanded that the manufacturer streamline the system of fines and dismissal rules, and that the government limit the arbitrariness of employers. More than 600 people were expelled to their native villages, 33 were put on trial but acquitted (Moiseenko and Volkov, however, were expelled after the trial administratively).
At the same time, the government satisfied some of the workers' demands. Already in June 1885, the exploitation of women and children at night was prohibited, a system of fines was streamlined, the income from which now went not to the employer, but to the needs of the workers themselves, and the procedure for hiring and firing workers was regulated. The powers of the factory inspection were expanded, and provincial presences were created for factory affairs.
A wave of strikes swept through enterprises in the Moscow and Vladimir provinces, St. Petersburg, and Donbass. These and other strikes forced factory owners in some cases to increase wages, shorten working hours, and improve workers' living conditions.
Foreign policy. During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage wars, which earned the tsar the reputation of a “peacemaker.” This was due both to the opportunity to play on the contradictions between European powers and general international stability, and to the emperor’s dislike of wars. The executor of Alexander III's foreign policy plans was Foreign Minister N.K. Gire, who did not play an independent role like Gorchakov.
Having ascended the throne, Alexander III continued to establish ties with Germany, the most important trading partner and potential ally in the fight against England. In June 1881 Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary renewed the “Union of the Three Emperors” for 6 years. The parties promised to maintain neutrality in the event of war between one of them and the fourth power. At the same time, Germany entered into a secret agreement with Austria-Hungary directed against Russia and France. In May 1882, Italy joined the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was promised assistance in the event of a war with France. This is how the Triple Alliance emerged in the center of Europe.
The “Union of the Three Emperors” brought certain benefits to Russia in its rivalry with England. In 1884, Russian troops completed the conquest of Turkmenistan and approached the borders of Afghanistan, which was under the protectorate of England; from here it was a stone's throw to the main British colony - India. In March 1885, a clash occurred between a Russian detachment and Afghan troops led by British officers. The Russians won. England, seeing this as a threat to its Indian possessions, threatened Russia with war, but was unable to put together an anti-Russian coalition in Europe. Support for Russia from Germany and Austria-Hungary, who did not want England to become too strong, played a role in this. Their position helped Alexander III get Turkey to close the Black Sea straits to the British fleet, which protected southern Russia from it. England had to recognize Russian conquests in Central Asia. Already in 1885, the drawing of the Russian-Afghan border by Russian-British commissions began.
Under Alexander III, Russia's position in the Balkans weakened. In 1881, a pro-German group came to power in Bulgaria. In 1883, Bulgaria entered into an agreement with Austria-Hungary. In 1885, Alexander III opposed the annexation of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria (in violation of the decisions of the Berlin Congress), although he threatened Turkey that he would not tolerate its invasion of Rumelia. In 1886, after the pro-Austrian regime came to power in Bulgaria, Russia tore relations with her In this conflict, Germany and Austria-Hungary did not support Russia, because they themselves wanted to strengthen their position in the Balkans. After 1887, the “Union of Three Emperors” was not renewed.
In the context of worsening relations with France, Bismarck signed a “reinsurance agreement” with Russia for 3 years in 1887. It provided for the neutrality of Russia in the event of an attack by France on Germany and the neutrality of Germany in the event of an attack on Russia by Austria-Hungary. Then, in 1887, Alexander III managed to keep Germany from attacking France, the defeat of which would have unnecessarily strengthened Germany. This led to a worsening of Russian-German relations and an increase in import duties on each other's goods by both countries. In 1893, a real customs war began between the two countries.

In conditions of hostility with England, Germany and Austria-Hungary, Russia needed an ally. They became France, which was constantly threatened by German aggression. Back in 1887, France began to provide Russia large loans, which contributed to the stabilization of Russian finances. French investments in the Russian economy were also significant.
In August 1891, Russia and France signed a secret agreement on joint action in the event of an attack on one of them. In 1892, a draft military convention was developed, which provided for the number of troops on both sides in the event of war. Finally Russian-French alliance was formalized in January 1894. It seriously changed the balance of power in Europe, splitting it into two military-political groupings.
Socio-economic development. Under Alexander III, measures were taken to modernize the economy, on the one hand, and economic support for the nobility, on the other. Major successes in economic development were largely associated with the activities of the ministers of finance - N. X. Bunge, I. V. Vyshnegradsky, S. Yu. Witte.
Industry. By the 80s of the XIX century. The industrial revolution ended in Russia. The government patronized the development of industry with loans and high duties on imported products. True, in 1881 an industrial crisis began, associated with the economic consequences of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. and reduction in the purchasing power of the peasantry. In 1883 the crisis gave way to depression, in 1887 a revival began, and in 1893 a rapid growth of industry began. Mechanical engineering, metallurgy, coal and oil industries continued to develop successfully. Foreign investors increasingly invested their money in them. In terms of the rate of coal and oil production, Russia ranked 1st in the world. The latest technologies were actively introduced at enterprises. It should be noted that heavy industry provided less than 1/4 of the country's output, noticeably inferior to light industry, primarily textiles.
Agriculture. In this industry, the specialization of individual regions increased, the number of civilian workers increased, which indicated a transition to the bourgeois path of development. In general, grain farming continued to predominate. Productivity increased slowly due to the low level of agricultural technology. The fall in world grain prices had a detrimental effect. In 1891 - 1892 A terrible famine broke out, killing more than 600 thousand. people Under these conditions, the shortage of land among peasants became an extremely acute problem; Alexander III did not want to hear about increasing peasant plots at the expense of landowners; True, in 1889 a law was passed that encouraged the resettlement of peasants to empty areas - the settlers received tax benefits, exemption from military service for 3 years and a small cash allowance, but permission for resettlement was given only by the Ministry of the Interior. In 1882, the Peasant Bank was created, which provided low-interest loans to peasants to purchase land. The government tried to strengthen the peasant community and at the same time reduce negative traits communal land use: in 1893, the exit of peasants from the community was limited, but at the same time it was difficult to redistribute land, which reduced the interest of the most enterprising peasants in the efficient use of their plots. It was prohibited to mortgage and sell communal lands. An attempt to regulate and thereby reduce the number of family divisions, made in 1886, failed: the peasants simply ignored the law. To support the landed estates, the Noble Bank was created in 1885, which, however, did not stop their ruin.
Transport. Intensive construction of railways continued (under Alexander III, more than 30 thousand km were built). The railway network near the western borders, which was of strategic importance, developed especially actively. The iron ore-rich region of Krivoy Rog was connected with the Donbass, the Urals - with the central regions, both capitals - with Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia, etc. In 1891, construction began on the strategically important Trans-Siberian Railway, connecting Russia with Far East. The government began to buy out private railways, up to 60% of which by the mid-90s ended up in the hands of the state. The number of steamships by 1895 exceeded 2,500, increasing more than 6 times compared to 1860.
Trade. The development of commerce was stimulated by the growth of the transport network. The number of shops, stores, and commodity exchanges has increased. By 1895, domestic trade turnover increased 3.5 times compared to 1873 and reached 8.2 billion rubles.
In foreign trade, exports in the early 90s exceeded imports by 150-200 million rubles, largely due to high import duties, especially on iron and coal. In the 80s, a customs war began with Germany, which limited the import of Russian agricultural products. In response, Russia raised duties on German goods. The first place in Russian exports was occupied by bread, followed by timber, wool, and industrial goods. Machines, raw cotton, metal, coal, tea, and oil were imported. Russia's main trading partners were Germany and England. Holland. USA.
Finance. In 1882-1886, the heavy capitation tax was abolished, which, thanks to the skillful policy of the Minister of Finance Bunge, was generally compensated by increasing indirect taxes and customs duties. In addition, the government refused to guarantee the profitability of private railways at the expense of the treasury.
In 1887, Bunge, who was accused of being unable to overcome the budget deficit, was replaced by I.V. Vyshnegradsky. He sought to increase cash savings and increase the exchange rate of the ruble. To this end, successful exchange operations were carried out, indirect taxes and import duties increased again, for which a protectionist customs tariff was adopted in 1891. In 1894, under S. Yu. Witte, a wine monopoly was introduced. As a result of these and other measures managed to overcome the budget deficit.
Education. Counter-reforms also affected the education sector. They were aimed at raising a trustworthy, obedient intelligentsia. In 1882, instead of the liberal A.N. Nikolai, the reactionary I.P. Delyanov became the Minister of Education. In 1884, parochial schools came under the jurisdiction of the Synod. Their number increased by 1894 almost 10 times; the level of teaching in them was low; the main task was considered to be education in the spirit of Orthodoxy. But still, parochial schools contributed to the spread of literacy.
The number of gymnasium students continued to grow (in the 90s - more than 150 thousand people). In 1887, Delyanov issued a “circular about cooks’ children,” which made it difficult to admit children of laundresses, cooks, footmen, coachmen, etc. to the gymnasium. Tuition fees have increased.
In August 1884 a new University Charter was adopted, which essentially abolished the autonomy of universities, which now fell under the control of the trustee of the educational district and the Minister of Education. The rector, deans and professors were now appointed, not so much taking into account scientific merit as political reliability. A fee was introduced for students to attend lectures and practical classes.
In 1885, the uniform for students was reintroduced; in 1886, the period of military service for persons with higher education was increased to 1 year. Since 1887, a certificate of political reliability was required for admission to universities. The government has significantly reduced spending on universities, making it difficult to scientific research. Some free-thinking professors were fired, others left in protest. Under Alexander III, only one university was opened - in Tomsk (1888). In 1882, higher medical courses for women were closed, and in 1886, admission to all higher courses for women ceased, the elimination of which was sought by K. P. Pobedonostsev. True, the Bestuzhev courses in St. Petersburg nevertheless resumed work, albeit in a limited number.
Culture of Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century. The science. This period was marked by new important discoveries in various branches of science. I.M. Sechenov created the doctrine of brain reflexes, laying the foundations of Russian physiology. Continuing research in this direction, I. P. Pavlov developed a theory of conditioned reflexes. I. I. Mechnikov made a number of important discoveries in the field of phagocytosis (the protective functions of the body), created a school of microbiology and comparative pathology, together with N. F. Gamaleya organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, and developed methods to combat rabies. K. A. Timiryazev did a lot to study photosynthesis and became the founder of domestic plant physiology. V.V. Dokuchaev gave rise to scientific soil science with his works “Russian Chernozem” and “Our Steppes Before and Now”.
Chemistry has achieved the greatest successes. A. M. Butlerov laid the foundations of organic chemistry. D. I. Mendeleev in 1869 discovered one of the basic laws of natural science - the periodic law chemical elements. He also made a number of discoveries not only in chemistry, but also in physics, metrology, hydrodynamics, etc.
The most prominent mathematician and mechanic of his time was P. L. Chebyshev, who was engaged in research in the field of number theory, probability, machines, and mathematical analysis. In an effort to put the results of his research into practice, he also invented a plantigrade machine and an adding machine. S. V. Kovalevskaya, author of works on mathematical analysis, mechanics and astronomy, became the first woman professor and corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. A. M. Lyapunov gained worldwide fame for his research in the field of differential equations.
Russian physicists made a significant contribution to the development of science. A.G. Stoletov conducted a number of important studies in the field of electricity, magnetism, gas discharge, and discovered the first law of the photoelectric effect. In 1872, A. N. Lodygin invented a carbon incandescent lamp, and P. Ya. Yablochkov in 1876 patented an arc lamp without a regulator (Yablochkov candle), which from 1876 began to be used for street lighting.
In 1881, A.F. Mozhaisky designed the world's first aircraft, the tests of which, however, were unsuccessful. In 1888, self-taught mechanic F.A. Blinov invented a caterpillar tractor. In 1895, A.S. Popov demonstrated the world's first radio receiver, which he had invented, and soon achieved a transmission and reception range of 150 km. The founder of astronautics, K. E. Tsiolkovsky, began his research, having designed a simple wind tunnel and developed the principles of the theory of rocket propulsion.
2nd half of the 19th century was marked by new discoveries of Russian travelers - N. M. Przhevalsky, V. I. Roborovsky, N. A. Severtsov, A. P. and O. A. Fedchenko in Central Asia, P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shan- Sky in the Tien Shan, Ya. Ya. Miklouho-Maclay in New Guinea. The result of the expeditions of the founder of Russian climatology A.I. Voeikov across Europe, America and India was the major work “Climates of the Globe”.
Philosophical thought. During this period, philosophical thought flourished. The ideas of positivism (G.N. Vyrubov, M.M. Troitsky), Marxism (G.V. Plekhanov), religious philosophy (V.S. Solovyov, N.F. Fedorov), later Slavophilism (N.Ya. Danilevsky, K.N. Leontiev). N.F. Fedorov put forward the concept of mastering the forces of nature, overcoming death and resurrection with the help of science. The founder of the “philosophy of unity” V.S. Solovyov nurtured the idea of ​​​​merging Orthodoxy and Catholicism and developed the doctrine of Sophia - the comprehensive divine wisdom that rules the world. N. Ya. Danshkevsky put forward a theory of cultural-historical types that develop similarly to biological ones; He considered the Slavic type to be gaining strength and therefore the most promising. K. Ya. Leontyev saw the main danger in Western-style liberalism, which, in his opinion, leads to the homogenization of individuals, and believed that only autocracy can prevent this homogenization.
Historical science is reaching a new level. In 1851-. 1879 29 volumes of “History of Russia from Ancient Times” by the outstanding Russian historian S. M. Solovyov were published, which outlined the history of Russia until 1775. Although the author was not yet aware of many sources, and a number of the positions he put forward were not confirmed, his work still retains its scientific significance. Solovyov’s pen also includes studies on the partitions of Poland, Alexander I, inter-princely relations, etc. Solovyov’s student was V. O. Klyuchevsky, author of the works “Boyar Duma Ancient Rus'", "The Origin of Serfdom in Russia", "The Lives of Old Russian Saints as a Historical Source", etc. His main work was the "Course of Russian History". An important contribution to the study of the history of the Russian community, church, and zemstvo councils was made by A.P. Shchapov. Research into the era of Peter I and the history of Russian culture brought fame to P. Ya. Milyukov. The history of Western Europe was studied by such prominent scientists as V. I. Gerye, M. M. Kovalevsky, P. G. Vinogradov, N. I. Kareev. Prominent scholars of antiquity were M. S. Kutorga, F. F. Sokolov, F. G. Mishchenko. Research on the history of Byzantium was carried out by V. G. Vasilievsky, F. I. Uspensky, Yu. A. Kulakovsky.
Literature. In the 60s, critical realism became the leading trend in literature, combining a realistic reflection of reality with interest in the individual. Prose takes first place compared to the previous period. Its brilliant examples were the works of I.S. Turgenev “Rudin”, “Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve”, “The Noble Nest” and others, in which he showed the life of representatives of the noble society and the emerging common intelligentsia. I. A. Goncharov’s works “Oblomov”, “Cliff”, “Ordinary History” were distinguished by their subtle knowledge of life and the Russian national character. F. M. Dostoevsky, who in the 40s joined the Petrashevites, later revised his views and saw the solution to the problems facing Russia not in reforms or revolution, but in the moral improvement of man (novels “The Brothers Karamazov”, “Crime and Punishment” ", "Demons", "Idiot", etc.). L. Ya. Tolstoy, author of the novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, etc., rethought Christian teaching in a unique way, developed the idea of ​​​​the superiority of feelings over reason, combining harsh (and not always constructive) criticism of Russian society time with the idea of ​​​​non-resistance to evil through violence. A. N. Ostrovsky depicted in his plays “The Dowry”, “The Thunderstorm”, “The Forest”, “Guilty Without Guilt” and others the lives of merchants, officials, and artists, showing interest in both purely social and eternal human issues. The outstanding satirist M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin highlighted the tragic sides of Russian reality in “The History of a City,” “The Golovlev Gentlemen,” and “Fairy Tales.” A.P. Chekhov paid special attention in his work to the problem of the “little man” suffering from the indifference and cruelty of others. The works of V. G. Korolenko are imbued with humanistic ideas - “The Blind Musician”, “Children of the Dungeon”, “Makar’s Dream”.
F. I. Tyutchev continued the philosophical tradition in Russian poetry in his works. A. A. Fet dedicated his work to the celebration of nature. The poetry of N. A. Nekrasov, dedicated to the life of the common people, was extremely popular among the democratic intelligentsia.
Theater. The leading theater in the country was the Maly Theater in Moscow, on the stage of which P. M. Sadovsky, S. V. Shumsky, G. N. Fedotova, M. N. Ermolova played. The Alexandria Theater in St. Petersburg was also an important center of culture, where V.V. Samoilov, M.G. Savina, P.A. Strepetova played, however, being in the capital, it suffered more from interference from the authorities. Theaters emerge and develop in Kyiv, Odessa, Kazan, Irkutsk, Saratov, etc.
Music. The national traditions in Russian music, laid down by Glinka, were continued by his student A. S. Dargomyzhsky and the composers of the “Mighty Handful” (named so by V. V. Stasov, which included M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, A. P. Borodin, N. A. Rimsky-Koreakov, Ts. A. Cui. One of the most outstanding composers of this period was P. I. Tchaikovsky, author of the operas "Eugene Onegin", "Mazeppa", "Iolanta", "The Queen of Spades" , ballets "Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker". A conservatory was opened in St. Petersburg in 1862, and in Moscow in 1866. Choreographers M. Petipa and L. Ivanov played a huge role in the development of ballet.
Painting. Characteristic democratic ideas penetrated into the painting of the post-reform period, as evidenced by the activities of the Itinerants. In 1863, 14 students of the Academy of Arts refused a mandatory competition on the topic of German mythology, far from modern life, left the Academy and created the Artel of St. Petersburg Artists,” which in 1870 was transformed into the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions.” Its members included portraitist I. N. Kramskoy, masters of genre painting V. G. Perov and Ya. A. Yaroshenko, landscape painters I. I. Shishkin and I. I. Levitan. V. M. Vasnetsov turned to the theme of Russian fairy tales in his canvases (“Alyonushka”, “Ivan Tsarevich on the Gray Wolf”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”), dedicated his the works of V. I. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Menshikov in Berezovo”). I. E. Repin wrote as contemporary ones (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “Religious Procession in the Kursk Province”, “ We didn’t wait”), and on historical topics(“Cossacks writing a letter to the Turkish Sultan”, “Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan”). The largest battle painter of that time was V.V. Vereshchagin (“Apotheosis of War”, “Mortally Wounded”, “Surrender!”). The creation of the Tretyakov Gallery, which exhibited a collection of paintings by the merchant-philanthropist P. M. Tretyakov, which he donated to the city of Moscow in 1892, played a major role in the popularization of Russian art. In 1898, the Russian Museum opened in St. Petersburg.
Sculpture. Prominent sculptors of that time were A. M. Opekushin (monuments to A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, K. M. Baer), M. A. Antokolsky (“Ivan the Terrible”, “Peter I”, “Christ before people"), M. O. Mikeshin (monuments to Catherine II, Bogdan Khmelnitsky, supervision of work on the monument “Millennium of Russia”).
Architecture. The so-called Russian style was formed, imitating the decor of ancient Russian architecture. The buildings of the City Duma in Moscow (D. N. Chichagov), the Historical Museum in Moscow (V. O. Sherwood), and the Upper Trading Rows (now GUM) (A. N. Pomerantsev) were built in this manner. Residential buildings in large cities were built in the Renaissance-Baroque style with its characteristic richness of forms and decoration.

The first thing Nikolai really wanted to know about when he returned from England was his father’s health. At first he was scared when he didn’t see him among those greeting him, and thought that his father was lying in bed, but it turned out that everything was not so scary - the emperor went duck hunting and managed to return for dinner. However, Alexander III’s condition soon deteriorated so much that Professor G. A. Zakharyin, one of the best diagnostic therapists in Russia, who headed the clinic of the Faculty of Medicine of Moscow University, was called from Moscow for consultation. This time, old Zakharyin was not at his best - he said that there was nothing serious and the dry climate of Crimea would help improve his condition.

The calmed emperor, who also never attached importance to the advice of doctors, decided instead of Crimea to go to his favorite hunting places - Belovezhye and Spada. It is not difficult to guess that the royal hunts differed from the sanatorium regime of Livadia - the beaters, the huntsmen, the retinue, and the august hunters got up before dawn and went out into the forest or field in any weather. Hunting for hares gave way to hunting for deer, and the hunt for wild boar and roe deer was interspersed with ambushes for partridges, ducks, pheasants and geese. Dinners by the fires, bathing horses, long hikes in the sun and rain required excellent health.

On September 15, at the insistence of his relatives, the famous Berlin professor Leiden arrived in the hunting area and immediately diagnosed the emperor with acute kidney inflammation - nephritis. Leiden categorically insisted on a change in climate, and the whole family - and all the women were on the hunt - went to the Crimea.

On September 21, we arrived in Sevastopol and, transferring to the yacht "Eagle", landed in Yalta on the same day. In Livadia, Alexander immediately began intensive treatment. However, after a week, the patient developed severe swelling in his legs, he slept for a long time during the day, often took salt baths, and when the procedures were interrupted, more and more doctors appeared at his bedside.

Soon there were half a dozen of them.

At the beginning of October, the Tsar no longer always came out for breakfast; he was increasingly overcome by drowsiness, and he entrusted the reading of the papers to the Tsarevich.

And the Tsarevich, immersed in state affairs, more than about this burden that suddenly fell upon him, thought about his Alix, looked forward to letters from her and, although he received them almost every day, or even two or three a day, was torn between pity for his sick father and an irresistible passionate desire to see his bride.

On October 8, Father John of Kronstadt, the most famous “prayer book for the sick” in Russia, reputed to be a miracle worker and healer, arrived in Livadia. His arrival made it clear that Alexander’s affairs were bad and it was no longer possible to rely on medicine - the intervention of not earthly forces, but heavenly ones was required. Together with Father John, the Tsar’s brothers – Sergei and Pavel, Grand Duchesses Alexandra Iosifovna and Maria Georgievna, Olga Konstantinovna’s son – the Greek Prince Christopher – arrived.

The next day, Archpriest Yanyshev gave communion to the sick man, and then the Tsar’s brother Vladimir and Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna the Younger, the wife of the Swedish Prince William, came to Livadia.

All these guests did not cause any joy in any of the inhabitants of Livadia. They were not going to a holiday - to a wake. And although Alexander was still alive, the shadow of death was already hovering over Livadia.

On the morning of October 10, Nikolai went to Alushta, where his beloved aunt Ella and Alix soon arrived from Simferopol. Her arrival brought revival and joy into the sad atmosphere of Livadia, and Nikolai felt that a person had appeared nearby who was ready to share the terrible grief that was approaching him.

On October 15, Alix wrote to him in his diary: “Dear child! Pray to God, He will help you not to lose heart, He will console you in your grief. Your Sunshine is praying for you and for your beloved patient.” And a little lower, on the same day, another entry followed: “Dear boy! I love you, oh, so tenderly and deeply. Be persistent and order Doctor Leiden and the other - G. (Meaning another doctor - Grube. - V.B.) come to you every day and tell you in what condition they find him, and also all the details regarding what they find necessary to do for him. This way, you will always be the first to know about everything. You can then help convince him to do what needs to be done. And if the doctor needs anything, let him come straight to you. Don't let others be first and pass you by. You are the Father's beloved son, and you must be asked and told about everything. Reveal your personal will and don’t let others forget who you are. Forgive me, dear!

This entry in Nikolai's diary is not only significant. She is symbolic. It contains that direction, that tone and that position that will be characteristic of their relationship for many years to come: concern for him and his affairs and anxiety for him will be constant companions of Alix’s life, the main meaning and dominant of her existence. She never wanted power for herself, although she had a fairly strong character. But not only strength of character was inherent in Alix. Born in the Darmstadt backwaters and raised in the brilliant imperial Windsor, Alix retained a dual nature throughout her life: she was painfully shy, but the status of the empress in a number of cases did not allow her to reveal this quality, mistaken for timidity and indecision, or even cowardice; it was very difficult for her to get along with strangers, and court ceremonies almost every time obliged her to introduce herself to numerous visitors - foreign ministers, diplomats, distant and not very distant relatives, but for some reason still unknown to her, celebrities of various kinds - from outstanding scientists to famous touring performers - and each of them could regard this as stiffness, coldness or even offensive inattention. She was a homebody and a true recluse, and therefore her circle of friends was very narrow, and at court they perceived this as excessive pride, almost a delusion of narcissism. These same qualities turned, especially at first, her future husband not just into the person closest to her, but almost into her only, truly dear one, although next to her was her beloved sister Ella, who was drawn to her younger sister even and because she had no children, and her relationship with her husband was also more than peculiar, for her husband was a homosexual.

When out in public, Alix, out of shyness, became inwardly tense and cold in disposition, which is why both her face and her gaze became cold and aloof, which, of course, did not favor people in her favor.

Meanwhile, the emperor was getting worse and worse. On October 17, he received communion again, this time from Father John of Kronstadt, and received absolution. On this sad day, Alix wrote in Nikolai’s diary: “Tell me about everything, darling. You can completely trust me, look at me as a part of yourself. Let your joys and sorrows be mine, and this will bring us even closer. My only beloved, how I love you, dear treasure, my only! Darling, when you feel discouraged and sad, come to the Sun, she will try to console you and warm you with her rays. May God help you!”

They still hoped, although Alexander was already very bad.

John of Kronstadt later told how he met Alexander III in his last days of life. The Tsar met him, standing with his greatcoat draped over his shoulders, and cordially thanked him for coming to see him. Then they entered the next room together and stood up for prayer. The king prayed with unusually deep feeling. He was just as sincere both during communion and in the last hours of his life. When on October 20 John came to the dying man who was sitting in a deep chair, a storm arose, the sea groaned with waves, and Alexander felt very bad from all this. He asked Father John to put his hands on his head, and when the priest did this, the patient seemed to feel better, and he said:

“It’s very easy for me when you hold them.” “And then he said: “The Russian people love you, they love you because they know who you are and what you are.”

And soon after these words, he threw his head back on the chair and died quietly, without agony. Death occurred at a quarter past three on October 20, 1894.

The Empress, the heir with his bride and all his children knelt next to him and cried quietly. That evening Nikolai wrote: “My God, my God, what a day. The Lord called back our adored, dear, beloved Pope. My head is spinning, I don’t want to believe it – the terrible reality seems so implausible. We spent the whole morning near him. His breathing was difficult, it was necessary to constantly give him oxygen. At about half past 3 he received Holy Communion; Soon mild cramps began... and the end quickly came. Father John stood at his head for more than an hour and held his head. It was the death of a saint! Lord, help us in these hard days! Poor dear Mom! In the evening at 9 1/2 there was a funeral service - in the same bedroom! I felt like I was dead. Dear Alix’s legs hurt again.”

And yet, even on the day of his father’s death, the last phrase is about “dear Alix”, who suddenly “had pain in her legs”...

However, another much more significant fact was not recorded by the heir to the throne in his diary. When Alexander III died, Nicholas, sobbing, turned to his friend of childhood and youth, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich: “Sandro, what will I do? What will happen to Russia now? I am not yet prepared to be a king! I can't rule an empire. I don't even know how to talk to ministers. Help me, Sandro!

Alexander III died on October 20 and lay in the Livadia Palace for five days. On October 25, his body was transferred to the Great Livadia Church, and from there, two days later, the emperor’s coffin was transferred aboard the cruiser “Memory of Mercury,” which in the afternoon delivered it to Sevastopol, where the funeral train was already standing. On October 30, the train approached Moscow, and the coffin with the body of Alexander III, amid the ringing of bells, past tens of thousands of kneeling Muscovites, was brought to the Archangel Cathedral of the Kremlin, and the next day, after continuous services, it was again taken to the station and from there to St. Petersburg.

Here, on November 1, 1894, at 10 o’clock in the morning, from the Nikolaevsky station to Peter and Paul Fortress An unusually magnificent funeral procession set off. The official report indicated that this procession was divided into 12 sections, each of which had 13 ranks. In total, therefore, there were 156 of these ranks. At the front of the procession they carried 52 banners and 12 coats of arms. And two men-at-arms moved between the banners and coats of arms. One of them - light, in golden armor, rode on a horse, lowering his naked sword, the other - in black armor, in a black cloak, with a black tulip, walked on foot, symbolizing endless sorrow. Then came the deputies of lands and cities, dignitaries and ministers, behind whom they carried state swords, 57 foreign, 13 Russian orders and 12 imperial regalia. And then came a spiritual procession - in light vestments, with banners, crosses and icons.

And only then did the funeral chariot ride, followed by the immensely saddened wife, son and daughter-in-law of the deceased. They were followed, strictly in chain of command, by other members of the imperial family. And, of course, the eyes of all those gathered were directed primarily at the new emperor and his bride. Alice walked pale, with downcast eyes, and her black mourning dress and black scarf emphasized her pallor even more.

And people, looking at their new mistress-empress, who was walking through the streets of St. Petersburg for the first time, finding herself immediately at the coffin, whispered to each other that this was not good and that the bride in black would bring misfortune to them all.

The procession stopped for short services at the Church of the Sign, at the Anichkov Palace, at the Kazan Cathedral, at the German and Dutch churches and at St. Isaac's Cathedral. Finally, at 2 o’clock in the afternoon, the coffin was carried into the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

The funeral of Alexander III, at the same time, was distinguished by great turmoil and confusion, when the deputations mixed up their places in the funeral procession, and its participants resembled not loyal subjects upset by the loss of the sovereign, but a kind of masquerade procession, in which loitering loafers walk, dressed in priestly robes, in military uniforms and other various clothes.

Leaving the coffin in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the royal family went to Anichkov Palace, where they spent another six days in memorial services for the deceased and preparing the burial. The delay was explained by the fact that not all foreign relatives had yet arrived in St. Petersburg, and when they finally gathered, a bishop's service took place on November 7, ending with a funeral service and burial.

Thus ended the last royal funeral in the history of Russia, and Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, Nikolai and Alexandra Feodorovna, leaving the cathedral, could not imagine that on this day the emperor would be buried here for the last time, and their own graves would not be next to him, but in thousands of miles from him and from each other...

The family of Alexander III can be called exemplary. Mutual love and respect between husband and wife, parents and children. Family comfort, which was doubly important for the autocrat of a huge empire, reigned in the Gatchina Palace, where they lived. And it was among the members of his family that the emperor found rest and tranquility from his hard work. The family idyll of Alexander III and his wife Maria Feodorovna lasted 28 years and was cut short by the premature death of the emperor.

Below - Mikhail, from right to left - Alexander III, Ksenia, Olga, Maria Fedorovna, Georgy, Nikolai.

In general, Maria Fedorovna (or Dagmara - that was her name before accepting Orthodoxy) was the bride of her elder brother Alexander, heir to the throne Nicholas. They were already engaged, but suddenly Nikolai Alexandrovich became seriously ill and went to Nice for treatment. Both his bride and his most beloved brother Alexander went there. They met at the bedside of their dying brother. Tradition says that before his death, Nicholas himself took the hands of his bride and his brother and joined them together, as if blessing them for marriage. After the death of his brother, Alexander realized that he had fallen in love. He wrote to his father: “ I'm sure we can be so happy together. I earnestly pray to God to bless me and ensure my happiness.” Soon the Danish king, Dagmara's father, agreed to the marriage, and in October 1866 they got married.

It was happy marriage. Maria Feodorovna loved her husband, and he reciprocated her feelings and was even afraid of his little empress. They felt absolutely happy on vacation when Alexander III caught fish, which Maria Fedorovna herself cleaned and fried, or when they sailed on the family yacht with the whole family, or when they vacationed in their beloved Livadia in Crimea. There, the almighty emperor devoted himself completely to his wife and children: he spent time with them, played, had fun, walked, and rested.

The father raised the children in this family in strictness, but never used force on them: his father’s menacing gaze, which all the courtiers feared, was probably enough. But at the same time, Alexander III loved to amuse his children and their friends: he bent pokers in their presence, tore decks of cards in half, and once doused the most mischievous of his sons, Misha, with a garden hose. He also demanded a strict attitude from his children’s teachers, saying: “Teach well, don’t make concessions... If they fight, please. But the informer gets the first whip.”.

Death of Alexander III

On October 17, 1888, the entire royal family almost died. The imperial train, which was traveling at excessive speed from Crimea to St. Petersburg, derailed near Kharkov. The family was sitting in the dining car. At one moment the side walls collapsed, the lackeys in the doors died immediately. The roof, which almost fell with all its weight on the emperor, empress and children, was held by Alexander III. He stood at his full height until the family got out of the carriage.

Although no one was injured, from that moment the tragic decline of Emperor Alexander III began: his health was undermined. He became pale, lost a lot of weight, and complained of pain in the lower back and heart. The doctors couldn’t find anything, so they prescribed me to work harder, which only made the situation worse. In 1894, the emperor's condition became very bad. He went to Germany for treatment, but on the way he became ill, so the king was taken to Livadia. A German doctor was called there, who diagnosed him with nephritis of the kidneys with damage to the heart and lungs. But it was too late for treatment. Alexander III could neither walk, nor eat, nor sleep. On October 20, 1894, he died at the age of 49.

Children of Alexander III

In general, the children and wife of Alexander III had a difficult fate. The first son Nicholas, the heir to the throne and the future Nicholas II, as everyone knows, abdicated the throne and was shot along with his wife, five children and servants in Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks. The second son, Alexander, died a year after birth. The third son, George repeated the fate of his uncle, the deceased brother of Alexander III Nicholas. After the death of his father, he was the heir of Nicholas II (before the birth of his son), but died in 1899 at the age of 28 from severe tuberculosis. The fourth son, Mikhail, was a favorite in the Romanov family, in March 1917 he almost became the new emperor, and in June 1918 he was shot by the Bolsheviks in Perm (his grave has not been found).

The daughters of Alexander III were much more fortunate: the eldest Ksenia was unhappy in her marriage, but was able to leave Russia in 1919, which saved her by moving to live in England. The same fate awaited the youngest daughter Olga, who emigrated with her mother to Denmark in 1919, and then to Canada, fleeing persecution by the Soviet government, which declared her an “enemy of the people.”

Maria Feodorovna

A difficult fate awaited Maria Fedorovna after the death of her husband. Living in Gatchina, and then in Kyiv, she tried not to interfere in the personal affairs of the children and government problems. True, she tried to influence the decisions of Nicholas II a couple of times, but she failed. The relationship with his daughter-in-law, the emperor’s wife Alexandra Fedorovna, was difficult. After the revolution, Maria Feodorovna moved to Crimea with her daughters, from where she was able to escape to her native Denmark in 1919. There she would die in 1928, never believing in the death of her sons, shot in Russia. She had to outlive her husband, all her sons and even her grandchildren.

The 28 years of marriage between Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna were truly happy. And no one, probably, could have suspected that these were the last happy years in the Romanov family, that the mighty emperor was holding back a huge force that his son could not cope with later, which would sweep away himself, and all his relatives, and the great empire.

V. Klyuchevsky: “Alexander III raised Russian historical thought, Russian national consciousness.”

Education and start of activity

Alexander III (Alexander Alexandrovich Romanov) was born in February 1845. He was the second son of Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna.

His older brother Nikolai Alexandrovich was considered the heir to the throne, so the younger Alexander was preparing for a military career. But the premature death of his older brother in 1865 unexpectedly changed the fate of the 20-year-old young man, who faced the need to succeed to the throne. He had to change his intentions and start getting a more fundamental education. Among Alexander Alexandrovich’s teachers were famous people of that time: historian S. M. Solovyov, J. K. Grot, who taught him the history of literature, M. I. Dragomirov taught him the art of war. But the greatest influence on the future emperor was exerted by the teacher of law K. P. Pobedonostsev, who during the reign of Alexander served as chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod and had great influence on state affairs.

In 1866, Alexander married the Danish princess Dagmara (in Orthodoxy - Maria Fedorovna). Their children: Nicholas (later Russian Emperor Nicholas II), George, Ksenia, Mikhail, Olga. The last family photo taken in Livadia shows from left to right: Tsarevich Nicholas, Grand Duke George, Empress Maria Feodorovna, Grand Duchess Olga, Grand Duke Michael, Grand Duchess Xenia and Emperor Alexander III.

The last family photo of Alexander III

Before ascending the throne, Alexander Alexandrovich was the appointed ataman of all Cossack troops, and was the commander of the troops of the St. Petersburg Military District and the Guards Corps. Since 1868 he was a member of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers. Participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, commanded the Rushchuk detachment in Bulgaria. After the war, he participated in the creation of the Voluntary Fleet, a joint-stock shipping company (together with Pobedonostsev), which was supposed to promote the government’s foreign economic policy.

Emperor's personality

S.K. Zaryanko "Portrait of Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich in a retinue frock coat"

Alexander III was not like his father, neither in appearance, nor in character, nor in habits, nor in his mentality. He was distinguished by his very large height (193 cm) and strength. In his youth, he could bend a coin with his fingers and break a horseshoe. Contemporaries note that he was devoid of external aristocracy: he preferred unpretentiousness in clothing, modesty, was not inclined to comfort, liked to spend his leisure time in a narrow family or friendly circle, was thrifty, and adhered to strict moral rules. S.Yu. Witte described the emperor this way: “He made an impression with his impressiveness, the calmness of his manners and, on the one hand, extreme firmness, and on the other hand, the complacency in his face... in appearance, he looked like a big Russian peasant from the central provinces, he was most approached a suit: short fur coat, jacket and bast shoes; and yet, with his appearance, which reflected his enormous character, beautiful heart, complacency, justice and at the same time firmness, he undoubtedly impressed, and, as I said above, if they had not known that he was an emperor, he would entered the room in any suit, - undoubtedly, everyone would pay attention to him.”

He had a negative attitude towards the reforms of his father, Emperor Alexander II, as he saw their unfavorable consequences: the growth of bureaucracy, the plight of the people, imitation of the West, corruption in the government. He had a dislike for liberalism and the intelligentsia. His political ideal: patriarchal-paternal autocratic rule, religious values, strengthening of the class structure, nationally distinctive social development.

The emperor and his family lived mainly in Gatchina due to the threat of terrorism. But he lived for a long time in both Peterhof and Tsarskoe Selo. He didn't really like the Winter Palace.

Alexander III simplified court etiquette and ceremony, reduced the staff of the Ministry of the Court, significantly reduced the number of servants, and introduced strict control over the spending of money. He replaced expensive foreign wines at court with Crimean and Caucasian wines, and limited the number of balls per year to four.

At the same time, the emperor did not spare money to purchase objects of art, which he knew how to appreciate, since in his youth he studied drawing with professor of painting N.I. Tikhobrazov. Later, Alexander Alexandrovich resumed his studies together with his wife Maria Fedorovna under the guidance of academician A.P. Bogolyubov. During his reign, Alexander III, due to his workload, left this occupation, but retained his love for art throughout his life: the emperor collected an extensive collection of paintings, graphics, objects of decorative and applied art, sculptures, which after his death was transferred to the foundation founded by the Russian Emperor Nicholas II in memory of his father, Russian Museum.

The emperor was fond of hunting and fishing. Belovezhskaya Pushcha became his favorite hunting spot.

On October 17, 1888, the royal train in which the emperor was traveling crashed near Kharkov. There were casualties among the servants in the seven wrecked carriages, but the royal family remained intact. During the crash, the roof of the dining car collapsed; as is known from eyewitness accounts, Alexander held the roof on his shoulders until his children and wife got out of the carriage and help arrived.

But soon after this, the emperor began to feel pain in his lower back - the concussion from the fall damaged his kidneys. The disease gradually developed. The Emperor began to feel unwell more and more often: his appetite disappeared and heart problems began. Doctors diagnosed him with nephritis. In the winter of 1894, he caught a cold, and the disease quickly began to progress. Alexander III was sent for treatment to Crimea (Livadia), where he died on October 20, 1894.

On the day of the emperor’s death and in the previous last days of his life, Archpriest John of Kronstadt was next to him, who laid his hands on the head of the dying man at his request.

The emperor's body was taken to St. Petersburg and buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

Domestic policy

Alexander II intended to continue his reforms. The Loris-Melikov project (called the “constitution”) received the highest approval, but on March 1, 1881, the emperor was killed by terrorists, and his successor curtailed the reforms. Alexander III, as mentioned above, did not support the policies of his father; moreover, K. P. Pobedonostsev, who was the leader of the conservative party in the government of the new tsar, had a strong influence on the new emperor.

This is what he wrote to the emperor in the first days after his accession to the throne: “... it’s a terrible hour and time is running out. Either save Russia and yourself now, or never. If they sing the old siren songs to you about how you need to calm down, you need to continue in the liberal direction, you need to give in to so-called public opinion - oh, for God’s sake, don’t believe it, Your Majesty, don’t listen. This will be death, the death of Russia and yours: this is clear to me as day.<…>The insane villains who destroyed your Parent will not be satisfied with any concession and will only become furious. They can be appeased, the evil seed can be torn out only by fighting them to the death and to the stomach, with iron and blood. It is not difficult to win: until now everyone wanted to avoid the fight and deceived the late Emperor, you, themselves, everyone and everything in the world, because they were not people of reason, strength and heart, but flabby eunuchs and magicians.<…>do not leave Count Loris-Melikov. I don't believe him. He is a magician and can also play doubles.<…>The new policy must be announced immediately and decisively. It is necessary to end at once, right now, all talk about freedom of the press, about the willfulness of meetings, about a representative assembly<…>».

After the death of Alexander II, a struggle developed between liberals and conservatives in the government; at a meeting of the Committee of Ministers, the new emperor, after some hesitation, nevertheless accepted the project drawn up by Pobedonostsev, which is known as the Manifesto on the Inviolability of Autocracy. This was a departure from the previous liberal course: liberal-minded ministers and dignitaries (Loris-Melikov, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, Dmitry Milyutin) resigned; Ignatiev (Slavophile) became the head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs; he issued a circular that read: “... the great and broadly conceived transformations of the past Reign did not bring all the benefits that the Tsar-Liberator had the right to expect from them. The Manifesto of April 29 indicates to us that the Supreme Power has measured the enormity of the evil from which our Fatherland is suffering and has decided to begin to eradicate it...”

The government of Alexander III pursued a policy of counter-reforms that limited the liberal reforms of the 1860s and 70s. A new University Charter was issued in 1884, which abolished autonomy high school. The entry into gymnasiums of children of the lower classes was limited (“circular about cooks’ children,” 1887). Since 1889, peasant self-government began to be subordinate to zemstvo chiefs from local landowners, who combined administrative and judicial power in their hands. Zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) regulations tightened the administration's control over local self-government and limited the rights of voters from the lower strata of the population.

During his coronation in 1883, Alexander III announced to the volost elders: “Follow the advice and guidance of your leaders of the nobility.” This meant the protection of the class rights of the noble landowners (the establishment of the Noble Land Bank, the adoption of the Regulations on Hiring for Agricultural Work, which was beneficial for the landowners), strengthening of administrative guardianship over the peasantry, conservation of the community and the large patriarchal family. Attempts have been made to enhance the public role Orthodox Church(the spread of parochial schools), repression against Old Believers and sectarians intensified. On the outskirts, a policy of Russification was carried out, the rights of foreigners (especially Jews) were limited. A percentage norm was established for Jews in secondary and then higher educational institutions (within the Pale of Settlement - 10%, outside the Pale - 5, in the capitals - 3%). A policy of Russification was pursued. In the 1880s. Instruction in Russian was introduced in Polish universities (previously, after the uprising of 1862-1863, it was introduced in schools there). In Poland, Finland, the Baltic states, and Ukraine, the Russian language was introduced in institutions, on railways, on posters, etc.

But the reign of Alexander III was not characterized only by counter-reforms. Redemption payments were lowered, the mandatory redemption of peasant plots was legalized, and a peasant land bank was established to enable peasants to obtain loans to purchase land. In 1886, the poll tax was abolished, and an inheritance and interest tax were introduced. In 1882, restrictions were introduced on factory work by minors, as well as on night work by women and children. At the same time, the police regime and the class privileges of the nobility were strengthened. Already in 1882-1884, new rules were issued on the press, libraries and reading rooms, called temporary, but in force until 1905. This was followed by a number of measures expanding the benefits of the landed nobility - the law on escheat of noble property (1883), the organization long-term loan for noble landowners, in the form of the establishment of a noble land bank (1885), instead of the all-class land bank projected by the Minister of Finance.

I. Repin "Reception of volost elders by Alexander III in the courtyard of the Petrovsky Palace in Moscow"

During the reign of Alexander III, 114 new military vessels were built, including 17 battleships and 10 armored cruisers; The Russian fleet ranked third in the world after England and France. The army and the military department were put in order after their disorganization during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which was facilitated by the complete trust shown to Minister Vannovsky and the chief of the main staff Obruchev by the emperor, who did not allow outside interference in their activities.

The influence of Orthodoxy in the country increased: the number of church periodicals increased, the circulation of spiritual literature increased; parishes closed during the previous reign were restored, intensive construction of new churches was underway, the number of dioceses within Russia increased from 59 to 64.

During the reign of Alexander III, there was a sharp decrease in protests, in comparison with the second half of the reign of Alexander II, a decline revolutionary movement in the mid 80s. Terrorist activity has also decreased. After the assassination of Alexander II, there was only one successful attempt by Narodnaya Volya (1882) on the Odessa prosecutor Strelnikov and a failed attempt (1887) on Alexander III. After this, there were no more terrorist attacks in the country until the beginning of the 20th century.

Foreign policy

During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage a single war. For this Alexander III received the name Peacemaker.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander III:

Balkan policy: strengthening Russia's position.

Peaceful relations with all countries.

Search for loyal and reliable allies.

Determination of the southern borders of Central Asia.

Politics in the new territories of the Far East.

After the 5-century Turkish yoke as a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Bulgaria gained its statehood in 1879 and became a constitutional monarchy. Russia expected to find an ally in Bulgaria. At first it was like this: the Bulgarian Prince A. Battenberg pursued a friendly policy towards Russia, but then Austrian influence began to prevail, and in May 18881 a coup d’etat took place in Bulgaria, led by Battenberg himself - he abolished the constitution and became an unlimited ruler, pursuing a pro-Austrian policy. The Bulgarian people did not approve of this and did not support Battenberg; Alexander III demanded the restoration of the constitution. In 1886 A. Battenberg abdicated the throne. In order to prevent Turkish influence on Bulgaria again, Alexander III advocated strict compliance with the Berlin Treaty; invited Bulgaria to solve its own problems in foreign policy, recalled the Russian military without interfering in Bulgarian-Turkish affairs. Although the Russian ambassador in Constantinople announced to the Sultan that Russia would not allow a Turkish invasion. In 1886, diplomatic relations were severed between Russia and Bulgaria.

N. Sverchkov "Portrait of Emperor Alexander III in the uniform of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment"

At the same time, Russia's relations with England are becoming more complicated as a result of clashes of interests in Central Asia, the Balkans and Turkey. At the same time, relations between Germany and France were also becoming complicated, so France and Germany began to look for opportunities for rapprochement with Russia in case of war between themselves - it was provided for in the plans of Chancellor Bismarck. But Emperor Alexander III kept William I from attacking France using family ties, and in 1891 a Russian-French alliance was concluded for as long as the Triple Alliance existed. The agreement had a high degree of secrecy: Alexander III warned the French government that if the secret was disclosed, the alliance would be dissolved.

In Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate, the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva Khanate were annexed, and the annexation of the Turkmen tribes continued. During the reign of Alexander III, the territory Russian Empire increased by 430 thousand sq. m. km. This was the end of the expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire. Russia avoided war with England. In 1885, an agreement was signed on the creation of Russian-British military commissions to determine the final borders of Russia and Afghanistan.

At the same time, Japan's expansion was intensifying, but it was difficult for Russia to conduct military operations in that area due to the lack of roads and Russia's weak military potential. In 1891, construction of the Great Siberian Railway began in Russia - the Chelyabinsk-Omsk-Irkutsk-Khabarovsk-Vladivostok railway line (approx. 7 thousand km). This could dramatically increase Russia's forces in the Far East.

Results of the board

During the 13 years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III (1881–1894), Russia made a strong economic breakthrough, created industry, rearmed the Russian army and navy, and became the world's largest exporter of agricultural products. It is very important that Russia lived in peace throughout the years of Alexander III’s reign.

The years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III are associated with the flourishing of Russian national culture, art, music, literature and theater. He was a wise philanthropist and collector.

P.I. Tchaikovsky, in difficult times for him, repeatedly received material support from the emperor, as noted in the composer’s letters.

S. Diaghilev believed that for Russian culture Alexander III was the best of the Russian monarchs. It was under him that Russian literature, painting, music and ballet began to flourish. Great art, which later glorified Russia, began under Emperor Alexander III.

He played an outstanding role in the development of historical knowledge in Russia: under him, the Russian Imperial Historical Society, of which he was chairman, began to actively work. The Emperor was the creator and founder of the Historical Museum in Moscow.

On the initiative of Alexander, a patriotic museum was created in Sevastopol, the main exhibition of which was the Panorama of the Sevastopol Defense.

Under Alexander III, the first university was opened in Siberia (Tomsk), a project was prepared for the creation of the Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople, the Russian Imperial Palestine Society began to operate, and Orthodox churches were built in many European cities and in the East.

The greatest works of science, culture, art, literature, from the reign of Alexander III are the great achievements of Russia, of which we are still proud.

“If Emperor Alexander III had been destined to continue reigning for as many years as he reigned, then his reign would have been one of the greatest reigns of the Russian Empire” (S.Yu. Witte).

120 years ago, on November 1, 1894 in Crimea, in Livadia, Russian Emperor Alexander III, the 13th Tsar of the Romanov family, father, died at the age of 49.

During the 13 years of the reign of Alexander III the Peacemaker, Russia did not participate in a single war; thanks to skillful public policy and diplomacy, the Russian Empire became a stronger and greater power than it was before his reign.

On the day of the death of Alexander III, Europe felt that it had lost an international arbiter who had always been guided by the idea of ​​justice.

The cause of death of Alexander III was chronic nephritis, which led to damage to the heart and blood vessels. According to experts, kidney disease arose after a railway accident in which the royal train was involved at the Borki station, 50 kilometers from Kharkov in the fall of 1888. During a train crash, the roof of the royal carriage collapsed, and Tsar Alexander III, saving his family, held the roof on his shoulders until help arrived.

Emperor Alexander III ascended the throne on March 14, 1881, after the assassination of his father Alexander II.

On April 29, 1881, the emperor signed "Manifesto on the Inviolability of Autocracy", which called on “all faithful subjects to serve faithfully to the eradication of vile sedition that disgraces the Russian land, - to the establishment of faith and morality, - to the good upbringing of children, - to the extermination of untruth and theft, - to the establishment of order and truth in the operation of all institutions "

In 1881, a peasant bank was established for issuing loans to peasants for the purchase of land, purchasing peasant plots.

1882 – 1884 - the tax system was changed: the poll tax for the poorest classes was abolished, the inheritance and interest taxes were abolished, and the taxation of trades was increased. Protection of workers: admission of minors to factory work and night work of adolescents and women is prohibited.

1881 - 82 - a commission was established to draft criminal and civil laws.
Measures have been taken to expand the benefits of the local nobility, in 1885 a noble land bank was established, providing long-term loans for noble landowners, the Ministry of Finance was entrusted with the creation land bank for all classes.

Public education. In 1884, the charter of a new university reform was adopted, which destroyed university self-government, students were not exempted from military service, and military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps.
The elementary school was transferred to the hands of the clergy and established. A circular was issued about “cook’s children” limiting the receipt higher education for children from the lower strata of society.

The Emperor was a passionate collector and founded the Russian Museum. A rich collection of paintings, graphics, objects of decorative and applied art, sculptures collected by Alexander III was transferred to the Russian Museum.

From 1881 – 1895 the share of customs duties on imported goods increased from 19% to 31%, Thus, Russian commodity producers were protected from imported goods. The course has been set for the industrialization of Russia, for the creation of its own industry - this is not only an economic, but also a fundamental political task, constituting the main direction in the system of internal patronage.

Deficiencies of Russian state budget were replaced in 1881-87 by a tremendous excess of state revenues over expenses. The ruble has become gold! The main source of government revenue was indirect taxes, and taxation items were increased (new taxes on gasoline, kerosene, matches). In 1881, a housing tax was introduced in Russia and Tax rates have been increased - excise taxes on alcohol, tobacco and sugar have been raised.

Emperor Alexander III loved Georgian, and, and knew a lot about them. During the reign of Alexander III, expensive foreign wine varieties were forced out of the domestic market of the Russian Empire by domestic wines. Crimean winemaking received good markets, high-quality wines were presented at world wine exhibitions.

During the reign of Alexander III, the Russian Empire became a strong naval power. The Russian fleet took 3rd place in the world after England and France. 114 new military vessels were launched, including 17 battleships and 10 armored cruisers, the total displacement of the Russian fleet reached 300 thousand tons.

Emperor Alexander III uttered his famous phrase “Russia has only two true allies - the army and the navy.” Over the past 100 years, the situation with Russia's loyal allies has not changed at all.

The main directions of Alexander III's foreign policy were:
1. Strengthening influence in the Balkans. As a result Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 Bulgaria was liberated in 1879 from 500 years of Turkish rule.

2. Search for reliable allies. In 1881, German Chancellor Bismarck signed the secret Austro-Russian-German treaty “The Alliance of the Three Emperors,” which provided for the neutrality of each side in the event that one of the countries found itself in a war with the 4th side. In 1882, secretly from Russia, Bismarck concluded a “triple alliance” - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy against Russia and France, which provided for the provision of military assistance to each other in the event of hostilities with Russia or France. In 1887, the Russian-German “customs war”: Germany did not provide a loan to Russia and increased duties on Russian grain and created advantages for the import of American grain into Germany. Russia responded by increasing duties on imported German goods: iron, coal, ammonia, steel.

3. Support peaceful relations with all countries. Secret alliance of France and Russia. France in the 1980s saw Russia as its protector from Germany and its savior. A grand parade in honor of the first visit of Alexander III to France, a ceremonial reception of the Russian squadron in Toulon, and a return visit of the French squadron to Kronstadt in the summer of 1891.

4. Establishment of borders in the south of Central Asia, after the annexation of Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate, the Bukhara Emirate, and the Khiva Khanate. During the reign of Alexander III, the territory of the Russian Empire increased by 430,000 square meters. km.

5. Consolidation of Russia in new territories of the Far East. In 1891, Russia began construction of the “Great Siberian Railway” - 7 thousand km. railway line Chelyabinsk - Omsk - Irkutsk - Khabarovsk - Vladivostok.

For maintaining European peace, Alexander III was called the Peacemaker. During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage a single war, and “the Russian nation, under the just and peaceful authority of its emperor, enjoyed security, this highest good of society and an instrument of true greatness.”