Doctor of Philosophy in Physics K. ZLOSCHASTYEV (National Autonomous University of Mexico, Institute of Nuclear Research, Department of Gravity and Field Theory).

Ending. For the beginning, see "Science and Life" No.

Science and life // Illustrations

Rod deformation. Despite the fact that both the rod and the force acting on it are initially symmetrical with respect to the axis of rotation of the rod, the result of deformation can break this symmetry. © Kostelecky & Scientific American.

Comparison of clock progress: on the left - the International Space Station, where two clocks will be installed; on the right are clocks operating on different physical principles: quantum transitions in an atom (bottom) and microwaves in a resonating chamber (top).

Experiment with antihydrogen.

Spin pendulum.

I"LL BE BACK?

After the creation of the theory of relativity, the ether was no longer needed and was sent into exile. But was the expulsion final and irrevocable? For a hundred years, Einstein’s theory has demonstrated its validity in numerous experiments and observations both on Earth and in the space around us, and so far there is no reason to replace it with something else. But are the theory of relativity and the ether mutually exclusive concepts? Paradoxically, no! Under certain conditions, the ether and the selected frame of reference can exist without contradicting the theory of relativity, at least its fundamental part, which is confirmed experimentally. To understand how this can be, we must delve into the very heart of Einstein's theory - Lorentz symmetry.

While studying Maxwell's equations and the Michelson-Morley experiment, in 1899 Hendrik Lorentz noticed that under Galilean transformations (consisting of rotations in three-dimensional space, while time is absolutely unchanged when moving to another frame of reference), Maxwell's equations do not remain unchanged. Lorentz concluded that the equations of electrodynamics have symmetry only with respect to certain new transformations. (Similar results were independently obtained even earlier: by Waldemar Voit in 1887 and Joseph Larmore in 1897.) In these transformations, in addition to three-dimensional spatial rotations, time was additionally transformed along with space. In other words, three-dimensional space and time were combined into a single four-dimensional object: space-time. In 1905, the great French mathematician Henri Poincaré called these transformations Lorentzian, and Einstein took them as the basis for his special theory of relativity(ONE HUNDRED). He postulated that the laws of physics must be the same for all observers in inertial(moving without acceleration) reference systems, and the transition formulas between the latter are given not by Galilean, but by Lorentzian transformations. This postulate was called Lorentz observer invariance(LIN) and within the framework of the theory of relativity should not be violated in any case.

However, in Einstein's theory there is another type of Lorentz symmetry - Lorentz invariance of a particle(LICH), the violation of which, although it does not fit into the framework of the standard SRT, still does not require a radical revision of the theory, provided that the LIN is preserved. To understand the difference between LIN and LIC, let's look at examples. Let's take two observers, one of whom is on the platform, and the other is sitting on a train passing by without accelerating. LIN means that the laws of physics must be the same for them. Now let the observer on the train stand up and begin to move relative to the train without acceleration. LICH means that the laws of physics must still be the same for these observers. IN in this case LIN and LICH are the same thing - a moving observer on a train simply creates a third inertial frame of reference. However, it can be shown that in some cases the LICH and LIN are not identical, and therefore, when the LIN is preserved, a violation of the LICH can occur. Understanding this phenomenon requires introducing the concept spontaneously broken symmetry. We will not go into mathematical details, just turn to analogies.

Analogy one. The equations of Newton's theory of gravity, which govern the laws of planetary motion, are three-dimensional rotational symmetry(that is, they are invariant under rotation transformations in three-dimensional space). However, the Solar System, being a solution to these equations, nevertheless violates this symmetry, since the trajectories of the planets are located not on the surface of a sphere, but on a plane with an axis of rotation. Group of three-dimensional rotations (group O(3), mathematically speaking) on ​​a specific solution spontaneously breaks down to a group of two-dimensional rotations on the plane O(2).

Analogy two. Let's place the rod vertically and apply a vertical downward force to its upper end. Despite the fact that the force acts strictly vertically and the rod is initially absolutely straight, it will bend to the side, and the direction of the bend will be random (spontaneous). The solution (the shape of the rod after deformation) is said to spontaneously break the initial symmetry group of two-dimensional rotations on a plane perpendicular to the rod.

Analogy three. Previous discussions concerned spontaneous breaking of rotational symmetry O(3). It's time for a more general Lorentz symmetry, SO(1.3). Let's imagine that we have shrunk so much that we were able to penetrate inside the magnet. There we will see many magnetic dipoles (domains) aligned in one direction, which is called direction of magnetization. Conservation of LIN means that no matter what angle we are at in relation to the direction of magnetization, the laws of physics should not change. Consequently, the movement of any charged particle inside a magnet should not depend on whether we are standing sideways in relation to its trajectory or facing it. However, the movement of a particle that would move in our face will be different from the movement of the same particle sideways, since the Lorentz force acting on the particle depends on the angle between the particle velocity vectors and the direction of the magnetic field. In this case, they say that the LICH is spontaneously disrupted by the background magnetic field (which created a preferred direction in space), while the LIN is preserved.

In other words, although equations consistent with Einstein's theory of relativity preserve Lorentz symmetry, some of their solutions may break it! Then we can easily explain why we have not yet discovered deviations from the SRT: simply the overwhelming majority of solutions that physically realize one or another observed phenomenon or effect retain Lorentz symmetry, and only a few do not (or the deviations are so small that they still lie outside beyond our experimental capabilities). Ether may be just such a LICH-violating solution to some field equations that are fully compatible with LIN. Question: what are the fields that play the role of ether, do they exist, how can they be described theoretically and detected experimentally?

THEORIES ALLOWING VIOLATION OF LORENTZ SYMMETRY

Quite a lot of theoretical examples when Lorentz symmetry can be broken (both spontaneously and completely) are already known. We will present only the most interesting of them.

Standard Model Vacuum. The Standard Model (SM) is the generally accepted relativistic quantum field theory that describes the strong, electromagnetic and weak interactions. As is known, in quantum theory the physical vacuum is not an absolute void; it is filled with particles and antiparticles that are born and destroyed. This fluctuating “quantum foam” can be thought of as a type of ether.

Space-time in quantum theory of gravity. In quantum gravity, the subject of quantization is space-time itself. It is assumed that on very small scales (usually on the order of the Planck length, that is, about 10 -33 cm) it is not continuous, but may represent either a set of some multidimensional membranes ( N-branes, as string theorists call them M-theories - see "Science and Life" No. 2, 3, 1997), or the so-called spin foam, consisting of volume and area quanta (as claimed by supporters of the theory of loop quantum gravity). In each of these cases, Lorentz symmetry can be broken.

String theory. In 1989–1991, Alan Kostelecky, Stuart Samuel, and Robertus Potting demonstrated how Lorentz and CPT-symmetries can occur in superstring theory. This is not surprising, however, since superstring theory is still far from complete: it works well in the high-energy limit, when spacetime is 10- or 11-dimensional, but does not have a single limit for low energies, when the dimensionality of spacetime tends to to four (the so-called landscape problem). Therefore, in the latter case, it still predicts almost anything.

M-theory. During the second "superstring revolution" in the 1990s, it was realized that all five 10-dimensional superstring theories are related by duality transformations and therefore turn out to be special cases of a single theory called M-a theory that “lives” in the number of dimensions one more - 11-dimensional. The specific form of the theory is still unknown, but some of its properties and solutions (describing multidimensional membranes) are known. In particular, it is known that M-the theory does not have to be Lorentz-invariant (and not only in the sense of LICH, but also in the sense of LIN). Moreover, it could be something fundamentally new, radically different from standard quantum field theory and relativity theory.

Noncommutative field theories. In these exotic theories, space-time coordinates are non-commutative operators, that is, for example, the result of multiplying the coordinate x to coordinate y does not coincide with the result of coordinate multiplication y to coordinate x, and Lorentz symmetry is also broken. This also includes non-associative field theories, in which, for example, ( x x y)x z x x x ( y x z) - non-Archimedean field theories (where the field of numbers is assumed to be different from the classical one), and their various compilations.

Theories of gravity with a scalar field. String theory and most dynamical models of the Universe predict the existence of a special type of fundamental interaction - global scalar field, one of the most likely candidates for the role of “dark energy”, or “quintessence”. Having very low energy and a wavelength comparable to the size of the Universe, this field can create a background that disrupts the LICH. TeVeS, the tensor-vector-scalar theory of gravity, developed by Bekenstein as a relativistic analogue of the modified Milgrom mechanics, can also be included in this group. However, TeVeS, in the opinion of many, has acquired not only the advantages of Milgrom’s theory, but, unfortunately, also many of its serious disadvantages.

"Einstein Ether" Jacobson-Mattinly. This is a new vector ether theory proposed by Ted Jacobson and David Mattingly from the University of Maryland, in the development of which the author is involved. It can be assumed that there is a global vector field, which (unlike the electromagnetic field) does not disappear even far from all charges and masses. Far from them, this field is described by a constant four-vector of unit length. The reference frame that accompanies it is isolated and, thus, violates LICH (but not LIN, since the vector field is considered relativistic and all equations have Lorentz symmetry).

Extended Standard Model (SME, or PSM). About ten years ago, Don Colladay and the aforementioned Kostelecki and Potting proposed extending the Standard Model with components that violate PIM but not LIN. Thus, this is a theory in which the violation of Lorentz symmetry is already inherent. Naturally, the RSM is adjusted so as not to contradict the usual standard model (SM), at least that part of it that has been verified experimentally. According to the creators, the differences between RSM and SM should appear at higher energies, for example, in the early Universe or at projected accelerators. By the way, I learned about RSM from my co-author and department colleague Daniel Sudarsky, who himself made a significant contribution to the development of the theory, showing, together with his co-authors in 2002, how quantum gravity and broken LICH can influence the dynamics of particles in the cosmic microwave radiation.

NOW WE WILL CHECK THEM, NOW WE WILL COMPARE THEM...

There are a lot of experiments to search for violation of Lorentz symmetry and a selected reference frame, and they are all different, and many of them are not direct, but indirect. For example, there are experiments that look for violations of the principle CPT symmetries, which states that all the laws of physics should not change with the simultaneous application of three transformations: replacing particles with antiparticles ( C-transformation), mirror reflection of space ( P-transformation) and time reversal ( T-transformation). The point is that from the Bell-Pauli-Luders theorem it follows that the violation CPT-symmetry entails violation of Lorentz symmetry. This information is very useful, since in some physical situations the former is much easier to detect directly than the latter.

Experiments a la Michelson-Morley. As mentioned above, they are used to try to detect the anisotropy of the speed of light. Currently, the most accurate experiments use resonating chambers ( resonant cavity): The chamber is rotated on a table and changes in the frequencies of the microwaves inside it are examined. John Lipa's group at Stanford University uses superconducting chambers. The team of Achim Peters and Stefan Schiller from the Humboldt University of Berlin and the University of Düsseldorf uses laser light in sapphire resonators. Despite the constantly increasing accuracy of experiments (relative accuracies already reach 10 -15), no deviations from the predictions of SRT have yet been discovered.

Nuclear spin precession. In 1960, Vernon Hughes and, independently, Ron Drever measured the spin precession of the lithium-7 nucleus as the magnetic field rotated with the Earth relative to our Galaxy. No deviations from SRT predictions were found.

Neutrino oscillations? At one time, the discovery of the phenomenon of transformation of some types of neutrinos into others (oscillations - see "Science and Life" No.) caused a furor, since this meant that neutrinos had a rest mass, even if very small, on the order of an electron volt. The breaking of Lorentz symmetry should in principle affect the oscillations, so that future experimental data may answer whether this symmetry is preserved in the neutrino system or not.

K-meson oscillations. The weak interaction forces the K-meson (kaon) to turn into an antikaon during its “life” and then back - oscillate. These oscillations are so precisely balanced that the slightest disturbance CPT-symmetry would lead to a noticeable effect. One of the most accurate experiments was carried out by the KTeV collaboration at the Tevatron accelerator ( National laboratory them. Fermi). Result: in kaon oscillations CPT-symmetry is preserved with an accuracy of 10 -21.

Experiments with antimatter. Many high-precision CPT-Experiments with antimatter have been carried out currently. Among them: a comparison of anomalous magnetic moments of electron and positron in Penning traps made by Hans Dehmelt's group at the University of Washington, proton-antiproton experiments at CERN carried out by Gerald Gabrielse's group from Harvard. No violations CPT-symmetry has not yet been discovered.

Comparison of clocks. Two high-precision clocks are taken, which use different physical effects and, therefore, should respond differently to a possible violation of Lorentz symmetry. As a result, a path difference should arise, which will be a signal that the symmetry is broken. Experiments on Earth, conducted in the laboratory of Ronald Walsworth at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and other institutions, have achieved impressive precision: Lorentz symmetry has been shown to be preserved to within 10 -27 for different types of clocks. But this is not the limit: accuracy should improve significantly if the instruments are launched into space. Several orbital experiments - ACES, PARCS, RACE and SUMO - are planned to be launched in the near future on board the International Space Station.

Light from distant galaxies. By measuring the polarization of light coming from distant galaxies in the infrared, optical and ultraviolet ranges, it is possible to achieve high accuracy in determining a possible violation CPT-symmetry in the early Universe. Kostelecki and Matthew Mewes of Indiana University showed that for such light this symmetry is preserved to within 10 -32 . In 1990, Roman Jackiw's group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology substantiated an even more precise limit - 10 -42.

Cosmic rays? There is a certain mystery associated with ultra-high-energy cosmic rays coming to us from space. Theory predicts that the energy of such rays cannot be higher than a certain threshold value - the so-called Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit (GZK cutoff), which calculated that particles with energies above 5 ґ 10 19 electronvolts should actively interact with cosmic microwave radiation at their path and waste energy on the birth of pi-mesons. Observational data exceeds this threshold by orders of magnitude! There are many theories that explain this effect without invoking the Lorentz symmetry breaking hypothesis, but so far none of them has become dominant. However, the theory proposed in 1998 by Sidney Coleman and Nobel laureate Sheldon Glashow from Harvard proposes to explain the phenomenon of exceeding the threshold precisely by the violation of Lorentz symmetry.

Comparison of hydrogen and antihydrogen. If CPT-symmetry is broken, then matter and antimatter should behave differently. Two experiments at CERN near Geneva - ATHENA and ATRAP - look for differences in the emission spectra between hydrogen atoms (proton plus electron) and antihydrogen (antiproton plus positron). No differences have been found yet.

Spin pendulum. This experiment, conducted by Eric Adelberger and Blaine Heckel of the University of Washington, uses a material in which the electron spins are aligned in the same direction, thereby creating an overall macroscopic spin momentum. A torsion pendulum made of such a material is placed inside a shell, insulated from the external magnetic field (by the way, insulation was perhaps the most difficult task). The spin-dependent violation of Lorentz symmetry should manifest itself in the form of small perturbations in the oscillations, which would depend on the orientation of the pendulum. The absence of such perturbations made it possible to establish that in this system Lorentz symmetry is preserved with an accuracy of 10 -29.

EPILOGUE

There is an opinion: Einstein’s theory has become so firmly integrated with modern science that physicists have already forgotten to think about its overthrow. The real situation is just the opposite: a significant number of specialists all over the world are busy searching for facts, experimental and theoretical, that could... no, not refute it, that would be too naive, but find the limits of applicability of the theory of relativity. While these efforts were unsuccessful, the theory turned out to fit very well with reality. But, of course, someday this will happen (remember, for example, that a completely consistent theory of quantum gravity has not yet been created), and Einstein’s theory will be replaced by another, more general one (who knows, maybe there will be a place for the ether in it ?).

But the strength of physics lies in its continuity. Each new theory must include the previous one, as was the case with the replacement of mechanics and Newton's theory of gravity with the special and general theories of relativity. And just as Newton's theory continues to find its application, so Einstein's theory will remain useful to mankind for many centuries. We can only feel sorry for the poor students of the future, who will have to study Newton's theory, Einstein's theory, and X-theory... However, this is for the best - man does not live by marshmallows alone.

Literature

Will K. Theory and experiment in gravitational physics. - M.: Energoatomizdat, 1985, 294 p.

Eling S., Jacobson T., Mattingly D. Einstein-Aether Theory. - gr-qc/0410001.

Bear D. et al. 2000 Limit on Lorentz and CPT violation of the neutron using a two-species noble-gas maser// Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 5038.

Bluhm R. et al. 2002 Clock-comparison tests of CPT and Lorentz symmetry in space// Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 090801.

Carroll S., Field G. and Jackiw R. 1990 Limits on a Lorentz- and parity-violating modification of electrodynamics // Phys. Rev. D 41 1231.

Greenberg O. 2002 CPT violation implies violation of Lorentz invariance// Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 231602.

Kostelecky A. and Mewes M. 2002 Signals for Lorentz violation in electrodynamics// Phys. Rev. D 66 056005.

Lipa J. et al. 2003 New limit on signals of Lorentz violation in electrodynamics// Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 060403.

Muller H. et al. 2003 Modern Michelson-Morley experiment using cryogenic optical resonators// Phys. Rev. Lett. 91 020401.

Sudarsky D., Urrutia L. and Vucetich H. 2002 Observational bounds on quantum gravity signals using existing data// Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 231301.

Wolf P. et al. 2003 Tests of Lorentz invariance using a microwave resonator// Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 060402.

Details for the curious

LORENTZ AND GALILEO TRANSFORMATIONS

If the inertial reference system (IRS) K" moves relative to ISO K at constant speed V along the axis x, and the origins coincide at the initial moment of time in both systems, then the Lorentz transformations have the form

Where c- speed of light in vacuum.

Formulas expressing the inverse transformation, that is x",y",z",t" through x,y,z,t can be obtained as a replacement V on V" = - V. It can be noted that in the case when , the Lorentz transformations turn into Galilean transformations:

x" = x + ut, y" = y, z" = z, t" = t.

The same thing happens when V/c> 0. This suggests that the special theory of relativity coincides with Newtonian mechanics either in a world with infinite speed of light or at speeds small compared to the speed of light.

It is known that the concept of ether has existed since ancient times, and it is not by chance that ancient philosophers called ether “a filler of emptiness.” However, scientists gradually began to think about the theory of the ether. So, in 1618, a physicist from France, Rene Descartes, put forward a hypothesis about the existence of a luminiferous ether. After the appearance of this hypothesis, for its practical substantiation, many scientists began searching for this mysterious “ether”.

One of these scientists was our famous compatriot Dmitry Mendeleev, who included ether (calling it “newtonium”) in his wonderful table of elements. However, this table has reached us already in a “truncated” falsified form, since the world “elite” was not at all interested in ordinary people gaining access to free ethereal energy and fuel-free technologies, which could be deprived by fuel, energy and metallurgical concerns owned by the richest clans of the Earth, their fabulous profits obtained through the sale of traditional hydrocarbon fuels and wired energy.

Also, little known is the fact that back in 1904 D. Mendeleev published the concept of the world ether, which at that time was vigorously discussed in scientific world. In his scientific work, dedicated to the topic of ether, the Russian scientist suggested that the “ether” that fills interplanetary space is a medium that transmits light, heat and even gravity. According to D. Mendeleev, all space is filled with this invisible ether - a gas with very low weight and unexplored properties.

Here is what the candidate of physical and mathematical sciences S. Sall says about this: “Contrary to the experiments of Michelson, Morley and Miller, the physical community takes the path of denying the ethereal wind and ether. A forgery is committed when, instead of Miller’s high-precision experiments, the accuracy of which is confirmed by the practice of working with fiber-optic and microwave digital communication systems, the results of the experiments were taken on faith with interferometers located in a metal shell, where there cannot be ethereal wind.

But the main thing is different. The road to mankind’s development of environmentally friendly, fuel-free energy was closed, but the Illuminati’s monopoly on fuel resources remained. To date, great progress has been made in fuel-free energy (to get acquainted with these technologies, you can download “New Energy” magazines on the Internet).

However, attempts to introduce fuel-free technologies into widespread practice usually end badly for the authors of these projects. Science, technology, and most importantly, the press, are under the control of the Illuminati. In addition, growing environmental problems are used by the Illuminati to promote misanthropic ideas of radical population reduction."

You see, the plans of the owners of the world “elite” to reduce the Earth’s population to 500 million people are based on theses about the exhaustibility of our planet’s resources. But it is precisely these same forces that are hiding from humanity the fuel-free free energy technologies at their disposal, which have been actively used for decades in secret from ordinary people in the underground cities of refuge of the “elite” scattered throughout the world.

However, now more and more independent researchers and scientists, not bribed by the servants of the world “elite,” are beginning to return to the theory of the ether and ethereal technologies. So, for example, doctor technical sciences V. Atsyukovsky, observing on February 25, 2011, a colossal ejection of solar plasma, which was 50 times larger than the size of the Earth, asked a completely reasonable question: where does our star get the energy for such colossal emissions?

Based on his assumptions, V. Atsyukovsky put forward a unique hypothesis that the Sun draws its energy from the ether. He is completely confident in the existence of this gas, and also in the fact that it is under its influence that our Sun throws comets of unimaginable size from its surface into all directions of outer space. According to this hypothesis, our star has so much energy that it can eject several dozen comets every second. And herself solar corona- these are nothing more than emissions of the ether.

Here's what he says about it: “Ether turned out to be an ordinary gas with very high pressure and very rarefied. Its mass density is 11 orders of magnitude less than the density of air. Nevertheless, it has enormous energy, enormous pressure due to the very high speed of its molecules.”

The development and mass implementation of ethereal technologies will allow humanity to solve many of its problems, which are already becoming a planetary disaster for all living things. This concerns the barbaric extraction of traditional hydrocarbons and environmental pollution of the environment, which is becoming increasingly catastrophic. Also, the introduction of these technologies will prevent the plans of the masters of the world “elite” to completely destroy humanity with their own hands.

And this should be remembered by all those who, having sold themselves to these anti-human forces, are trying to counteract the mass introduction of these technologies. Do not think that your non-humanoid masters will leave you alive after you complete your mission to reduce the Earth's population in the first stage to 500 million people.

Humanity was ready to introduce and master fuel-free technologies even during the times of inventions and discoveries made by N. Tesla. But a force hostile to humanity intervened and stopped this process. And until very recently, the servants of these forces continue their activities harmful to humanity. This is what the candidate of physical and mathematical sciences S. Sall said several years ago about the followers of N. Tesla’s ideas on the introduction of ethereal technologies:

“Apparently, the first Russian scientists after Tesla to learn how to do this were Filippov in St. Petersburg and Pilchikov in Odessa. Both were soon killed, and their papers and installations disappeared. Subsequently, all work in this direction was classified or prohibited. This was monitored by the FBI and CIA , MI6 and other intelligence services.In the USSR, control over the non-proliferation of fuel-free technologies was carried out by the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Now the Russian Academy of Sciences has a special structure - the Commission for Combating Pseudoscience, which is trying to ban fuel-free technologies even in the defense industry and space. However, such technologies are already used in industry and transport without widespread publicity. Recently, a simple and efficient fuel-free electric energy generator was demonstrated to the public by a Georgian inventor. However, President Saakashvili, as a puppet of the West, naturally stopped the introduction of such generators."

And yet, thanks to honest scientists and researchers, the process of revealing the principles of the ether theory for humanity and the gradual introduction of fuel-free technologies is becoming increasingly irreversible, despite the efforts of all types of servants of the non-humanoid mind who have betrayed the interests of humanity and are trying to slow down this process.

World broadcast- world environment, arena of all physical processes, filling all terrestrial and outer space, ideas about which have accompanied the entire history of natural science since ancient times.

In a generalized form, the ether of the Universe is a solid continuous, extremely mobile, transparent, colorless, odorless and tasteless, viscous, elastic, incompressible matter, without structure and mass, capable of exerting resistance and pressure, forming vortex and toroidal structures (matter), transmit vibrations and waves and are in a state of constant disturbance (voltage) and movement (linear, helical and (or) their various combinations).

Basic Concepts

Simultaneously with the development of theories and models of the ether, the point of view about long-range action and the absence of ether as such in nature developed. In 1910, in “The Principle of Relativity and Its Consequences,” Einstein wrote that “it is impossible to create a satisfactory theory without abandoning the existence of a certain medium filling all space”. He accepted the hypothesis that the ether has no influence on the movement of matter, therefore, it can be abandoned. Later, in “The Ether and the Theory of Relativity” (1920) and “On the Ether” (1924), Einstein changed his view regarding the existence of the ether. However, his previous works resolved the contradictions that had accumulated in physics so well that this circumstance did not affect the attitude towards the ether on the part of the majority of theoretical physicists. 60.

In turn, Maxwell did not use postulates and strictly derived his equations based on Helmholtz’s ideas about the movement of an ideal fluid, which he considered the ether. Maxwell mentioned this several times, and he had a very clear idea of ​​how these equations were obtained. Naturally, no one can create a complete and ideal model overnight. But, nevertheless, it mathematical model turned out to be so good that all electrical engineering is based on his equations. In 1855, in his very first paper, “On Faraday's lines of force,” he wrote down the first system of electrodynamics equations in differential form. In his work “On Physical Lines of Force” (1861–1862), consisting of four parts, he expanded the system. That is, by 1862 the formulation of the complete system of electrodynamics equations was actually completed. As can be seen, by this time it was not yet known about the internal structure of atoms. Lenard was engaged in the study of cathode rays, and only by 1892 he invented the discharge tube named after him. This made it possible to study cathode rays independently of the gas discharge. Lenard's experiments led to the discovery of the electron in 1897, but priority for the discovery went to J. Thomson. Rutherford proposed a planetary model of the structure of the atom only in 1911. Today, in the field of nanotechnology, we are faced with problems that we cannot solve using Maxwell's equations. Therefore, there is a need to build simple, visual models to be able to describe the behavior of individual particles, as was done by Maxwell for electric and magnetic fields. This means that it is necessary to return to the sources from which Maxwell began - to the ether.

About the ethereal wind

Ethereal Wind has the most convoluted history of natural history in the modern world. The study of the ethereal wind is of great importance, going beyond the scope of research that has ever been carried out regarding any of the physical phenomena. The first steps in this direction had a decisive effect on the entire natural science of the 20th century. At one time, A. Michelson and E. Morley conducted the first experiments that gave reason to physicists of the 20th century to believe that the ether, the global medium that fills world space, does not exist at all. This belief was so firmly entrenched in the minds of physicists that no positive results could dissuade them of the opposite. Even A. Einstein, in his articles from 1920 to 1924, confidently stated that physics cannot exist without the ether, but this did not change anything.

But adherents of the ether theory believe that ether is a building material that fills the entire world space and without which none of the world can exist. known to man substances, as well as all physical interactions and various fields (electric and magnetic) are associated with the ether. The idea of ​​ether also surfaced in ancient times. As you know, humanity has existed on the planet for more than 1 million years, and history ancient world, which has reached us covers only a period of 10,000 years. We don’t know what man did for the remaining 990,000 years. What civilizations existed then? What kind of science did people do at that time? Modern scientists cannot unravel the mystery of the esoteric knowledge of ancient people.

A number of scientists have carried out extensive work in the field of ethereal wind research. Some of them made a significant contribution to the development and formation of the theory of the ether. It is impossible not to mention the research of the famous American professor at the Case School of Applied Sciences, Dayton Clarence Miller, who devoted his entire life to the study of the ether. But it is not his fault that the results obtained by him and his scientific group were not accepted by his contemporaries and scientists of a later period. At the time of the completion of Miller's work in 1933, the school of relativists (followers of A. Einstein's special theory of relativity) was already firmly on its feet and it made sure that nothing could shake its foundations. This “non-recognition” of the theory of the ether was reinforced by experiments in which unacceptable errors were present and did not lead to the desired effect. They should not be accused of deliberately opposing the theory of the ether, since they could not imagine the nature of the ether, its characteristics and properties, and also did not understand its interaction with other substances, which led to erroneous results in experiments. Such errors include shielding of the interferometer, a device designed to conduct research on the ethereal wind. The device is shielded with metal. As practice shows, metal is a serious reflector of electromagnetic waves, as well as ethereal jets, which leads to a change in the speed of ethereal flows in a closed metal box. This is justified if we talk about measuring the wind that blows outside, looking at an anemometer that is installed in a tightly sealed room. This is an absurd experience that leads to erroneous conclusions. We will not condemn anyone, but give you the right to criticize the articles of R. Kennedy, K. Illingworth, A. Picard and others yourself. There are also erroneous attempts that are aimed at capturing the Doppler effect, which can occur in the presence of ethereal wind, at a mutually stationary source and receiver in the process of electromagnetic oscillations. This is not a fantasy, but real facts. In 1958-1962, experiments were carried out by J. Cedarholm and C. Townes, which ended in failure, since the ethereal wind produces a phase shift in the oscillation, but its frequency does not change. In this case, the results cannot change relative to the sensitivity of the measuring instruments.

Thanks to the correct experiments of some researchers - D. Miller, E. Morley and A. Michelson, which took place in the period from 1905 to 1933, the ethereal wind was discovered, and the value of its speed was established with high accuracy for that time. It was found that the direction of the etheric wind is perpendicular to the movement of our planet. It was found that the orbital component of the Earth's velocity is insignificant against the background of the high cosmic airflow velocity solar system ethereal wind. At that time, these reasons remained unclear, as well as the reasons for the slowdown in the speed of the ether and the Earth as the height above the surface of the planet decreased. But today, with the advent of ether dynamics - a new direction in modern physics, which is based on the theory of the existence of gaseous ether in nature, this confusion has been eliminated. Proponents of the ether theory represent this substance(ether), as a viscous and compressible gas, which provides an explanation for the experiments of Morley, Miller and Michelson, which were aimed at studying the ethereal wind. It also provides an opportunity to evaluate past mistakes that have been made by researchers trying to obtain “null results.”

Today, etherodynamics is taking its first steps. The persistence of relativists opposes the theory of the existence of the ether, which seems to be a real battle between the old dogmas in physics and the new trend that is necessary for moving science in the right direction. Ether will sooner or later be recognized, since without it it is not possible to correctly interpret many physical phenomena in nature, to understand their essence, which, of course, is simply necessary in modern natural science. Without recognition of the ether, progress in many applied areas is not possible. Today, in contrast to the ether, there is a “negative result” of Michelson’s experiment. In order to overcome this obstacle in the recognition of ether, it was necessary to publish a number of articles different authors, who studied such a phenomenon as the ethereal wind.

We do not encourage you to repeat Michelson's experiment to detect the ethereal wind. To do this, it is enough to analyze the mistakes made using modern technologies and computing equipment. This will allow us to process the results of measurements taken at various altitudes, including readings from interferometers installed on artificial orbital satellites. Since the ether has been rejected in the past and present, it will definitely be accepted in the future.

Based on materials from an article by Doctor of Technical Sciences V.A. Atsyukovsky.

Articles and broadcasts

About the existence of ether

Let's consider several classical experimental evidence of the existence of ether as an integral part of the Universe. Let's start exploring this data.

1. One of the first to touch upon the idea of ​​ether was the Danish astronomer Olaf Roemer. In 1676, he observed the satellite of Jupiter at the Paris Observatory and was surprised by the existing difference in the time of complete revolution of the satellite Io, which depends on the angular distance between our planet and Jupiter in relation to the Sun. During the closest approach between Earth and Jupiter, the orbital cycle is 1.77 days. Roemer's first judgment was that the Earth was in opposition to Jupiter; he did not understand why Io was "delayed" by 22 minutes relative to its closest approach. This difference allowed the astronomer to calculate the speed of light. But at a certain period he discovered an even greater difference when the Earth and Jupiter were in their squares. In the first quadrature, when the Earth moves away from Jupiter, Io's rotation cycle is 15 seconds longer than the average. During the second quadrature, when the Earth approaches Jupiter, this cycle value is 15 seconds less. This effect can only be explained by adding and subtracting the Earth's orbital speed, as well as the speed of light. So we can conclude that such an observation confirms the correctness of the classical non-relativistic equation c = c + v.
2. There are many experiments conducted by various scientists that involve adding the speed of light with the speed indicators of various planets and stars. The radar studies of Venus in 1960, carried out by B. Wallace, attract attention. To date, the results of his research are carefully hushed up. The results of his work directly point to the expression c = c + v.
3. In Fizeau's experiment there is evidence of the “attraction” of the ether to a moving mass of water.
4. Michelson, conducting experiments, said that the ether is absent or exists with its “attraction” to the Earth (the ether has a stationary state relative to the surface of the Earth).
5. For example, stellar aberration can be explained by the propagation of light in the ether, which is in a stationary state. In this case, the telescope must be tilted at an angle of 20.5 arc seconds.
6. Fresnel's theory of refractions is directly related to the existing ether.

All these data correctly indicate the existence of ether, which has an “attraction” to heavy objects. One can even say that the ether has an electrical connection with objects. Jupiter, Venus and Earth have an electrical connection with a certain "atmosphere", which is a polarized ether.

The star system of our universe moves in the motionless ether. Physics and Einstein believe that the speed of light has a constant value in the ether and can be determined by the electrical and magnetic permeability of a given matter. Therefore, it is generally accepted that light in space moves in parallel with the planetary ether, that is, at a speed c+v(!) in relation to the speed of light in the cosmic ether, which is motionless.

This is what the theory of relativity says:

1. In the ether, the speed of light is constant;
2. In the ethereal atmosphere of planets and stars, the speed of light is greater than the speed of light relative to the cosmic ether.

Let's consider the “attraction” of the ether to space objects. In this understanding, one should not take “attraction” in the literal sense, as an increase in the density of the ether structure as it approaches the surface of the object. Such a judgment is contradictory to the extreme strength of ether, which is higher in value than the strength of steel. The concept of “attraction” can be associated with the mechanism of gravity. The mechanism of gravity is an electrostatic phenomenon. The ether is capable of permeating all bodies down to atoms, which consist of electrons and nuclei, where the polarization of the ether occurs - the process of displacement of its bound charges. It is generally accepted that if a body has a large mass, then the polarization is greater, that is, there is a greater certain displacement of the ether charges with the indicator “+” and “-”. From this it is clear that the ether is electrically “attached” to each body, and if the ether is in the space between two bodies, then it contributes to their attraction to each other. In this way, you can draw a picture of gravity and the “attraction” of the ether to cosmic objects - planets and stars.

let's consider mathematical formula, which describes the process of deformation and polarization of the ether, which is affected by gravity forces g:

Where α – electric constant of fine structure.

This mathematical expression is fully consistent with Newton and Coulomb's law. It can be used to describe phenomena such as the deflection of light rays by the Sun, red shift, or the time “lag” of heavy objects in outer space.

Many of you will object and say that bodies moving in space through the ether should feel significant resistance. Of course, resistance exists, but it is negligibly small, since it is not the friction of bodies against the motionless ether, but the friction that is associated with the body of the ethereal atmosphere against the cosmic ether. In this case, we have a blurred boundary between a jointly moving body and the ether and a stationary ether, since the polarization of the ether decreases with distance from the surface of the body in a ratio inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Nobody knows where this border is! At the same time, there is an opinion that ether has low internal friction. Friction exists, and it can slow down the rotation of our planet. The day tends to increase at a slow pace. It is generally accepted that the growth of the day is influenced by the tidal action of the Moon. If this is truly a reality, then the friction of the ether plays a special role in the rotation of many planets in our solar system.
Then we can conclude that ether exists!

Natural circulation of ether

As you know, any natural process has its beginning and end, only the Universe remains unchanged. And then if you look at it in an average context. Stars are born and extinguished in it, atoms of various substances continuously appear and disappear, everything is in a continuous circulation. Everything that was born in the ether returns here after its disappearance. In our time, we have the opportunity to observe the circulation of the ether in its specific forms. Let's try to do this right now. To do this, we will need to connect some of the processes occurring in our Galaxy. Until recently, they were considered incompatible with each other. But judge these processes for yourself.

Recently, a magnetic field with a strength of 10 μG was found in the spiral arms of the Galaxy. This field does not have a specific source, and the lines of force are not closed on themselves. As we know, magnetic field lines must be closed on themselves. It is paradoxical that the field lines of the spiral arms of the Galaxy are not closed.

As is known, gas flows out in all directions from the core of the Galaxy - its central part. At one time, scientists believed that in the center of the Galaxy there was some kind of body that released this gas. It was assumed that the gaseous substance consists of protons and hydrogen atoms. And when we figured it out, it turned out that in the center of the Galaxy there was nothing at all - emptiness. But how can a void emit gas in large quantities? In terms of volume, this gas is one and a half solar masses on a yearly scale.

The shape of the Galaxy is the source of various thoughts. It resembles a whirlpool, forming an all-consuming funnel. But to form a funnel, a substance is needed that will flow into it. There is no other way for it to form!

Also in the central part of the Galaxy there are many stars, and in the spirals the stars are located along the edges, that is, on the walls of the spiral arms.

But how do you tie it all together?
With the help of ether dynamics everything is explained very simply!

What substance can flow into the center of the Galaxy, forming a whirlpool? Of course, this is ether and not another substance. Where does the ether rush to when it gets to the center of the Galaxy along the arms of the spiral? When ether jets collide at enormous speeds, a toroidal helical ether vortex appears. The vortices, in turn, self-compact and divide, until a certain moment of achieving the required density of their body. First of all, helical vortex toroids appear - protons, which create a shell of the surrounding ether, which leads to the formation of a hydrogen atom. The emerging proton-hydrogen gas is capable of expanding and tries to leave the core, which is what we observe.

Let's now understand the spiral arms. In these pipes, the ether flows towards the core. As we know from the theory of whirlpools, the ether cannot flow progressively in this direction. Twisting occurs in its volume, while it moves towards the core, increasing its pitch with each subsequent turn. Having made calculations, scientists found that for the Solar system, the speed of ether is 300 – 600 km/s in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the spiral arm. The displacement of the ether towards the nucleus in one second is 1 micron. But as the spiral arm moves forward, its cross-sectional area decreases, the pitch increases, and the ether simply flies into the center of the galaxy at a speed of tens of thousands of kilometers. In the center, two jets of ether collide and mix, which leads to the formation of a vortex and the release of macrogas. Here's the description for you.

Then the question of open circuits of the magnetic field becomes clear. Since the magnetic field is an ethereal spiral in the flow, we can observe it in the Galaxy.

But where does the macrogas released by the Galaxy go? As has been written in many of our articles, the surface of a gas vortex has a lower temperature than that of environment. This is explained by the fact that during a gradient flow of a gaseous substance it cools. This can be observed in gas turbines, where the air intake walls are cooled. In nature, after the passage of a tornado, you can see frost on the ground, even in summer. Physically, this is explained by the redistribution of molecular energies, since part of the energy in the gas vortex is spent on the ordered flow of the jet, as well as on the chaotic – thermal flow. In this case, little energy remains, which leads to a decrease in temperature. This explanation is not sufficient, but in nature the temperature of the vortex is less than the ambient temperature. Therefore, there is a temperature gradient, a pressure gradient, and also gravitational forces.

Now an explanation for the birth of new stars is emerging. Once a certain amount of macrogas is formed, how is it formed? new star. But since gas is characterized by expansion, and it tends to break out, the stars formed in it rush to the periphery of the arms of the Galaxy’s spiral. We will consider the topic of the emergence of new planetary systems in other articles, but in this one I would like to consider the fate of these same stars. The stars that did not fall into the Galaxy's arm slowly move away from its center at a speed of 50-100 km/s. Ether vortices gradually lose their stability, as friction against the ether occurs, although the viscosity of the ether is insignificant, but it is not equal to zero. The same thing happens to protons as to smoke rings released by a smoker: the rings lose their initial energy, the rotation speed and pressure gradient decrease, and the diameter of the smoke vortex increases. After this, the smoke whirlwind loses its shape and turns into a smoke cloud. Matter does not disappear anywhere, but the proton, combined with the vortex, dissolves in the ether. This explains the cluster of stars in the central region of the Galaxy, which has a clear boundary.

What happens to stars caught in the spiral arms of the Galaxy? They shift to the peripheral region of the sleeves due to the difference in pressure in the essential mass. These stars have the same speed of motion as the stars in the central region of the Galaxy, but their protons are more stable, since they move in an ethereal flow that goes around them on all sides and increases the speed gradient in the border zone of the vortices. The viscosity of the gas substance, as well as the energy consumption that is transferred to the external environment, depends on the magnitude of the gradient. This also indicates that stars that fall into the arms of the Galaxy will live longer, and their travel distance is longer. This can be seen in photographs of spiral galaxies: the globular cluster in the central region is 2-3 times smaller than the length of the spiral arms. A star travels a huge distance over a fairly long period of time - tens of billions of years. During this period, it loses its stability, falls apart and dissolves into the ether. Galaxies have pressure differences: there is less pressure in the central part, and more pressure at the periphery. This difference is the engine of the ether from the periphery to the core of the Galaxy. Thus, the circulation of ether occurs in the Galaxies.

Shock vibrations on the air

Physicist P.A. Cherenkov in 1934 conducted scientific experiments and observed the glow of extremely fast electrons when exposed to ϒ -rays of radioactive elements passing through water. This allowed the world to know that light is not only produced by electrons moving at high speeds. It became obvious that the speed of the electron V less than the phase speed of light. The phase speed of light when passing through a transparent substance is calculated by the formula C/n, Where n is the refractive index of light in a substance. Most transparent substances have this indicator greater than 1. This indicates that the electron speed can be higher than the phase speed of light C/n and can be “superluminal”.
The glow has the peculiarity that it is distributed within a cone, which has a peninsula angle ν . Determined by the relation

cosν=(С/n)/V=С/nV

The glow is observed only in the direction of electron motion. No light is observed in the opposite direction. In this case, scientists paid special attention to the fact of “superluminal” motion of the electron, which was explained by a violation of the steadfastness of the theory of relativity. In TO it is believed that the speed of light is the limit of nature's capabilities. Complacency for everyone was the fact that the phase velocity of the body was exceeded, and not the velocity in vacuum.

It turns out that physics has once again begun to establish the fact that light is emitted by an electron that is not moving accelerated, but uniformly. But none of the scientists began to think about the reasons for this glow. Why does glow occur only in the direction of electron motion within a cone with an angle.
Using the theory of ether, one can substantiate the reason for such a glow. When bodies pass through the ether at super speeds, shock waves appear in front of the moving body. For example, the speed of sound is perceived as the propagation of weak vibrations. In ethereal theory, it is inappropriate to use the term “speed of sound”; it is better to use “the speed of propagation of weak disturbances,” which is denoted by C a. If, in addition to the ether, space is filled with a transparent liquid, then this speed becomes equal to the phase speed of light C a /n.

In the figure below we can see the movement of the ball in the air at supersonic speed. We can see the emerging shock wave forming. The angle of inclination of the shock wave in the direction of movement decreases from 90°. In this case, the value β remains constant.

When a body passes over a long distance, the shock wave will dry out, transforming into a line of disturbance, since the angle of inclination of the shock wave approaches the angle of disturbance μ , which is determined by the expression

Sin μ=1/M

If we consider this ratio in relation to the ether, we get

Sinμ=1/M=(C a /n)/V

Where C a /n is the phase velocity of propagation of weak disturbances, V is the speed of the electron.

According to Huygens' theory: light rays are a collection of straight lines that are normal in the wave front. The shock wave during the “superluminal” motion of the electron can be recognized as a wave front, which is caused by the electron in the quiet ether. Cone peninsula angle ν , in which the glow propagates, is the angle between the trajectory of the electron and the direction of the family of straight lines normal in the upper and lower parts of the shock wave.

Given the small size of the electron and the high speed of its movement, it is impossible to consider the structure of the shock wave in close proximity to the surface of the flying electron. Therefore, this experiment demonstrated only the feature of streamlining after the passage of an electron, where the angle of the shock wave β close in value to the perturbation angle μ . Mathematically this is explained as follows:

β=90°-ν

This ratio gives the real value for the input quantities that characterize the ethereal gas. When an electron moves in benzene ν =38.8° ( n=1.501). This data allows you to derive main characteristic ether – the speed of propagation of weak excitations in the ether. When value μ≈β perturbation angle μ =51.5°, Mach number M=1.278, electron speed V=C/(n x cosν)=2.554x10 10 cm/s. The speed of propagation of weak disturbances in a quiet ether at M=1,278 – S a=3.0x10 10 cm/s.

Conclusion: The speed of propagation of weak disturbances at the speed of light in a quiet ether will have the form:

S a=WITH=3x10 8 m/s=3x10 10 cm/s

The Cherenkov experiment was carried out in a synchrotron, and the glow was observed from the approaching electron, but in the opposite direction the glow was not visible. Therefore, we can say that the glow occurred due to the presence of shock waves, which were generated by a moving electron, and not by the propagation of weak vibrations in the ethereal gas. If this were not so, then the glow could be seen as a trace from a flying electron. It can also be said that the human eye perceives light due to the pressure difference that appears through the light shock wave towards the normal and its base. During a compression shock, a plug of compressed gas appears, which follows the shock at a speed V 2 lesser than the speed of the jump and the speed of light in the ether. V 2 = (2C)/(k+1).

Ether, carried along by a shock wave, has the ability to exert pressure on obstacles and even absorb light. The human eye has a threshold of sensitivity to pressure changes and forceful interaction with a moving compressed plug that presses on the retina. The existence of the ether is confirmed by Cherenkov’s experiment, which once again proves the possibility of the appearance and propagation of shock waves in the ether.

Quotes about the air

“The One Ether permeates the entire Universe”
- Ancient Chinese Taoism, the teaching of Tao or "the way of things", a Chinese traditional teaching incorporating elements of religion and philosophy.

"Ether is a celestial substance, without which it would be impossible to distinguish between rest and motion"
- Aristotle(384 - 322 BC), ancient Greek philosopher. Disciple of Plato.

“I suppose the existence of a subtle substance which includes and permeates all other bodies, which is the solvent in which they all float, which supports and continues all these bodies in their motion and which is the medium transmitting all homogeneous and harmonious movements from body to body »
- Robert Hooke(1635 - 1703), English naturalist, encyclopedist.

“There is nothing in the world except Ether and its vortices”
- Rene Descartes, French philosopher, mathematician, mechanic, physicist and physiologist, 1650

“To get close to this most important, and then the fastest moving element “x”, which, in my understanding, can be considered Ether. I would like to tentatively call it Newtorium."
- D.I. Mendeleev, great scientist chemist, who discovered periodic table elements.

“Ether is a material substance, incomparably more subtle than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of space that seem empty”
- J.C. Maxwell. article "Ether" for Encyclopedia Britannica, 1877

“There are more than 80 arguments confirming the theory of the existence of Ether. To deny the existence of the Ether ultimately means to admit that empty space has no physical properties."
- Albert Einstein 1920

"We can say that, according to general theory relativity, space has physical properties; in this sense, therefore, the Ether exists. According to the general theory of relativity, space is unthinkable without Ether!”
- Albert Einstein 1924

“Everything came from the Ether, everything will go to the Ether”
- Nikola Tesla, a great experimental scientist who was far ahead of his time.

“Any particle, even an isolated one, must be presented in continuous “energetic contact” with a hidden medium”
- Louis Victor Pierre Raymond, French theoretical physicist, one of the founders quantum mechanics, laureate Nobel Prize in physics for 1929.

"All known universe surrounded by a transparent and terribly rarefied material environment called Ether. In all its parts, through condensation, an ordinary substance is formed, consisting of atoms or their parts known to us.” (From the article "Ethereal Island")
- K.E. Tsiolkovsky, philosopher, inventor, teacher of mathematics and physics.

“Ideas about the existence of the Ether - the world environment that fills all terrestrial and outer space, which is the building material for all types of matter, the movements of which manifest themselves in the form of force fields - have accompanied the entire history of natural science known to us since the most ancient times.”

Aether theory

ESSENTIAL ATOM

True knowledge is knowledge of causes.

Francis Bacon

Taking as a fact the presence of ether in the Universe - a single quasi-isotropic, practically incompressible and ideally elastic medium, which is the original matter - the carrier of all energy, all processes occurring in the Universe, and taking as the basis for ideas about it the working model developed by the author, which represents it in the form of a two-component domain environment - corpuscular and phase, we will consider the issues of the formation of atoms in the ether.

Dynamic density of ether in matter

“As is known,” an atom is practically empty, that is, almost all of its mass and energy are concentrated in the nucleus. The size of the nucleus is 100,000 times smaller than the size of the atom itself. What fills this void, so much so that the latter can withstand all mechanical load and at the same time be an ideal conductor of light?

Let's look at the dependence of the refractive index in a transparent substance, shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. Dependence of the refractive index on the density of a substance, constructed by F. F. Gorbatsevich based on. The red line is the fraction of refraction explained by the density of all electrons in the substance. 1 - ice, 2 - acetone, 3 - alcohol, 4 - water, 5 - glycerin, 6 - carbon disulfide, 7 - carbon tetrachloride, 8 - sulfur, 9 - titanite, 10 - diamond, 11 - grotite, 12 - topaz.

F.F. Gorbatsevich gave the following empirical dependence of the mass density of a substance ρs and the refractive index n in a transparent substance

N = 1 + 0.2 ρs (1)

This dependence is reflected by the dotted line in Figure 1. However, if we accept that, according to the model of the ether proposed by the author, it has a dynamic density that is uniquely related to the speed of light in the medium and, therefore, to the refractive index, then the data in Figure 1 can be, to a first approximation, explain by the following formula (red line in Figure 1)

ρe – dynamic density of the ether, found in;

Me – electron mass;

Ma – atomic mass unit.

From (2) it clearly follows that almost the entire volume of the substance is made up of electrons and the increase in the dynamic density of the ether for a light wave corresponds to an increase in the electrostatic (electrostrictive, potential energy) density of electrons, which is expressed in an increase in the dielectric constant of the ether in the substance. Let's try to figure out what it is.

Ether domain model

The works developed a working model of the ether, which boils down to the following.

The ether consists of amers - spherical elastic, practically incompressible primary elements with a size of 1.616 · 10-35 [m], possessing the properties of an ideal top - a gyroscope with an internal energy of 1.956 · 109 [J].

The main part of the amers are immobile and are collected into ethereal domains, which at the usual ether temperature of 2.723 oK have dimensions comparable to the size of a classical electron. At this temperature there are 2.708 · 1063 amers in each domain. The size of the domains determines the polarizability of the ether, i.e. and the speed of the light wave in the ether. As the domain size increases, the wave speed decreases, as the linear electric and, in some cases, magnetic permeability of the ether increases. As the temperature of the ether increases, the domains decrease in size and the speed of light increases. Ethereal domains have high strength surface tension.

Free amers, representing the phase ether, move between the ethereal domains at the local speed of light, determined by the temperature of the ether. A multitude of phase ether amers, moving at an average statistical speed corresponding to the local second cosmic velocity, reflecting the gravitational potential, ensures the operation of the source-sink mechanism in three-dimensional space.

The actual gravitational potential is created by variations in the pressure of the ether, the absolute value of which is 2.126·1081, and represents ordinary hydrostatic pressure.

Interdomain boundaries in the ether are one-dimensional, i.e. a thickness of one amer or less, to matter densities comparable to nuclear ones. The phase ether is a measure of the gravitational mass of a substance and accumulates in the substance, in nucleons in the proportion 5.01·1070, i.e. amers of phase ether per kilogram. While the empty ether domains represent a kind of pseudo-liquid, the nucleon is an ether domain in a boiling state, containing the bulk of the phase ether and, accordingly, gravitational mass.

According to the developed model of the ether, electrons are electrified etheric domains of low temperature, which are in a pseudo-liquid state and have boundaries with a high surface tension force, characteristic of all domains of the ether at its usual low temperature of 2.723 oK.

Neutrinos are interpreted as ethereal phonons, generated by ethereal domains and propagating both with the transverse speed of the ether - the speed of light, and with the longitudinal speed - the speed of fast gravity.

Model of an electron in a domain ether

As has been shown, an electron is a charged ethereal domain, within which a standing electromagnetic wave circulates, reflected from the walls of the domain. At the moment of electron formation, as was shown there, it has a classical radius of 2.82·10-15 [m], comparable in size to the empty ether domain. The electric potential of the electron surface at this moment is 511 kV. However, such parameters are not stable, and over time, the electrostatic force stretches the electron domain into a kind of very thin lens, the dimensions of which are determined by the surface tension forces of the domain. Along the equipotential and, therefore, superconducting perimeter of this lens, an electric charge of an electron is placed, stretching this domain (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Dynamics of changes in the shape of an electron after its appearance.

Taking into account the surface tension σ of the ethereal domain and based on the balance of this force with the force of electrostatic stretching of the charged domain, creating pressure Δp according to P. Laplace’s law

Δp = σ (1/r1 + 1/r2) , (3)

The radius of an electron in the absence of external electric fields and its movement relative to the surrounding phase ether can be determined by the following formula

Where ε is the dielectric constant of the ether;

H – Planck’s constant;

C – speed of light;

Me – electron mass;

E – electron charge.

Value (4) is equal to 1/2 the Rydberg constant in empty ether. Inside such a disk-domain a standing electromagnetic wave circulates, which, as was shown, has a wavelength equal to two radii of the disk, so that the center of this disk-resonator has an antinode of the wave, and its periphery has nodes. Since the dynamic density of the ether inside such a domain changes in inverse proportion to the square of the radius of the disk, the speed of propagation of the electromagnetic wave in the electron’s body is such that exactly a quarter of the wave always fits within this radius. Thus, the resonance condition is always met. Since the density inside such a domain is always higher than the dynamic density of the surrounding ether, and the angle of incidence of the wave is practically equal to zero, the phenomenon of total internal reflection takes place.

Depending on the external electrostatic field, being equipotential, the rim of the electron disk always turns normal to the field vector. The reversal can be either one side or the other, that is, the “spin” of the electron is +1/2 or –1/2. In addition, the radius of the electron strictly depends on the strength of the electrostatic field, since a contracting force corresponding to the strength of this field is created in the electron. This effect occurs because a standing electromagnetic wave is a centrosymmetric electric dipole that tries to unfold along the vector of the electrostatic field. In the absence of external support and due to the variable nature of the electromagnetic field, this only leads to the emergence of a centripetal force that changes the radius of the disk as

R = τ/2εE [m], (5)

Where ε is the dielectric constant of the ether;

τ – linear charge density;

C – speed of light;

Me – electron mass;

E – electron charge [C]

E – electrostatic field strength.

Formula (5) is in exact agreement with experimental data on measuring the electron capture cross section in air.

Thus, this model of the electron is consistent with the models of the electron as a turn of current developed in the works of Kenneth Snelson, Johann Kern and Dmitry Kozhevnikov and the atomic models they developed.

Light wave in a transparent substance

It is known that atoms in solid and liquid substances are located close to each other. If electrons, the density of which determines the optical density of a substance, moved in orbits, as provided for by the Bohr model of the atom, then even with elastic interaction with electrons, even when passing through several atomic layers of a substance, light would acquire a dispersed nature. In reality, in transparent substances we see a completely different picture. Light does not lose its phase characteristics after passing through more than 1010 atomic layers of matter. Consequently, electrons not only do not move in orbits, but are extremely motionless, as can be the case at temperatures close to absolute zero. The way it is. The temperature of electrons in a transparent substance does not exceed the temperature of ether, 2.7oK. Thus, the usual phenomenon of transparency of substances is a refutation of the existing model of the atom.

Model of the ethereal atom

In this regard, we will try to create our own model of the atom, relying only on the obvious properties of the proposed electron model. To begin with, let us determine that the main acting forces in the volume of an atom, that is, outside the insignificant size of the nucleus, are:

Interaction of the central electrostatic force of the nucleus, proportional to the number of protons, with the electrostatic force of electrons;

Interference interaction of the electromagnetic field of the nucleus on electron current loops;

Magnetic forces of interaction between electron current loops (their “spins”).

E = Ae/4πεr2 , (6)

Where A is the number of protons in the nucleus;

E - electron charge [C];

ε – dielectric constant of ether;

R – distance from the core [m].

Any electron in the central field (inside an atom, in the absence electric field other atoms), being equipotential, is located maximally stretching to a hemisphere or until it meets another electron. Its ability to stretch to the Rydberg radius will not be considered, since this value is 1000 times larger than the size of an atom. Thus, the simplest hydrogen atom will have the form shown in Figure 3a, and the helium atom - 3b.

Fig.3. Models of hydrogen and helium atoms.

In reality, the edges of the electron - the hemispheres in the hydrogen atom - are slightly raised, since the edge effect manifests itself here. The helium atom is so tightly closed by a shell of two electrons that it is an extremely inert substance. In addition, unlike hydrogen, it does not have the properties of an electric dipole. Easy to spot. That in a helium atom, electrons can be pressed by their edges only if the direction of the current in their rims coincides, that is, they have opposite spins.

The electrical interaction of the edges of electrons and the magnetic interaction of their planes is another mechanism operating in the atom.

In the works of K. Snelson, J. Kern, D. Kozhevnikov and other researchers, the main stable configurations of electron models of the “current loop - magnet” type are analyzed. The main stable configurations are 2, 8, 12, 18, 32 electrons in the shell, providing symmetry and maximum closing electric and magnetic forces.

Resonant electromagnetic interference of electrons and nuclei

Knowing that a proton has a charge moving throughout its volume, it is easy to draw the logical conclusion that this creates an electromagnetic field in the space around the proton. Since the frequency of this field is very high, its propagation outside the atom (10-9 m) is negligible and does not carry away energy. However, near the proton (atomic nucleus) there is a significant intensity, which makes up the interference pattern.

The nodes (minima) of the intensity of this interference for the hydrogen atom will correspond to a step equivalent to the Bohr radius

Where λe is the characteristic wavelength of the electron;

Re is the classical electron radius;

ε - dielectric constant of ether;

H – Planck’s constant;

Me – electron mass;

E – electron charge.

Current loops of electrons are displaced by this field into these niches, corresponding to the radii of the electron shells of the atom. In this way, “quantum” states of electrons in an atom arise. Figure 4 shows a simplified diagram of the complex force field acting on the electrons in an atom.

Fig.4. Simplified one-dimensional diagram of the distribution of the force field of an atom

Mendeleev table

Using the formula for the central electrostatic field (6), the influence of interference (7) and an approximate calculation of the electrostatic and magnetic interaction of electrons, the author constructed a number of electron shells for chemical elements from 1 to 94.

This series is somewhat different from the accepted one. However, given the falsity of Bohr's orbital theory and Schrödinger's idea of ​​the electron as a wave of probability, it is difficult to say which series is closer to the truth.

It should be noted that from this series one can obtain the radii of atoms, which are determined by the number of shells and their energy state. The radius of a valence atom in a substance is one shell smaller or larger, depending on whether it donates or accepts electrons.

The simplified formula for the radius of an atom is as follows

Where Ra is the radius of the atom;

RB = λ/2 – half-wave of elementary resonance from (7), Bohr radius;

N – number of electron shells (depends on the current valence);

Z – number of protons in the nucleus (chemical element number).

Thus, for the density of a transparent substance, a significantly more accurate formula can be given than (1) or (2)

Where ρs is the density of the transparent substance;

Ma = 1.66 ·10-27 – atomic mass unit.

Z is the number of protons in the molecule;

N = 3/4πR3 = 1.6 ·1030 – the number of nucleons in 1 m3 based on the Bohr radius;

M is the molecular weight of the substance;

K is the coefficient of reduction or increase in the volume of a molecule due to the corresponding loss or acquisition of the valence shell by atoms.

The coefficient K is equal to

For all i-atoms of the molecule. The values ​​of n found by the author for the elements of the periodic table are given in the table.

Testing the theoretical model on transparent substances

Using formula (8), you can find the exact value of the optical density (refractive index) of the substance. And vice versa, knowing the refractive index and chemical formula, you can calculate the exact value of the mass density of the substance.

The author analyzed more than a hundred different substances: organic and inorganic. The refractive index calculated using formula (8) was compared with the measured one. The comparison results show that the data variance is less than 0.0003 and the correlation coefficient is more than 0.995. The initial dependence of the mass density of a substance on the refractive index is shown in Figure 5, and the dependence of the theoretical refractive index on the measured one is shown in Figure 6.

Fig.5. Dependence of the refractive index on the density of the substance.

(blue punches – measured value, red circles – calculated values)

Fig.6. Dependence of the theoretical refractive index on the measured one.

Checking the theoretical model on electron diffraction patterns

The interpretation of electron diffraction patterns according to the proposed atomic model comes down to the fact that “slow” electrons do not diffract at all, but are simply reflected from the surface layer of the substance or refracted in a thin layer.

Let's look at typical electron diffraction patterns of the metals copper, silver and gold (Fig. 7).

They clearly show that they are a reflection of stationary electron shells. Moreover, on each one it is possible to determine the thickness of the electron shells and their radial arrangement in the atom. Naturally, the distances between the shells are distorted by the voltage (energy) of the bombarding electrons. However, the proportions between the intershell spaces and the thicknesses of the shells are preserved.

In addition, it is clear that the shell powers (number of electrons) correspond to the Bohr model of the atom, and not the Bohr model;-)

Fig.7. Electron diffraction patterns of metals Cu, Ag, Au. (electron distribution Cu 2:8:18:1, Ag 2:8:12:16:8:1, Au 2:8:12:18:30:8:1)

These electron diffraction patterns are not diffraction, but only a pattern of reflection of electrons bombarding an atom from electron shells, which are generally stationary. According to the proposed model, the apparent thickness of ethereal domains - electrons in an atom - is constant. Therefore, by the type of reflections (and not diffraction) it is possible to estimate the power and location of each electron shell. Figure 7 clearly shows the separation of the fourth shell of the silver atom under the influence of bombardment into 3 subshells: 2-6-8. The strongest separation is observed in the outer valence shells and unfilled shells, which have minimal stability (the author calls them active). This is clearly seen in the example of the classical electron diffraction pattern of aluminum, when the energy of the bombarding electrons is different (Fig. 8).

Fig.8. Electron diffraction patterns of aluminum at different irradiation energies.

Variation in the speed of light in an atom

The unfilling of some shells in an atom to a stable set causes electron mobility. As a result of this, the interference niches of the force electromagnetic field of the nucleus in which these electrons are located have a reduced dynamic density of the ether (increased temperature of the ether).

These two factors lead to the everyday observed but misinterpreted phenomenon of specular reflection of light by metal surfaces.

The source of the error is the same dogmatic belief in the mythical constancy of the speed of light, even in cases where this contradicts the simple and clear conclusions established centuries ago. It is known that for any media and waves the ratio of velocities is inversely proportional to the wave (and optical too) densities

Sin(i)/sin(r) = c1/c2 = n2/n1 = n21

Where i is the angle of incidence; r – refraction angle; c1 is the wave speed in the falling medium;
By leading everything to this second-order factor, one can only come to those paradoxes with which the physics of the twentieth century is full.

"Superlight" speed of electromagnetic wave in the cable

Being a former developer and tester of microwave equipment, the author has repeatedly encountered the then inexplicable phenomena of a significant signal advance, often depending only on the quality (purity) of the silver surface.

In fact, technological methods for accelerating the physical speed of an electromagnetic wave have already been carried out by many researchers, for example, researchers from the University of Tennessee J. Munday and W. Robertson conducted an experiment on equipment that is available at any more or less large university. They managed to maintain the momentum at superluminal speed for 120 meters. They created a hybrid cable consisting of 6-8 meter alternating sections of two types of coaxial cables that differ in their resistance. The cable was connected to two generators, one high frequency and the other low frequency. The waves interfered, and the electrical pulse of the interference could be observed on an oscilloscope.

One can also note the experiments of Mugnai, D., Ranfagni, A. and Ruggeri, R. (Italian National Research Council in Florence), which used microwave radiation with a wavelength of 3.5 cm, which was directed from a narrow horn antenna to a focusing mirror that reflected parallel beam to the detector. The reflected waves modulated the square-wave original microwave pulses, creating sharp peaks of "boosting" and "weakening" the pulses. The position of the pulses was measured at distances from 30 to 140 cm from the source along the beam axis. A study of the dependence of the pulse shape on distance yielded a pulse propagation speed value that exceeded c by an amount from 5% to 7%. In this case, the influence of the mirror on the wave speed is obvious.

As experiments on the propagation of light in active electron shells, we can cite the work Russian researchers Zolotov A.V., Zolotovsky I.O. and Sementsov D.I., who used active light guides for “superluminal” speed of light.

conclusions

Experimentally proven by the author to be untenable of relativistic views on the nature of space, the developed working model of the ether and gravitational interaction in it made it possible to shed light on the nature of matter and explain the hitherto inexplicable phenomena of gravitational variations. The prepared theoretical basis made it possible to develop a working model of the ether in the work to the possibility of applying thermodynamics in the theory of the ether. This in turn made it possible to determine the nature of the real forces in the ether: static pressure and gravity.

The prepared theoretical basis made it possible to develop in this work the working model of the ether to the possibility of explaining the nature of the electron shells of the atom and experiments with “superluminal” speed of light.

The proposed approach makes it possible to predict the optical and density properties of substances with high accuracy.

Karim Khaidarov
I dedicate it to the blessed memory of my daughter Anastasia
Borovoe, January 31, 2004
Registered priority date: 30 January 2004

Appeal to readers

The modern economic development of a society with serious environmental and energy crises indicates the weakness of the foundations of natural science, the leading discipline of which is physics. Theoretical physics is unable to solve many problems, classifying them as anomalous. The authorities of the Russian Academy of Sciences, having abandoned the democratic principles of dialogue with the authors of opposing hypotheses, use the principle of prohibition and defense of their position, resorting to declaring a fight against “pseudoscience.” For everyone who seeks the truth of science, we offer a work representing short review many years of work by the authors.

SECOND FORM OF MATTER - NEW ABOUT ETHER

(new theory in physics)

Brusin S.D., Brusin L.D.

[email protected]

ANNOTATION.It is noted that the creator of the generally accepted first form of matter (in the form of particles) is Democritus. Based on the works of Aristotle, the presence of a second form of matter is shown, located between all the bodies of the Universe and the particles of all bodies and called ether. The physical essence of the ether and its main property, the primary matter of the Universe, a fundamentally new understanding of thermal energy and pressure in gases, the nature of nuclear forces, and the non-planetary model of the atom are revealed. The neutrino problem is solved, and the essence of the processes in the Large Hadron Collider and the pointlessness of experiments on it are shown. In addition, fundamentally new fundamentals of magnetism and the fundamentals of the microscopic theory of superconductivity are presented.

A critical analysis of the theory of relativity is given and its inconsistency is shown.

I. Basic principles of the theory

§1. Second form of matter and ether

§2. Physical entity ether

§3. Communication of the ether with bodies and particles. Ether of near-Earth vacuum and ether of matter

§4. Determination of the ether density of the near-Earth vacuum

§5. Ether - the primary matter of the Universe

§6. Etheric - atomic structure of matter

II. Further development of the theory and its application

§7. Ether and thermal energy

§8. Ether and pressure in gases

§9. The futility of experiments at the Large Hadron Collider

§10. The nature of nuclear forces

§eleven. Solving other scientific problems

III. A consequence of the theory of the ether is the inconsistency of the theory of relativity

§12. The main mistake in the theory of relativity

§13. On the inconsistency of Lorentz transformations

§14. About mathematical errors in the derivations of Lorentz transformations

§15. The theory of the ether explains the phenomena considered in the theory of relativity

Conclusion

I. BASIC PROVISIONS OF THE THEORY

§1. The second form of matter and ether

The struggle between two philosophical concepts in understanding the universe has lasted for more than two thousand years. The creator of the first concept is the famous ancient Greek philosopher Democritus. He believed that everything in the world consists of tiny particles (atoms) and the void between them. The second concept is based on the works of another, no less famous ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle. He believed that the entire Universe is filled with substrate (matter) and there is not even the slightest volume of emptiness . As the great Maxwell wrote, two theories of the structure of matter fight each other with varying success: the theory of filling the Universe and the theory of atoms and emptiness.

Thus, the creator of the generally recognized first form of matter (in the form of particles) is Democritus. All modern science is based on the consideration of the form of matter in the form of particles from which bodies are composed; At the same time, the search for the primordial particle, which is the primary matter of the Universe, continues. The vast expanses of the Universe are perceived in the form of fields (electromagnetic field, gravitational field, etc.), in which corresponding phenomena are observed. But it remains unclear what these fields consist of. In his works, Aristotle convincingly showed that in the entire Universe there is not the slightest volume of emptiness and it is filled with substrate ( matter) . Consequently, between all the bodies of the Universe and the particles of all bodies there is second form of matter, characterized by the fact that there should be no emptiness in it. Since ancient times, it was believed that the entire Universe is filled with ether and therefore we will retain the name for the second form of matter ether, especially since it is very convenient in presenting the text . There are different representations of the ether. In the future, ether must be understood as the second form of matter, representing the material medium located between bodies and their particles and not containing the slightest volume of emptiness. Now let's reveal the essence of this ether.

§2. Physical essence of ether

Below we provide a theoretical justification for the essence of ether and experimental data.

1. Theoretical background

First of all, as noted above, the ether represents a material medium and, therefore, has mass. Since this matter does not have the slightest volume of emptiness, it can be represented in the form continuous particleless mass(there cannot be particles, since between them there must be to be empty, which is unacceptable). Such a particleless representation of the ether is unusual, but it clearly characterizes the basis of the structure of the ether. For a clearer picture of the ether, let us add that its density has a very small value compared to the values ​​of the densities of substances that are familiar to us. Below (see §8) it will be shown that the density of the ether located between gas molecules at a pressure of 1 atm. and formed by gas molecules, has an order of 10 -15 g/cm 3 .

Without rejecting the presence of particles, we must admit that the material world of the Universe seems to consist of two forms of matter: a) particles (partial) and b) ether, which represents the particleless form of matter.

We affirm the “gaseous” structure of the ether, which was rejected by science, but not substantiated (see Appendix 1).

The mass of ether, like a gas, tends to occupy the largest volume, but at the same time, emptiness cannot appear in this mass. Therefore, the ether, increasing its volume, decreases its density. This property of changing density in the absence of emptiness is main and surprising; it differs from the property of a gas to change density, which occurs due to a change in the distance between gas molecules, representing emptiness in modern terms.

It is known that, analyzing numerous data from observations of the movement of planets, Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation, according to which the force of interaction is determined celestial bodies. Subsequently, in accordance with this law, the interaction of any bodies on Earth was experimentally confirmed. In his work, Newton systematically returned to this issue, trying to provide a theoretical justification for gravity. At the same time, he had great hopes for the ether and believed that revealing the essence of the ether would make it possible to obtain a solution to this most important issue. However, Newton failed to achieve a solution to this problem. Numerous attempts to provide a theoretical basis for gravity continue to this day without success. We will do it differently: We will consider the phenomenon of gravity as a property inherent in any mass of matter, including the mass of the ether. This postulate will allow us to solve the most important questions of science. We hope that in the future, as the properties of the ether are revealed, it will be possible to give a theoretical justification for this postulate. The gravitational forces acting on the ether from the side of bodies lead to compression of its continuous mass, which creates a certain density of the ether. If for some reason the density of the ether turns out to be greater than the density corresponding to the forces acting on the ether, then the ether (like a gas) will spread throughout the entire space available to it, reducing the density to the appropriate value. Obviously, the space available for propagation will be the space with a lower ether density.

Based on the above, we formulate the main property of the ether: “The ether, which is a continuous mass of a particleless form of matter that does not contain emptiness, tends (like a gas) to occupy the largest volume, while reducing its density, and is characterized by the forces of gravitational interaction with particles and bodies.”

Let us list the new things that the revealed property brings to science:

a) reveals the structure of the ether as particleless with a density corresponding to the forces acting on the ether;

b) ether is "gaseous";

c) the ether has mass (this assumption was previously considered in science) and the law of universal gravitation is applied to this mass as the law of gravitational interaction.

The ether is continuous, i.e. any part of it cannot be “isolated” from the rest of the ether, unlike particles “isolated” from each other by the ether. Let us note that the considered main property of the ether concerns only its physical and mechanical structure. However, an unlimited amount of information passes through the cosmic ether, so the very important information properties of the ether remain to be considered in the future.

2. Experimental data

Let us present experiments confirming the main property of ether .

1. Fizeau and Michelson experiments (see Appendix 2).

2. Dependence of the mass of a particle on the speed of its movement (see Appendix 3).

3. Increase in body weight when a mass of ether is supplied to it (see §7).

4. Change in the volume and pressure of the gas when a mass of ether is supplied to it (see §8).

5. An increase in the lifetime of a particle with an increase in the speed of its movement (§5, paragraph 1.2.4).

6. The essence of what is happening at the Large Hadron Collider (§9).

§3. Communication of the ether with bodies and particles. Ether of near-Earth vacuum and ether of matter

The connection of the ether with bodies and particles is carried out by gravitational interaction in accordance with the basic property of the ether. Let's look at this interaction below.

1. Interaction of the Earth with the ether. Earth vacuum ether

First, let's clarify the concept of vacuum space, for which we quote from the encyclopedia modern concept vacuum: “ Vacuum (from the Latin vacuum - emptiness) is a medium containing gas at pressures significantly lower than atmospheric... Vacuum is often defined as a state in which there are no real particles". We have shown above that the material world of the Universe consists of two forms of matter: ether and particles. Therefore, by vacuum it is correct to understand a medium in which there are no particles, but the ether is preserved, and emptiness is characterized by the absence of any form of matter.

Let's consider the interaction of the ether with the Earth. Let us choose a point at a distance R from the Earth at which the ether occupies an insignificant volume v 0 , within which the density of the ether will be considered uniform and having the value p 0 ; then the mass m 0 of ether in volume v 0 will be

m 0 = p 0 · v 0 . (1)

The force F G of the Earth's gravitational influence on the mass m 0 according to Newton's law will be determined:

F G = m 0 g G , (2)

where g G is the gravitational field strength created by the Earth at the selected point.

Since g G is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R, the force F G decreases with distance from the Earth. This force leads to a certain density of the ether, as a result of which an ethereal shell (the aura of the Earth) is created around the Earth, the density of the ether in which gradually decreases with distance from the Earth. Therefore, the ether of the near-Earth vacuum (i.e., not containing particles) has a certain density. This ether, pressed against the Earth by the force of gravity, moves with it in its movement around the Sun. This is confirmed by Michelson's experiment (see Appendix 2).

Similarly, we can talk about the auras of any micro and macro bodies, as well as the aura of living subjects. For example, the etheric aura of a person is known, which is called the energy field (E) and there is already equipment that, using the Kirlian method, makes it possible to obtain a photograph of a person’s aura. We will only add that this energy field E can be characterized by the ether mass m (the relation E = mc is known 2 ).

Speaking about the ethereal shells (auras) of any micro or macro bodies, we must clearly understand that these shells belong to their bodies and move with them in space. This applies to all macrobodies in outer space. The near-Earth ether moves together with the Earth in the etheric shell of the Sun, which, together with the Sun, moves in the etheric environment of the Galaxy. From here it is clear that there is no world ether at rest.

2. Interaction of a particle with the ether. Ether substance

Similar to what was given in paragraph 1, the gravitational interaction of a particle with the ether leads to the creation of an ethereal shell around the particle (aura of the particle), the density of the ether in which smoothly decreases with distance from the particle. The set of particles (atoms, molecules) with their ethereal shells represents a substance, at each point of which between the particles there is an ether of the corresponding density (ether of matter).

Let us note that all substances on the Earth, together with their ethereal shells, are and can move in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum (the Earth’s aura). The ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum permeates all bodies and substances located on Earth.

§ 4. Determination of the ether density of the near-Earth vacuum

Let us determine approximately the density of the ether of the near-Earth vacuum from the following considerations. Light propagates in the ethereal medium, which represents the sum of the densities of the ether of the near-Earth vacuum and the ether located between the molecules of the substance. At

In the movement of matter on Earth, its ether moves relative to the ether of the near-Earth vacuum, entraining a photon of light. Therefore, part of the speed of moving matter is transferred to light. The ether drag coefficient α was determined by Lorentz and has the following value:

α = 1 – 1 / n 2 , (3)

where n is the refractive index of the substance.

For a more accurate calculation, we take as a substance the inert gas helium, which has the smallest molecular dimensions, and, therefore, the largest intermolecular region in which the ether of the substance is located. Under normal conditions, i.e. at a pressure of 1 atm. the density of the ether located between the gas molecules is 10 -15 g/cm 3 (see §8). The refractive index of helium is n = 1.000327, which gives, according to (3), the value α = 0.000654. Obviously, if the density of the ether of the substance was equal to the density of the ether of the near-Earth vacuum d, then the drag coefficient would be 0.5. Making up the proportion, we get

d = 10 -15 · (0.5 / 0.000654) ≈ 10 -12 g/cm3.

§5. Ether - the primary matter of the Universe

Throughout the entire history of the development of science, the most important question is what all the substances of the Universe are made of, i.e., what is the primordial particle of the universe, or the primary matter that underlies the structure of the material world. As science developed, such primordial particles were molecules, atoms, atomic nuclei, protons, and neutrons. According to modern quark theory, quarks are considered such primordial particles. However, despite significant efforts over almost five decades, the existence of quarks has not yet been experimentally confirmed.

Let us note the exceptional importance of understanding primordial matter for modern science. Considering quarks as the first matter, the popularizer of science Chirkov rightly notes: “The discovery of quarks was a true triumph of science! It would have been written down in golden letters, included in all textbooks and, undoubtedly, would have remained in them for the next, say, hundreds of years.” .

Below we will consider the solution to the problem of primordial matter and the related problem of understanding elementary particles.

We will consider these problems on the basis of the truth that the material world seems to consist of particles and the particleless form of matter (ether) located between them, the main property of which is revealed in §2.

Let's move on to consider the issue of elementary particles.

1. What are elementary particles made of?

To solve this most important issue of modern science, we will analyze well-known experimental data and then give their theoretical justification.

1.1. Analysis of experimental data

1.1.1. It has been experimentally established that the annihilation of an electron and a positron leads to the formation of two gamma rays. Let us note that each of these gamma quanta can no longer form particles (since the energy of such a gamma quantum is insufficient for this), and when they encounter any particles or bodies, these gamma quanta give up their energy to them and cease to exist . But where did the mass of particles - the electron and positron - go? The answer is clear if we consider that the mass of matter can exist in two forms - particles and ether, which represents the particleless form of matter, i.e. the mass of the particles in question has passed into the particleless form of matter. Consequently, a gamma quantum does not represent a particle (as is customary in modern science), and (following Einstein's clear definition of a wave) the observed movement of a wave of the ether, which is the movement of some state of the ether, and not the ether itself.

1.1.2. It has been experimentally established that if a gamma quantum of the appropriate energy is directed at an obstacle (for example, an atomic nucleus), then stable particles are formed - electron and positron or proton and antiproton. It follows that from a particleless form of matter of a certain size (located, as shown in paragraph 1.1.1, in a gamma quantum) stable particles of very high density, on the order of 10 17 kg/m 3, can be formed. The fact of significant compaction of the mass of matter from a very low value (which the particleless form of matter has) to a very high one is obvious.

1.1.3. The formation of a significant number of unstable elementary particles of various masses and with different lifetimes has been experimentally established.

Thus, all experimental data are explained from the positions under consideration and show that elementary particles represent a compacted mass of the ether and we can assert the existence the phenomenon of the formation of elementary particles from a particleless form of matter (ether).

Now let's move on to consider the theoretical justification of the experimental data.

1.2. Theoretical justification of experimental data

The proposed theoretical justification for the experimental data is fundamentally different from the modern theory of elementary particles. It is based on the basic property of ether. At the same time, gravitational interaction in the microworld is considered, which in modern science is considered inappropriate, since it is supposedly much weaker than the weak, electromagnetic and strong interactions that dominate in the microworld.

In Fig. 1 we depict a particle of mass m in the form of a ball, but it can be of any other shape. Let us consider the action of forces on a small part of the particle (magnitude ∆m) located on the surface at point B. These forces will be written as follows:

F = ∆m g    F 1 = ∆m g 1

where g is the gravitational field strength created by all m bodies surrounding the particle,

The force F will tear the mass ∆m away from the particle, trying to destroy it, and the force F 1 will hold the mass ∆m on the surface of the particle. Note that point B is selected at a place on the particle surface where the tension g is opposite to the tension g 1, as a result of which the particle will be most susceptible to destruction. Depending on the ratio of g and g 1 (and, consequently, the forces F and F 1)

Let us determine the criteria for the existence of particle m.

1.2.1. Criterion I

Criterion I corresponds to the relation

In this case, particle m is not destroyed and exists in the form of a stable particle. Experimental confirmation is the data presented in paragraph 1.1.2. Note that the lifetime of a stable particle is determined by the time during which criterion I is met.

1.2.2. Criterion II

Criterion II corresponds to the relation

where g 2 is the lowest value of the gravitational field strength on the surface of Jupiter.

It is known that the maximum possible value of the gravitational field strength on Earth g is several times less than the value of g 2, i.e.

Based on this, substituting the value of g into (6) instead of g 2, we have:

Relation (8) shows that criterion I is always met on Earth. Consequently, the electron and proton live on Earth forever.

3.2. The interaction of various elementary particles in accelerators or using cosmic rays leads to the formation of new particles whose mass is greater than the mass of the original particles. The paradoxical fact that more can consist of less is accepted by modern science as truth. As a result of this, it is believed that “the usual views about the simple and the complex, about the whole and the part of the world of elementary particles turn out to be completely unsuitable”. However, the solution to this problem from the positions discussed above becomes obvious: in the formation of elementary particles, in addition to the accelerated particles themselves, a mass of particleless matter takes part, which is “driven” in front of them by fast moving particles. It's clear that The greater the power of the accelerator, the greater the mass of new particles that can be obtained.

3.3. In the light of modern science, the proton radius and its density are respectively of the order of 10 13 cm and 10 17 kg / m 3 .

Let us calculate these quantities from the condition of the existence of a proton in accordance with criterion I (4). We will carry out the calculation approximately, considering the proton in the shape of a ball with a uniformly distributed density. Then the value of g 1 on the proton surface will be determined:

g 1 = γ ˑ mp / r 2 , (9)

where γ is the gravitational constant,

m P - proton mass,

r is the radius of the proton.

Substituting the value of g 1 from (9) into (4) and making calculations regarding r, we obtain:

r 10 29 kg / m 3

Some experimental confirmation of the obtained values ​​can be considered the results of a study at the Stanford linear accelerator in 1970, when it was discovered that electrons pass unhindered at a distance of 10 16 cm from the proton.

Let us formulate conclusions from §5.

1. The material world of the Universe is represented in the form of two forms of matter: particleless (ether) and elementary particles. All bodies and substances consist of elementary particles, between which there is ether of varying densities.

2. Ether is a “building material” for elementary particles. Elementary particles represent a compacted mass of a particleless form of matter and exist in the form of stable or unstable particles due to the gravitational force created by the mass of the particle itself.

3. The particleless form of matter (ether) is the primary matter underlying the structure of the material world.

4. The foundation is laid for a true understanding of phenomena in the material world and solutions to some pressing scientific problems are provided.

§6. Ethereal-atomic structure of matter

Modern atomistic teaching is based on philosophical concept Democritus and the basic paradigm of modern science is the atomic-vacuum structure of matter; in this case, vacuum means emptiness (according to Democritus). Above we showed that there is no void and that there are corresponding ethereal shells around microparticles, bodies and macrobodies. This leads us to the need to recognize as the basic paradigm of science etheric - atomic structure of matter.

The new paradigm will provide a powerful impetus for new advances in physics and will improve the quality of work in all scientific research.

II. FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY AND ITS APPLICATION

§7. Ether and thermal energy

As noted above, between the particles of matter there is ether, which represents a particleless form of matter with mass.

Receiving thermal energy Q when heated, the body also increases mass m in accordance with the law of the relationship between mass and energy

Q = m c 2 , (12)

Where With- speed of light in vacuum.

But since during heating the number of particles of the body did not change, then, consequently, the mass m increases due to the mass of the particleless form of matter (ether) received from the heater. From relation (12) one can determine the value of the resulting mass m of ether. Thus, the carrier of thermal energy is the particleless form of matter (ether). Based on this, we formulate the essence of thermal energy: "Thermal energy Q is characterized by the mass of ether m; in this case, there is a dependence Q = mc 2 (With– the speed of light in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum) ” . This reveals a fundamentally new understanding of thermal energy, which makes it possible to develop fundamentally new ways to obtain thermal energy. As noted above, the particleless form of matter (ether) is located between all bodies and between the particles of all bodies, but at the same time the ether is connected with bodies and particles. Therefore, to obtain thermal energy, it is necessary to develop ways of releasing ether mass, which, in accordance with relation (12), will represent thermal energy; Attempts to obtain such energy from space are currently underway. Relationship (12) is observed experimentally in nuclear reactors, although there are already experiments confirming it when heating bodies. In atomic reactors, during nuclear fission, a difference is observed between the mass of the original nucleus and the sum of the masses of the new nuclei obtained. This mass difference represents the allocated mass of ether, which characterizes the resulting thermal energy in accordance with (12).

Since all particles of matter are nothing more than high-density ether, the general direction of solving the energy problem can be annihilation energy, as a result of which the mass of particles transforms into the mass of ether, which characterizes thermal energy. At the same time, the entire mass of matter is converted into environmentally friendly thermal energy, which is a thousand times more efficient than modern nuclear energy.

§8. Ether and pressure in gases

Modern understanding of the nature of pressure in gases, according to molecular kinetic theory (MKT), is explained by impacts of chaotically moving molecules on the wall. However, there is not a single experiment in which these molecular impacts were observed. It can be shown that Stern's experiment and Brownian motion, which modern physics considers to confirm MKT, are incorrect.

Below we will consider the pressure in gases from a theoretical perspective.

Figure 2a shows a vessel in the form of a cube with volume V 1 , which contains 1 mole of oxygen at pressure P and temperature T 1 . Oxygen molecules (black circles) are evenly distributed in the vessel and each molecule occupies a certain volume cube filled with an amount of ether corresponding to the existing oxygen temperature. Let's imagine that the walls of the vessel can move apart when the gas expands, leaving the pressure P unchanged.

Let's heat oxygen to temperature T 2 . At the same time, it will expand in all three directions and will already occupy a cube of volume V 2 . We obtain an increase in volume by the amount

v = V 2 – V 1 (13)

This occurs due to an increase in the distance between molecules. This increase in volume is shown in Fig. 2b in the form of a gap between cubes of the same size as in Fig. 2a.

Volume v is filled with the amount of heat Q received from the burner, which, as indicated in §7, represents the mass of ether m.

From school course physicists know that the state of 1 mole of gas is described by the Clapeyron–Mendeleev equation:

where R is the universal gas constant.

Let us write this equation for gas states at temperature T 1 and T 2 :

PV 1 =RT 1 , (15)

PV 2 =RT 2 (16)

Subtracting equation (15) from equation (16), we obtain:

P(V 2 – V 1 ) = R(T 2 – T 1) (17)

From this it can be seen that to fill the increased volume v at pressure P, thermal energy Q is consumed, equal to the product of the universal gas constant and the temperature difference acquired by the gas. Taking this into account, expression (17) will take the form

Substituting the value of Q from relation (12), we obtain

P v = m c 2 , (19)

Since the ratio of the mass of the ether m to the volume v it occupies represents the density d of the ether, the result is:

P=dc 2 (21)

Based on this, we formulate the property of ether to produce pressure: “Ether of density d produces pressure p; in this case there is a dependence p = dc 2 (c is the speed of light in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum)."

Thus, in accordance with this property of the ether, the gas pressure is determined by the density of the ether located between its molecules. It is the density of this ether that determines the pressure in gases.

Substituting the value P = 1 atm. = 100 000 Pa into the found relationship and With= 300 000 km / s = 3·10 8 m / s, we obtain: at a pressure of 1 atmosphere, the density of the ether gas located between its molecules is about 10 15 g / cm 3 . Note that back in 1909, the famous English scientist J. J. Thomson received the same value.

The above understanding of pressure in gases makes a fundamental change in the field of scientific knowledge of pressure-related phenomena. For example:

a) it becomes clear that when fuel is burned in rocket engines, the pressure in the combustion chamber is formed due to an increase in the density of the ether released during fuel combustion. Therefore, the task of obtaining and regulating engine power comes down to obtaining different ether densities.

b) the presence of a certain ether density in the vacuum space (not containing particles) of the Universe is not taken into account in modern astronomy, both when calculating the mass of the Universe and in other calculations.

§9. The futility of experiments at the Large Hadron Collider

In 2008 In Switzerland, a super-powerful accelerator was launched - the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which cost taxpayers 10 billion euros. The main goal of tests at the LHC is to detect the Higgs boson, which, according to scientists, is an primordial particle representing the primary matter of the Universe. In addition, scientists believe that the experiment will make it possible to reproduce the “Big Bang” in miniature and gain fundamental knowledge about the properties of matter. It is believed that for this it is necessary to break protons, for which the work of the LHC is carried out in 3 main processes:

a) creating a deep vacuum;

b) acceleration of counter flows of protons to very high energy E = 7 10 12 eV;

c) collision of counter flows of protons, as a result the protons should break and the expected phenomena can be observed.

Let us immediately note: in §5 it is shown that the primary matter of the Universe is ether and it makes no sense to look for an primordial particle. In addition, in §15 , item 1 shows the fallacy of the expansion of the Universe after big bang, because it is based on an erroneous understanding of redshift. Therefore, talking about the Big Bang also makes no sense. But let's consider all 3 processes.

1. Creating a deep vacuum

A deep vacuum is created by pumping air out of the working area of ​​the collider. In an ideal vacuum, all air molecules will be pumped out along with the etheric shells (aura) they created, i.e. the ether of the substance (see §3, paragraph 2) will be removed. However, in the work area

there will remain the ether of the near-Earth vacuum space (see §3, item 1), in which all substances are located (see §3, item 2). But in §4 it is shown that the density of this ether is 10 -12 g/cm 3 , which is a thousand times greater than the density of the evacuated ether created by air molecules at a pressure of 1 atm. (see §8).

2. Acceleration of protons

So, the movement of protons occurs in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum. Therefore, when a proton moves at high speed in the ethereal medium, it is forced to drive the mass of ether in front of it (like a car moving at high speed). In this case, the expended energy will already move the proton along with the mass of ether compacted in front of it (adhered to it). The adhesion of the ether mass to the proton is facilitated by the fact that the proton consists of the same matter as the ether (a proton is a super-dense ether, see point 4 in §5). The increase in proton mass corresponds to the applied energy E of the accelerator. Knowing the mass of a proton at rest m R =1,6726∙10 -27 kg its expression through the energy equivalent E R= m R c 2 = 0.94∙GeV, we can determine the value of the total moving mass m (proton mass m R plus the incremented etheric mass) depending on the energy of the accelerator E from the proportion:

m/m R= E / E R (22)

Where do we get m = 7∙10 3 / 0.94 = 7447 m R , (23)

According to the relation known from the theory of relativity

m = m 0 (1-v 2 /c 2)–1/2 (24)

you can calculate the speed acquired by the proton. It will be 0.99999999 c, i.e. approached the speed of light c. Figure 3 shows how the moving mass changes with increasing speed of the proton. At a speed of 30,000 km/s (0.1 s) the mass increases by 0.5%, at a speed of 100,000 km/s (0.333 s) it increases by 6%, and at its maximum value it increases by 7447 times.

We explained the physical essence of relation (24), which is not disclosed in the theory of relativity. In relativistic physics, this relationship is considered to be valid for high-speed mechanics. However, this relationship can be obtained from the standpoint of classical physics, if we consider the movement of a particle in the real environment of the material ether (see Appendix 3).

3. Proton collision

What happens when protons collide in any collider? As can be seen from Fig. 4, there is a collision of ethereal masses acquired by protons during acceleration. In this case, the compaction of various parts of these ether masses occurs, as a result of which various particles and their corresponding antiparticles are formed, which annihilate, forming gamma quanta of various energies (similar to how a proton and antiproton are formed and annihilated (see §5, paragraph 1.1) As a result, a rather colorful picture is observed, which is photographed and disseminated by the media as an imitation of the Big Bang. The same picture will be observed at the LHC as in a smaller

powerful collider. The difference is that in the LHC the picture will be more spectacular and larger particles can be observed (see §5, paragraph 3.2). The organizers of the experiment believe that it is possible to see a picture of the Universe at an earlier stage from the beginning of the Big Bang. But this picture is formed from the ether masses acquired by protons during their acceleration, and the protons themselves will not break up and after they stop, the mass of ether they gained as a result of acceleration will end up in the surrounding space, characterizing thermal energy in accordance with

relation (12).

Let us determine the limiting value of the released energy. Knowing that 1eV = 1.602∙10 -19 J, it can be calculated that when 1 proton collides and stops, energy will be released

W 1 = 7∙10 12 ∙1,602∙10 -19 = 1,12∙10 -6 J (25)

If the experiment, as planned, involves 10 -9 g protons (number of protons n = 6∙10 14 ), then the total energy released during the experiment (in an extreme case) will be:

W = 1.12∙10 -6 ∙ 6∙10 14 = 6,7∙ 10 8 J. (26)

Let us explain once again that the released etheric energy is thermal, which is confirmed by this experiment.

The peak power value, given the short duration of the process, will be enormous. This can lead to destruction of the equipment, but a 100-meter layer of earth is good protection on Earth. Yes, and experimenters extreme situation will not be allowed, since the increase in accelerator power and the number of protons involved in the experiment will be increased gradually.

Thus, the protons will not break up and the planned goals associated with the collision of protons at the speed of light will not be confirmed.

§10. The nature of nuclear forces

Let us consider what forces ensure the connection of a neutral neutron with a proton in the nucleus of an atom. In Fig. Figure 5 shows a neutron n with a proton p located at a close distance (next to it). Neutron represents the connection of a proton pn with an electron e. Since pn and e are not at the same point, then in a certain region (we denote it by ∆) an electrostatic field is formed around them, although further beyond this region the neutron is neutral. In the nucleus of an atom, the proton of the nucleus p falls into the ∆ region and enters into electrostatic interaction with a neutron. However, with the proton size accepted in modern science equal to 10 15 m, the electrostatic binding forces are three orders of magnitude smaller than the nuclear forces. But in §5, paragraph 3.3 it is shown that the size of the proton is less than 10 19 m. This allows the proton to approach the neutron at a distance at which the electrostatic binding forces will be equal in magnitude to the available nuclear forces. These forces provide the existing binding energies of the neutron in the nucleus of the atom. For example, in deuterium the binding energy of a neutron with a proton is 2.225 MeV.

It is known from experiments that “when a free neutron approaches the nucleus of an atom at a distance of 10 14 – 10 15 m, "click" and the nuclear field turns on". This just indicates that the proton of the atomic nucleus falls into the ∆ region of the neutron and then the neutron approaches the nucleus, creating the existing binding forces.

Thus, the nature of nuclear forces is electrostatic. In this case, the neutron at a short distance forms an electrostatic field, which ensures its nuclear bonding forces with the proton in the nucleus of the atom. Such a strong interaction is possible due to the small size of the proton (less than 10 19 m, and not 10 15 m, as is customary in modern physics).

§eleven. Solving other scientific problems

1. The properties of ether characterize a mass defect and produce repulsion of particles

Abstract. The work reveals the property of the ether to characterize a mass defect, from which the essence of the connection between the mass defect and the resulting energy becomes clear, and also reveals the property of the ether to produce the repulsion of particles, which is an important basis for the development of a non-planetary model of the atom. To do this, the connection of two particles with their ethereal shells is considered and it is mathematically proven that the mass of ether located in the ethereal shell of connected particles is less than the sum of the masses of ether located in the etheric shells of unbound particles. Based on this, it is formulated the property of ether to characterize a mass defect: “When particles combine, thermal energy Q is released in the form of ether mass m, which characterizes a mass defect; in this case there is a relation Q = m With 2 (c is the speed of light in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum) » This property of the ether allows us to give a simple explanation for many scientific problems and carry out their further development. An explanation of some of them is given.

1.1. Obtaining energy from the decay and synthesis of nuclei

During the decay of heavy nuclei (having less dense packing), nuclei with more dense packing are formed, as a result of which ether is released, which characterizes thermal energy according to relation (12), which is observed experimentally. During the synthesis of light nuclei, nuclei with a denser packing of nucleons are also formed, which also leads to the release of ether, which characterizes thermal energy.

1.2. Explanation of exo endothermic reactions

In exothermic reactions, the release of heat is due to the fact that the packing of atoms in the resulting reaction products is more dense than their packing in the initial products. As a result, ether is released, which characterizes thermal energy. In endothermic reactions, products are obtained with a less dense packing of atoms, i.e., the atoms are more spaced apart from each other and for this it is necessary to provide ether, which characterizes the consumption of thermal energy.

1.3. Explanation of the combustion process

The combustion process is an exothermic reaction of a combustible substance with an oxidizing agent (oxygen). For example, the combustion of coal indicates that the packing of carbon atoms in coal is less dense than the packing of carbon atoms with oxygen in the resulting gas. However, for coal to burn, it must first be ignited, since oxygen atoms cannot tear away carbon atoms in cold coal. Therefore, it is necessary to weaken the bond of atoms in coal, i.e., move them apart. This is done by communicating the ether to the surface atoms of the coal, i.e. by heating the coal until the reaction of the compound with oxygen begins. Part of the resulting heat (ether) is used to move apart the next coal atoms and thus the combustion process continues.

The property of ether to repulse particles is mathematically proven: “When elementary particles combine between them, an etheric “cushion” is formed, the pressure of the ether in which leads to the repulsion of particles.”

2. Non-planetary model of the atom

Abstract. It is noted that, in accordance with Coulomb's law, an electron tends to approach the positively charged nucleus of an atom. But at the same time, the property of ether to repulse particles is manifested, which consists in the fact that an etheric “cushion” is formed between the electron and the nucleus of the atom, the pressure of the ether in which leads to the repulsion of particles. Therefore, the electron will not fall onto the atomic nucleus, but will take a position in which the repulsive force will be equal to the force of Coulomb attraction (gravitational forces are many orders of magnitude less than Coulomb forces). The calculation of the position of electrons in a hydrogen atom and in a helium atom is given.

3. Fundamentals of the new theory of magnetism

Annotation. It is noted that modern theory magnetism cannot reveal the true nature of magnetism, since it does not take into account the presence of a material ethereal medium, which represents the particleless form of matter. Magnetic flux F through the cross-sectional area S is determined by the speed V movement of the mass of ether with density d and will amount to Ф = dVS. Accordingly, magnetic induction B = dV. On the basis of the theory of ether, the formula of Ampere's law is deduced, and it is also revealed nature: ferromagnetism, electromagnetic induction, alternating electromagnetic field, Lorentz force, interaction of permanent magnets.

4. Solution to the neutrino problem

Annotation. It is noted that the assumption of the existence of neutrinos arose in connection with observed experiments on the beta decay of element nuclei. The theory of neutrinos is deeply developed. It is based on the principles of quantum mechanics, which is based on the atomistic doctrine of Democritus and the movement of particles in a vacuum. But the work examines the physical essence of the problem on the basis of the developed theory of the material ether. From these positions, the beta decay of the nucleus and the decay of unstable particles are considered, resulting in the conclusion: “ The neutrino particle does not exist. The laws of conservation of energy and momentum during beta decay and the decay of unstable particles are observed in connection with the appearance of a jet of ether, which characterizes thermal energy. The short lifetime and very small cross section of this jet makes it difficult to experimentally detect its effect.”

5. Fundamentals of the microscopic theory of superconductivity

Abstract. It is noted that the existing microscopic theory of superconductivity, proposed by American physicists Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS theory) cannot reflect the true picture of the ongoing process, since it does not take into account the presence of a material ethereal medium inside the metal. This paper examines the foundations of the microscopic theory of superconductivity on the basis of the developed theory of the material ether. All phase states of the metal are considered: gaseous, liquid, solid. In the solid state there is a positive “+1” ion and a so-called “free” electron. With further cooling of the metal, the mass of the ether inside the ion decreases, which leads to the approach of electrons to the nucleus of the atom and to each other. At very low temperatures, the position of the electrons can become such that one more least bound electron is repelled from the atom: the result is a “+2” ion and two “free” electrons. This promotes an even closer approach of the remaining electrons to the nucleus of the atom, as a result of which a mass of ether (thermal energy) is released: the heat capacity of the metal increases, which is actually observed. The metal has entered a superconducting state. In metals that have one electron on the outer shell (Li, K, Na, Rb, Fr), the removal of the second electron is difficult, since it must already be removed from a stable shell, and this requires much more energy. Indeed, these metals do not go into a superconducting state. The critical temperature, critical magnetic field, critical current, depth of penetration of the magnetic field are considered and conclusions are drawn:

a) the transition to the superconducting state occurs with the formation of the “+2” ion;

b) to obtain high-temperature superconductivity, it is necessary to create a substance in which the formation of the “+2” ion occurs at high temperature.

III. CONSEQUENCY OF THE THEORY OF ETHER - INCONSISTENCE OF THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Based on the theory of the ether from the standpoint of classical physics, Appendix 2 provides an explanation of the experiments of Fizeau and Michelson, and Appendix 3 obtains the dependence of the mass of a particle on the speed of its movement and reveals its physical essence, which is absent in the theory of relativity (TR). Below, based on the theory of the ether, the physical essence of a number of phenomena explained by TO will be revealed, and in some cases more accurate results will be obtained. In this regard, there is a need to analyze the main provisions of TO, which we will do below.

§12. The main mistake in the theory of relativity

Abstract. It is noted that the theory of relativity is based on the relativity of simultaneity, substantiated by Einstein. An analysis of this justification is given and the fundamental error in it is shown, which is as follows. In his justification, Einstein chooses a rod as a reference system, at points A and B of which there are observers with clocks. With a stationary rod, he considers the synchronization of the clocks located at points A and B of the rod using a light signal, and obtains the first relationships. Next, the rod is given a uniform rectilinear movement with speed v. Since the speed of light in a vacuum does not depend on the speed of the light source, it determines the second relations for observers of a system at rest. Einstein claims that, in accordance with the principle of relativity, the speed of the light signal relative to observers moving with the rod should be the same as when the rod is stationary. From here Einstein draws the conclusion about the relativity of simultaneity. However, an analysis of the principle of relativity formulated by Galileo shows that in order to comply with the principle of relativity it is necessary, so that the reference system, all observable bodies and the environment, in which they are located, received the same inertial motion. In the example considered by Einstein, only the rod (frame of reference) receives inertial motion (velocity v), but the medium surrounding the rod and the photon of light moving in it do not receive this motion. Therefore, when the rod moves, the principle of relativity cannot be applied and observers located on the rod cannot apply the first relations.

This is the main mistake in the theory of relativity because if it had been discovered immediately, there would have been no erroneous theory of relativity.

Based on compliance with the generally accepted principle of relativity, a mathematical proof is given of the absoluteness of space and time, clearly formulated by Newton.

§13. On the inconsistency of Lorentz transformations

Abstract. It is noted that the need for Lorentz transformations is caused by the requirement to comply with the principle of relativity for a ray of light, which consists in the fact that a ray of light emitted from the origin of coordinates of combined reference systems (moving and stationary) must have the same speed With in a vacuum both relative to a stationary system and relatively mobile. For this purpose, the solution of the corresponding equations is given. However, errors in solving these equations are given in the following work. In addition, we note that, as indicated in §12, the principle of relativity cannot be applied to a ray of light in a moving system.

The following corollaries from the Lorentz transformation formulas set out in are considered.

1. Change in body size in the direction of movement. With the help of this corollary, an explanation was proposed for Michelson's experiment under the condition that the Earth moves through a stationary ether. Thus, this contributed to the false statement about the existence of a world motionless ether, but as shown in §3 there is no motionless ether. An explanation of Michelson's experiment is given in Appendix 2 without the need to change the size of the body. There is not a single experiment in nature that confirms the change in the size of a body during its movement. Thus, Lorentz transformations lead to an erroneous understanding of the existence of changes in the size of a body during its movement and direct science onto the wrong path of development.

2. The impossibility of obtaining the speed of relative motion of two inertial reference systems exceeding the speed of light in a vacuum. As we noted above, light does not propagate in a vacuum, but in a material ethereal environment. Inertial reference systems are located in the same environment. They should represent not abstract coordinate axes, but real bodies (for example, the Earth, a carriage, an elementary particle, etc.). The speed of movement of these reference systems is limited by the resistance of the ethereal medium in which they move and cannot exceed the speed of light in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum. In this case, an increase in the mass of bodies occurs at high speeds (see Appendix 3). If in the ethereal medium two inertial frames of reference (for example, elementary particles) move in opposite directions with a speed close to With, then the relative speed between these inertial systems will be close to 2 With. Therefore, the above corollary is erroneous.

3. Slowing down the clock as it moves. It is believed that “the relativistic effect of time dilation was brilliantly confirmed in experiments with muons - unstable, spontaneously decaying elementary particles.” In this case, the lifetime of a rapidly moving muon is greater than the lifetime of a muon at rest in accordance with the Lorentz transformation formula. The increase in particle lifetime is explained in §5, section 1.2.4.

Thus, the increase in the lifetime of a muon during its movement is associated with the movement of the muon in a real material ethereal environment, and not with a slowdown in the clock. Therefore, existing explanations are incorrect and the considered consequence of Lorentz transformations leads science down the wrong path.

4. Relativistic law of addition of velocities. The work shows (using the example of the Earth and Sun systems) that the addition of velocities in nature occurs according to the laws of classical mechanics. The relativistic law is derived from an erroneous derivation of Lorentz transformations.

5. Explanation of Fizeau's experiment. This experiment is explained in Appendix 2 without applying Lorentz transformations.

6. Explanation of the phenomenon of annual aberration of light. A ray of light coming from a star, entering the near-Earth ethereal medium, additionally receives the speed V of this medium. If the beam speed With perpendicular to the speed V, then the aberration angle α is determined from the condition tgα = V /c . Thus, the exact value of the aberration angle was obtained, and not an approximate one, as is obtained using Lorentz transformations.

§14.About mathematical errors in conclusions

Lorentz transformations

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = c 2 t 2 (27) (x") 2 + (y") 2 + (z") 2 = c 2 (t") 2 , (28)

where unprimed values ​​are used in the K system, and hatched values ​​are used in the K′ system. The derivation of Lorentz transformations comes down to solving these equations.

The error in Einstein's conclusions of transformations is as follows. He reasons that " for the origin of coordinates of the K′ system all the time x′ = 0” and on the basis of this receives transformations. The error in this reasoning is that x′ = 0 not all the time, but only at t′ = 0 and therefore the conclusions of the transformations

There is an error in the conclusions given in Prof.'s textbook. Savelyev, lies in the fact that division by t = 0 and t′ = 0 occurs, but division by 0 gives uncertainty. There is a similar error in the conclusions given in .

The error in the conclusions presented in is that the solution of the found equations does not take into account the dependence x = c t.

Thus, Lorentz transformations do not have a strict mathematical proof.

§15. The theory of the ether explains the phenomena considered in the theory of relativity

Below we will reveal a number of the most important phenomena from the perspective of the ether.

1. Redshift

Spectral analysis shows a shift of the spectral lines of distant stars from the corresponding spectral lines of the Sun to the red side of the spectrum. In modern science, this is explained by the Doppler effect associated with the movement of stars. This is where the idea of ​​the expansion of the Universe was born. However, it is known that the spectral lines of the Sun are shifted relative to the spectral lines of the corresponding elements on Earth. But at the same time, the Sun does not move away from the Earth at a speed corresponding to the Doppler effect. Therefore, the redshift is not caused by the removal of stars and the conclusion about the expanding Universe in connection with the Big Bang is erroneous. In the general theory of relativity (GTR), Einstein explained this by saying that the gravitational potential of the Sun is greater than the gravitational potential of the Earth. In this case, the physical essence of the phenomenon is presented in such a way that a ray of light, entering an area with a lower gravitational potential, changes the frequency to the red side of the spectrum. But this explanation is incorrect, since the frequency specified by the oscillation source cannot change; it can only be perceived differently only by an oscillation receiver moving relative to the source (Doppler effect).

The theory of ether allows us to reveal the essence of this important phenomenon as follows. Since the gravitational potential on the surface of the Sun is greater than on the surface of the Earth, the density of the ether, in which the atoms of the elements whose spectrum is being considered, will be greater, i.e. the elements in the region of the Sun are somewhat different from the corresponding elements on Earth. This leads to some change in the emitted oscillation frequency. The well-known scientist, President of the USSR Academy of Sciences V.I., drew attention to the dubious convention of the accepted equality of terrestrial elements and those observed on other astronomical bodies. Vavilov.

The revealed essence of the red shift shows the fallacy of the expansion of the Universe, which is confirmed by the research of a number of astronomers.

2. Beam bending by the Sun

It is known that this important question, confirmed experimentally by expeditions in 1919, was a statement of General Relativity. Along with the possible causes of this phenomenon, we will consider them from the standpoint of the theory of the ether. The fact is that the beam in the region of the Sun passes through the solar atmosphere, the density of which decreases as it moves away from the Sun, and, consequently, the refractive index decreases. Therefore, the passage of a ray is similar to its passage through a prism, which leads to its deflection.

3. Shift of Mercury's perihelion

It must be borne in mind that Mercury (like other planets) moves in the ethereal environment of the circumsolar vacuum, the density of which decreases with distance from the Sun. Therefore, the perihelion shift of other planets decreases as the planets move away from the Sun.

4. Black holes

According to the theory of the ether, a black hole represents a region of space in which the ether is so rarefied that light no longer propagates in it, just as sound does not propagate in very rarefied air. This idea is extremely opposite to the modern idea, which is unlikely due to the need to obtain colossal density of matter for large masses, which is not observed experimentally (it is known that elementary particles have the highest density and this density is many orders of magnitude less than the calculated density for the modern idea of ​​a black hole).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we note that the work done applies the postulate of the application of the law of universal gravitation to the ether, which was recognized by all ancient philosophies and physics until the twentieth century.

Let us list the most important results of the work and prospects for the further development of this scientific direction.

1. Physical essence revealed second form of matter, which allows us to solve the most important scientific questions in the three-dimensional space of the Universe from the standpoint of classical physics.

2. The primordial matter of the Universe is substantiated, which eliminates the colossal costs of theoretical and experimental work (like the Large Hadron Collider) in the search for the primordial particle.

3. The nature of thermal energy has been revealed, which makes it possible to develop fundamentally new ways of obtaining it, up to the conversion of the entire mass of matter into environmentally friendly energy with an efficiency a thousand times higher than modern nuclear energy.

4. The nature of pressure in gases is substantiated, which allows for fundamentally new developments of aircraft.

5. The physical essence of the processes in the collider is revealed and the meaninglessness of the experiments being carried out is shown.

6. The nature of nuclear forces is revealed.

7. The results of work on the structure of the atom, the microscopic theory of superconductivity and magnetism are indicated, taking into account the presence of ether in matter and leading to new results.

8. An explanation is given for the experiments of Fizeau and Michelson (which were the root cause of the development of the theory of relativity) from the standpoint of classical physics. This alone casts doubt on the need for the theory of relativity (TR).

9. The inconsistency of TO is shown (errors in the justification of the relativity of simultaneity and in the conclusions of Lorentz transformations are shown, and a mathematical proof of the absoluteness of time is given).

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Annex 1.

Refutation of the impossibility of the gaseous representation of the ether

We affirm the “gaseous” structure of the ether, which was rejected by science for the reason that a number of experiments allegedly indicate the transverse nature of light waves, and transverse waves, according to the theory of elasticity, cannot exist in gases. However, the particleless representation of the ether makes it possible to refute the evidence of the transverseness of light waves and, in particular, that given, for example, in. Here Einstein gives an experiment on the passage of a beam of light through two plates of a tourmaline crystal: when one plate is rotated around the axis determined by the passing beam, it is observed that the light becomes weaker and weaker until it disappears completely, and then it appears again. From this Einstein draws the following conclusions: "...is it possible to explain these phenomena if the light waves are longitudinal? If the waves were longitudinal, the particles of the ether would have to move along the axis, i.e. in the same direction in which the beam goes. If the crystal rotates, nothing along axis does not change... Such a clearly visible change as the disappearance and appearance of a new picture could not occur for a longitudinal wave. This, as well as many other similar phenomena, can be explained only if we assume that light waves not longitudinal, but transverse!"

However, in this experiment, when the crystal rotates, the transverse size for the passage of the beam changes and Einstein’s statement that a longitudinal wave must pass through an arbitrarily small transverse size is incorrect and is associated with the idea that ether particles, moving along the axis, must pass through an arbitrarily small transverse dimension. The longitudinal wave of the particleless ether presented by us is characterized by a clot having a transverse size, which leads, when the crystal rotates, to a weaker passage of the wave until it disappears. Therefore, this example does not give grounds to draw a conclusion about the transverse nature of light waves.

Literature:

1. Born M. Einstein’s theory of relativity. M." World", 1972., p. 104.

2. Einstein A. Collected. scientific works, vol.4. M." Science", 1965, p. 432.

Appendix 2.

Experiments by Fizeau and Michelson

The experiments of Fizeau and Michelson in the second half of the 19th century were a fundamental milestone in the development of physics and were the primary reason for the development of the special theory of relativity. Fizeau's experiment showed that adding the speed of light in water to the speed of water does not correspond to classical physics; in this case, only part of the speed of moving water is transmitted to light. Michelson's experiment showed that there is no movement of the Earth through the surrounding ether.

1. Explanation of the Michelson experiment

Knowing the distance from the Earth to the Sun, as well as the masses of the Earth and the Sun, it is not difficult to determine that the strengths of the gravitational fields of the Earth and the Sun will be equal at a point approximately 250,000 km away from the Earth. This means that in the immediate environment of the Earth, the intensity of the Earth’s gravitational field is much greater than that of the Sun, and therefore the ether surrounding the Earth is attracted by the Earth and moves with the Earth, and, therefore, there is no movement of the Earth through the ether surrounding it. This was confirmed by Michelson's experiment. One could say so. Michelson's experiment was carried out in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum, which (as noted above) is connected to the Earth and moves with the Earth and therefore there is no movement of the Earth through the ether surrounding it.

2. Explanation of Fizeau's experiment

Fizeau's experiment was explained by Lorentz under the condition of motion in the motionless ether of any medium whose molecules are systems of electric charges.

But the structure of matter is molecules, and during the movement of matter on Earth, these molecules move in the ethereal medium of the Earth’s aura, which corresponds to the Lorentz condition.

The physical essence of the explanation of Fizeau's experiment is as follows. Light propagates in the ethereal medium, which represents the sum of the densities of the ether of the near-Earth vacuum and the ether of the substance formed by its particles. When matter moves on Earth, its ether moves relative to the ether of the near-Earth vacuum, entraining a photon of light. Therefore, only part of the speed of moving matter is transmitted to light, corresponding to the ratio of the densities of the ether of matter and the ether of the near-Earth vacuum.

The experiments of Fizeau and Michelson confirmed that the ether has mass and gravitational properties, due to which the ether of the near-Earth vacuum moves together with the Earth, and the movement of matter on Earth along with its ether occurs in the ethereal environment of the near-Earth vacuum.

Literature:

1. Detlaf A.A., Yavorsky B.M. Physics course, vol.3. M. "Higher School", 1979, p.170.

Appendix 3.

Classic physics for high speeds

Based on the movement of an elementary particle in the ethereal medium, from the standpoint of classical physics, we will derive the dependence of the change in the mass of this particle on the speed of its movement.

Kinetic energy W k mass m is determined by speed v. This energy corresponds to the energy corresponding to the amount of mass dm by which the particle mass has increased. The energy of the ether mass dm in accordance with (12) will be dm∙c 2 . Equating this energy to W k, we get

W k= dm∙c 2 (1)

Let's determine the impulse p material point mass m moving with speed v:

and the force acting on this point will be

F = dp/dt = m ∙ (dv/dt) + v (dm/dt) (3)

Kinetic energy over time dt is written as

W k= F·v·dt (4)

Substituting the values ​​of F from (3), we have:

W k= mv dv +v 2 dm (5)

Substituting this value into (1), we get differential equation:

(dm/dv) · (s 2 -v 2 ) – mv = 0 (6)

Let's solve this equation, observing the initial condition: for v = 0, m = m 0 :

∫(dm/m) = ∫ v dv / (c 2 -v 2 ) (7)

m = (c 2 -v 2)-1 /2 B (8)

From the initial condition it will be determined: B = m 0 ·With

So, we obtain the solution to equation (6):

m = m 0 ·(1-v 2 /c 2)-1/2 (9)

We obtained the relationship known in the theory of relativity from the standpoint of classical physics, considering the movement of a particle in the real environment of the material ether. And this once again confirms the existence of a material ethereal environment.

Brusin S.D., Brusin L.D. THE SECOND FORM OF MATTER - NEW ABOUT ETHER (new theory in physics) // Scientific electronic archive.
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