The modern Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. The Russian language belongs to the group of Slavic languages, which are divided into three subgroups: eastern - the languages ​​Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; southern - languages ​​Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian; Western - languages ​​Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Lusatian. Going back to the same source - the common Slavic language, all Slavic languages ​​are close to each other, as evidenced by the similarity of a number of words, as well as the phenomena of the phonetic system and grammatical structure. For example: Russian tribe, Bulgarian tribe, Serbian tribe, Polish plemic, Czech plemm, Russian clay, Bulgarian clay, Czech hlina, Polish glina; Russian summer, Bulgarian lato, Czech leto, Polish lato; Russian red, Serbian krasan, Czech krasny; Russian milk, Bulgarian milk, Serbian milk, Polish mieko, Czech mleko, etc.

The Russian language, the national language, is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as social jargons. The highest form of the national Russian language is the Russian language, a literary language. At different historical stages of development, the common native language- from a national language to a national one - in connection with the change and expansion of social functions literary language The content of the concept of “literary language” changed. The modern Russian literary language is a standardized language that serves the cultural needs of the Russian people; it is the language of state acts, science, the press, radio, theater, and fiction. The normalization of a literary language lies in the fact that the composition of the dictionary in it is regulated, the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling and the formation of grammatical forms of words follow a generally accepted pattern. Modern literary language, not without the influence of the media, is noticeably changing its status: the norm is becoming less rigid, allowing for variation. It focuses not on inviolability and universality, but rather on communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as an opportunity to choose.

The border between normativity and non-normativity is sometimes blurred, and some colloquial and colloquial linguistic facts become variants of the norm. Becoming a public domain, the literary language easily absorbs previously forbidden means of linguistic expression. It is enough to give an example of the active use of the word “lawlessness,” which previously belonged to criminal jargon. Literary language has two forms: oral and written, which are characterized by features both in terms of lexical composition and grammatical structure, because they are designed for different types of perception - auditory and visual. Written literary language differs from oral literary language, primarily in the greater complexity of syntax and the presence of a large amount of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, in particular international. Written literary language has stylistic varieties: scientific, official business, journalistic, and artistic styles. Literary language, as a standardized, processed national language, is opposed to local dialects and jargon.

Russian dialects are united into two main groups: the Northern Russian dialect and the Southern Russian dialect. Each group has its own distinctive features in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical forms. In addition, there are Central Russian dialects, which reflect the features of both dialects.

The modern Russian literary language is the language of interethnic communication between peoples Russian Federation. The Russian literary language introduces all the peoples of Russia to the culture of the great Russian people. Since 1945, the UN Charter has recognized the Russian language as one of the official languages ​​of the world. There are numerous statements by great Russian writers and public figures, as well as many progressive foreign writers, about the strength, wealth and artistic expressiveness of the Russian language. Derzhavin G. R. Derzhavin and Karamzin N. A. Karamzin, Pushkin A. S. Pushkin and Gogol N. V. Gogol, Belinsky V. G. Belinsky and Chernyshevsky N. G. Chernyshevsky, Turgenev I. spoke enthusiastically about the Russian language. S. Turgenev and Tolstoy L. N. Tolstoy.

The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people. This is the language of science and culture. For centuries, masters of words (A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, A. Tvardovsky, K. Paustovsky, etc.) and philologists (F. Buslaev, I. Sreznevsky, L. Shcherba, V. Vinogradov, etc.) improved the Russian language, brought it to the point of subtlety, creating for us a grammar, a dictionary, and model texts.

The arrangement of words, their meanings, the meaning of their connections contains that information about the world and people that introduces one to the spiritual wealth created by many generations of ancestors. Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky wrote that “every word of the language, every form of it is the result of human thoughts and feelings, through which the nature of the country and the history of the people are reflected in the word.” The history of the Russian language, according to V. Kuchelbecker, “will reveal... the character of the people who speak it.” That is why all means of language help to most accurately, clearly and figuratively express the most complex thoughts and feelings of people, all the diversity of the surrounding world. The national language includes not only the standardized literary language, but also folk dialects, vernacular forms of the language, and professionalisms.

The education and development of a national language is a complex, lengthy process. The history of the Russian national language begins in the 17th century, when the Russian nation finally took shape. Further development The Russian national language is directly related to the development of the history and culture of the people. The Russian national language was formed on the basis of the dialects of Moscow and its environs. Literary language forms the basis of the national language and is obliged to maintain its internal unity despite the differences in the means of expression used. The norm of a language is the generally accepted use of linguistic means, the rules that determine the exemplary use of linguistic means. The creator of the Russian literary language is A. Pushkin, who combined the literary Russian language of previous eras with the common spoken language. The language of Pushkin's era has essentially been preserved to this day.

Language is the most important factor in national personal identification, which forms the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, evaluate...

History of the Russian language: origin, distinctive features and Interesting Facts

From Masterweb

Language is the most important factor in national personal identification, which forms the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, and evaluate the world around us. The history of the Russian language is rooted in events 1.5-2 thousand years ago, which favored its creation. Today it is recognized as the richest language in the world and the fifth largest population that speaks it.

How did the Russian language appear?

In prehistoric times, Slavic tribes spoke completely different dialects. The ancestors of the Slavs lived on lands washed by the Dnieper, Vistula and Pripyat rivers. Already by the middle of the 1st century AD. e. tribes occupied all territories from the Adriatic to Lake. Ilmen is in the northeastern part of the European continent.

The history of the emergence and development of the Russian language dates back to about 2-1 thousand years BC. e., when the Proto-Slavic dialect was separated from the group of Indo-European languages.

Scientists conventionally divide the Old Russian language into 3 groups according to their ethnic linguistic component:

• South Russian (Bulgarians, Slovenes, Serbo-Croats);
• Western Russian (Poles, Czechs, Pomors, Slovaks);
• Central Russian (eastern).

Modern norms of vocabulary and grammar in the Russian language were formed as a result of the interaction of many East Slavic dialects that were widespread in the territory of Ancient Rus' and the Church Slavonic language. Also, the written form was greatly influenced by Greek culture.

Theories of the origin of the Russian language

There are several theories, the main of which connect the beginning of the history of the Russian language with ancient Indian Sanskrit and Old Norse.

In accordance with the first, experts consider the ancient language Sanskrit, which was spoken only by Indian priests and scientists, to be the closest to Russian, which indicates that it was introduced from the outside. According to a Hindu legend, which is even studied in theosophical universities in India, in ancient times 7 white-skinned teachers came to the Himalayas from the North, who gave Sanskrit.

With his help, the foundations of the Brahmanical religion were laid, which is still one of the mass religions, and through it Buddhism was created. Until now, Brahmins call the Russian North the ancestral home of humanity and even make pilgrimages there.

As linguists note, 60% of words in Sanskrit completely coincide with Russian in their pronunciation. A lot of questions have been devoted to this scientific works, including ethnographer N.R. Guseva. She spent many years studying the phenomenon of similarity between the Russian language and Sanskrit, calling the latter a simplified version frozen for 4-5 millennia. The only difference between them is the way of writing: Sanskrit is written in hieroglyphs, which scientists call Slavic-Aryan runes.

Another theory of the history of the origin of the Russian language hypothesizes that the word “Rus” itself and the language have Old Norse roots. According to historians, the Greeks called the Norman tribes “dews” until the 9-10 centuries, and only in the 10-11 centuries. this name passed to the Varangian squads who came to the territory of Rus'. It was from them that the future great princes of Ancient Rus' descended. For example, in old birch bark documents from the 11th-13th centuries. Novgorodians consider the territory of Russia Eastern Slavs near Kyiv and Chernigov. And only from the 14th century. when fighting with enemy troops in the chronicles, they define their belonging to the Russians.

Cyril and Methodius: creation of the alphabet

The history of the Russian language, which was formed in written form, originates in the 9th century, in the era of the formation of Kievan Rus. The alphabet that existed in Greece at that time could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, therefore in 860-866. Emperor Michael III of Byzantium gave instructions to create a new alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language. Thus, he wanted to simplify the translation of Greek religious manuscripts into Slavic.

Scientists attribute the success of the creation of its literary form to the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius, who went to preach in Moravia and, observing fasting and prayer, after 40 days they acquired the Glagolitic alphabet. According to legend, it was faith that helped the brothers preach Christianity to the uneducated peoples of Rus'.

At that time, the Slavic alphabet consisted of 38 letters. Later, the Cyrillic alphabet was modified by their followers, using the Greek uncial letter and charter. Both alphabets are almost identical in the sound of the letters, the difference lies in the form and spelling.

It was the rapidity with which Russian writing spread in Rus' that subsequently contributed to the fact that this language became one of the leading languages ​​in its era. This also contributed to the unification of the Slavic peoples, which occurred in the period 9-11 centuries.

Period 12-17 centuries

One of the famous literary monuments of the period of Ancient Rus' was “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which tells about the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsian army. Its authorship still remains unknown. The events described in the poem took place in the 12th century. in the era feudal fragmentation, when the Mongol-Tatars and Polish-Lithuanian conquerors were raging in their raids.

The next stage in the history of the development of the Russian language dates back to this period, when it was divided into 3 ethno-linguistic groups, the dialectical features of which had already been formed:

• Great Russian;
• Ukrainian;
• Belarusian

In the 15th century On the European territory of Russia, there were 2 main groups of dialects: southern and northern dialects, each of which had its own characteristics: Akanye or Okanye, etc. During this period, several intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which Moscow was considered classic. Periodicals and literature began to be published on it.

The formation of Muscovite Rus' served as an impetus for language reform: sentences became shorter, everyday vocabulary and folk proverbs and sayings were widely used. In the history of the development of the Russian language, the era of the beginning of printing played a big role. An illustrative example was the work “Domostroy”, published in the mid-16th century.

In the 17th century, in connection with the heyday of the Polish state, many terms came from the field of technology and jurisprudence, with the help of which the Russian language went through a stage of modernization. By the beginning of the 18th century. French influence was strongly felt in Europe, which gave impetus to the Europeanization of high society in the Russian state.

Works of M. Lomonosov

The common people did not learn Russian writing, and the nobles studied more foreign languages: German, French, etc. Primers and grammar until the 18th century. were made only in the Church Slavonic dialect.

The history of the Russian literary language originates from the alphabet reform, during which Tsar Peter the Great reviewed the 1st edition of the new alphabet. This happened in 1710.

The leading role was played by the scientist Mikhail Lomonosov, who wrote the first “Russian Grammar” (1755). He gave the literary language its final form, merging Russian and Slavic elements.

Lomonosov established a harmonious system of styles and combined all its varieties, using oral speech, command and some regional variations, introduced new system versification, which still remains the main force and part of Russian poetry.

He also wrote a work on rhetoric and an article in which the scientist successfully used the lexical and grammatical wealth of the Church Slavonic language. Lomonosov also wrote about three main styles of poetic language, in which the work with the greatest use of Slavicisms was considered high.

During this period, the democratization of the language took place, its composition and vocabulary were enriched by literate peasants, oral speech of representatives of the merchant class and the lower strata of the clergy. The first most detailed textbooks on the literary Russian language were published by the writer N. Grech in the 1820s.

In noble families, it was mainly boys who studied their native language, who were trained for military service, because they had to command soldiers from the common people. The girls studied French, and spoke Russian only to communicate with servants. Thus, the poet A.S. Pushkin grew up in a French-speaking family, and spoke his native language only with his nanny and grandmother. Later, he studied Russian with priest A. Belikov and a local clerk. Education at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was also conducted in the native language.

In the 1820s, in the high society of Moscow and St. Petersburg, there was an opinion that it was indecent to speak Russian, especially in front of ladies. However, the situation soon changed.

Century XIX - century of Russian literature

The beginning of the flowering and fashion of the Russian language was the costume ball, which in 1830 was held in the Anichkov Palace. On it, the Empress's maid of honor read the poem “Cyclops,” specially written for the celebration by A. S. Pushkin.

Tsar Nicholas I spoke out in defense of his native language, and ordered that all correspondence and office work be conducted in it from now on. All foreigners upon entering the service were required to pass an exam on their knowledge of Russian, and they were also required to speak it at court. Emperor Alexander III put forward the same demands, but at the end of the 19th century. came into fashion English language, which was taught to noble and royal children.

Great influence on the history of the development of the Russian language in the 18-19 centuries. were influenced by Russian writers who became popular at that time: D. I. Fonvizin, N. M. Karamzin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, in poetry - A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov. With their works they showed all the beauty of their native speech, using it freely and freeing it from stylistic restrictions. In 1863, V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published.

Borrowing

In the history of the Russian language, there are many facts about its growth and enrichment when borrowing a large number of words of foreign origin into the vocabulary. Some of the words came from Church Slavonic. IN different time history, the degree of influence of the neighboring linguistic community differed, but this always helped the introduction of new words and phrases.

With contact with European languages ​​for a long time, many words came into Russian speech from them:

• from Greek: beet, crocodile, bench, and most names;
• from Scythians and Iranian group: dog, paradise;
• Some names came from the Scandinavians: Olga, Igor, etc.;
• from Turkic: diamond, pants, fog;
• from Polish: bank, duel;
• French: beach, conductor;
• from Dutch: orange, yacht;
• from Romano-Germanic languages: algebra, tie, dance, powder, cement;
• from Hungarian: hussar, saber;
• musical and culinary terms were borrowed from Italian: pasta, saldo, opera, etc.;
• from English: jeans, sweater, tuxedo, shorts, jam, etc.

The borrowing of technical and other terms gained widespread importance in the late 19th and 20th centuries as new techniques and technologies developed, especially from the English language.

For its part, the Russian language has given the world many words that are now considered international: matryoshka, vodka, samovar, satellite, tsar, dacha, steppe, pogrom, etc.

20th century and the development of the Russian language

In 1918, a reform of the Russian language was carried out, in which the following changes were introduced to the alphabet:

• the letters “yat”, “fita”, “decimal” were removed and replaced with “E”, “F” and “I”;
• the hard sign at the ends of words has been abolished;
• it is indicated in the prefixes to use the letters “s” before voiceless consonants and “z” - before voiced ones;
• changes in endings and cases of some words have been accepted;
• “Izhitsa” itself disappeared from the alphabet even before the reform.

The modern Russian language was approved in 1942, in the alphabet of which 2 letters “E” and “Y” were added, since then it has already consisted of 33 letters.

By the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century, due to universal compulsory education, the widespread use of print media, mass media, cinema and television, the majority of the Russian population began to speak the standard Russian literary language. The influence of dialects is occasionally felt only in the speech of older people who live in remote rural areas.

Many linguists and scientists believe that the Russian language is unique in its richness and expressiveness and its existence arouses interest throughout the world. This is evidenced by statistics that recognize it as the 8th most common language on the planet, because it is spoken by 250 million people.

The most interesting facts from the history of the development of the Russian language in brief:

• it is one of the 6 working languages ​​of the United Nations (UN);
• ranks 4th in the world in the list of most translated languages;
• large Russian-speaking communities live not only in the countries of the former USSR, but also in Turkey, Israel, the USA, etc.;
• when learning Russian by foreigners, it is considered one of the most difficult, along with Chinese and Japanese;
• the oldest books written in Old Russian: the Novgorod Code (early 11th century) and the Ostrovir Gospel (1057) - in Church Slavonic;
• has a unique alphabet, extraordinary forms and cases, many rules and even more exceptions to them;
• in the Old Church Slavonic alphabet the first letter was “I”;
• the youngest letter “E”, which appeared only in 1873;
• in the Russian alphabet, some letters are similar to Latin ones, and 2 of them are completely impossible to pronounce “b” and “b”;
• in the Russian language there are words that begin with “Y”, but these are geographical names;
• in 1993, the Guinness Book of Records included the longest word in the world with 33 letters, “X-ray electrocardiographic,” and already in 2003, with 39 letters, “highly considerate”;
• In Russia, 99.4% of the population speaks their native language fluently.

A Brief History of the Russian Language: Facts and Dates

Summarizing all the data, you can create a chronological sequence of facts that occurred from ancient times to the present day during the formation of modern language:

Given Short story The Russian language reflects the course of events quite conditionally. After all, the development and improvement of oral and written forms of speech, the publication of printed publications and literary masterpieces occurred at different times, gradually gaining more and more popularity among various segments of the Russian population.

As history shows and general characteristics Russian language, its development has been carried out over thousands of years, and enrichment through new words and expressions occurs under the influence of social political life, especially in the last 100 years. In the 21st century, its replenishment is actively influenced by the media and the Internet.

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The national language is the means of oral and written communication of a nation. Along with the commonality of territory, historical, economic and political life, as well as mental makeup, language is a leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term nation(lat.natio – tribe, people).

Russian national language by kinship, belongs to to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Indo-European languages ​​are one of the largest language families, including Anatolian, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Italic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic groups, as well as Armenian, Phrygian, Venetian and some other languages.

Slavic languages ​​come from single pre-Slavic a language that emerged from the base Indo-European language long before our era. During the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, the main features characteristic of all Slavic languages ​​developed. Around the 6th-7th centuries AD, the pre-Slavic unity disintegrated. The Eastern Slavs began to use a relatively common East Slavic tongue. (Old Russian, or the language of Kievan Rus). Around the same time, they formed West Slavic(Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbian Sorbian and “dead” Polabian) and South Slavic languages (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Ruthenian and “dead” Old Church Slavonic).

In the 9th – 11th centuries, based on the translations of liturgical books made by Cyril and Methodius, the first written language of the Slavs was formed - Old Church Slavonic Its literary continuation will be the language used to this day in worship – Church Slavonic .

As feudal fragmentation intensified and the Tatar-Mongol yoke was overthrown, Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities were formed. Thus, the East Slavic group of languages ​​falls into three related languages: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. By the 14th – 15th centuries, the language of the Great Russian people took shape with Rostov-Suzdal and Vladimir dialects at its core.

Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development capitalist relations and the development of the Russian people into nation. Phonetic system, grammatical structure and basic lexicon Russian national language inherited from the language Great Russian people, formed in the process interaction between northern Great Russian and southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north of the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. Exactly Moscow business vernacular had a significant impact on the development of the national language.

The 18th century became an important stage in the development of the Russian national language. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Church Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. What was required was the democratization of the language, the introduction into its structure of elements of the living, colloquial speech of merchants, service people, the clergy and literate peasants. Main role V theoretical foundation of Russian language played by M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a “Russian grammar”, which has theoretical and practical significance: ordering of literary language and development rules for using its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Oratorio is stupid, poetry is tongue-tied, philosophy is unfounded, history is incomprehensible, jurisprudence without grammar is dubious.” Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages:

- "the vastness of the places where he dominates"

- “your own space and contentment.”

In the Petrine era, due to the appearance in Russia of many new objects and phenomena The vocabulary of the Russian language is updated and enriched. The flow of new words was so enormous that even a decree of Peter I was needed to normalize the use of borrowings.

The Karamzin period in the development of the Russian national language is characterized by the struggle for the establishment of a single language norm in it. At the same time, N.M. himself Karamzin and his supporters believe that, when defining norms, it is necessary to focus on Western, European languages ​​(French), free the Russian language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, create new words, expand the semantics of those already used to denote those emerging in the life of society, mainly secular, new objects, phenomena, processes. Karamzin’s opponent was the Slavophile A.S. Shishkov, who believed that Old Slavonic language should become the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute about language between Slavophiles and Westerners was brilliantly resolved in the works of the great Russian writers of the early nineteenth century. A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of lively spoken language, the originality and richness of Russian folklore.

Creator the same national Russian language became A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportionality and conformity”: any element is appropriate if it accurately conveys thought and feeling.

In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing the national language in order to create uniform spelling, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I. Dalia.

After the October Revolution of 1917, important changes took place in the Russian language. Firstly, a huge layer of secular and religious vocabulary, which was very relevant before the revolution, “dies out.” The new government destroys objects, phenomena, processes and at the same time the words denoting them disappear: monarch, heir to the throne, gendarme, police officer, privat-docent, footman and so on. Millions of believing Russians cannot use openly Christian terminology: seminary, deacon, Eucharist, Ascension, Our Lady, Savior, Dormition, etc. These words live among the people secretly, latently, awaiting the hour of their revival. On the other side. a huge number of new words appear, reflecting changes in politics, economics, culture : Soviets, Kolchak member, Red Army soldier, security officer. A large number of complex abbreviated words appear: party contributions, collective farm, Revolutionary Military Council, Council of People's Commissars, commander, Prodrazverstka, tax in kind, cultural enlightenment, educational program. One of the striking distinctive features of the Russian language of the Soviet period – interference of the opposite, The essence of this phenomenon lies in the formation of two opposing lexical systems, positively and negatively characterizing the same phenomena that exist on opposite sides of the barricades, in the world of capitalism and in the world of socialism : scouts and spies, liberating soldiers and occupiers, partisans and bandits.

Nowadays, the Russian national language continues to develop in the post-Soviet space. Among modern characteristic features the most important languages ​​are:

1) replenishment of the vocabulary with new elements; first of all, this is borrowed vocabulary denoting objects and phenomena of the political, economic and cultural life of the country: electorate, extreme sports, business center, conversion, clone, chip, iridology, HIV infection, audio cassette, cheeseburger, jacuzzi;

2) the return to use of words that seemed to have lost such an opportunity forever; first of all this religious vocabulary: lord, communion. Annunciation, Liturgy, All-Night Vigil, Epiphany, Metropolitan;

3) the disappearance, along with objects and phenomena, of words characterizing Soviet reality: Komsomol, party organizer, state farm, DOSAAF, pioneer;

4) destruction of the system formed as a result of the action interference of the opposite.

Language functions

The question of the functions of language is closely related to the problem of the origin of language. What reasons, what living conditions of people contributed to its origin, its formation? What is the purpose of language in the life of society? Not only linguists, but also philosophers, logicians, and psychologists sought answers to these questions.

The emergence of language is closely related to the formation of man as a thinking being. Language arose naturally and is a system that is necessary simultaneously for the individual (individual) and society (collective). As a result, language is multifunctional in nature.

Thus, language helps people share experiences, transfer their knowledge, organize any work, build and discuss plans for joint activities.

Language also serves as a means of consciousness, promotes the activity of consciousness and reflects its result. Language participates in the formation of the individual’s thinking (individual consciousness) and the thinking of society ( public consciousness). This is a cognitive function.

The development of language and thinking is a mutually dependent process. The development of thinking contributes to the enrichment of language, new concepts require new names; Improving language entails improving thinking.

Language also helps to store and transmit information, which is important both for the individual and for the entire society. In written monuments (chronicles, documents, memoirs, fiction, newspapers), in oral folk art, the life of a nation and the history of speakers of a given language are recorded. In this regard, three main functions of language are distinguished:

Communicative;

Cognitive (cognitive, epistemological);

Accumulative (epistemic).

Additional functions appear in speech and are determined by the structure of the speech act, i.e. the presence of an addressee, addressee (communication participants) and the subject of conversation. Let's name two such functions: emotional (expresses the internal state of the speaker, his feelings) and voluntarily (the function of influencing listeners).

Since ancient times, the magical function of the tongue has been known. This is due to the idea that some words and expressions have magical powers, are capable of changing the course of events, influencing a person’s behavior and fate. In religious and mythological consciousness, such power is primarily possessed by the formulas of prayers, spells, conspiracies, divination, and curses.

Since language serves as a material and form of artistic creativity, it is legitimate to talk about the poetic function of language. Thus, language performs a wide variety of functions, which is explained by its use in all spheres of life and activity of man and society.

Russian language is the national language of the Russian people

Language is created by the people and serves them from generation to generation. In its development, a language goes through several stages and depends on the degree of development of the ethnos (Greek ethnos - people). At an early stage, a tribal language is formed, then a national language and, finally, a national one.

The national language is formed on the basis of the national language, which ensures its relative stability. It is the result of the process of formation of a nation and at the same time a prerequisite and condition for its formation.

By its nature, the national language is heterogeneous. This is explained by the heterogeneity of the ethnic group itself as a community of people. Firstly, people unite based on territoriality, place of residence. As a means of communication, rural residents use a dialect - one of the varieties of the national language. A dialect, as a rule, is a collection of smaller units - dialects, which have common linguistic features and serve as a means of communication for residents of nearby villages and hamlets. Territorial dialects have their own characteristics, which are found at all levels of the language: in sound structure, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, word formation. The dialect exists only in oral form.

The presence of dialects is the result of feudal fragmentation during the formation of Ancient Rus', then the Russian state. In the era of capitalism, despite the expansion of contacts between speakers of different dialects and the formation of a national language, territorial dialects are preserved, although they undergo some changes. In the 20th century, especially in the second half, in connection with the development of the media (print, radio, cinema, television, intervision), there is a process of degradation of dialects, their disappearance. The study of dialects is of interest:

From a historical point of view: dialects retain archaic features that are not reflected in the literary language;

From the point of view of the formation of a literary language: on the basis of which main dialect and then the national language did the literary language develop; what features of other dialects does it borrow; how the literary language subsequently influences dialects and how dialects influence the literary language.

Secondly, social reasons contribute to the unification of people: common profession, occupation, interests, social status. For such societies, the means of communication is the social dialect. Since the social dialect has many varieties, in the scientific literature the terms jargon and argot are also used to name them.

Jargon is the speech of social and professional groups of people. It is used by sailors, electronics engineers, computer scientists, athletes, actors, and students. Unlike territorial dialects, jargon does not have phonetic and grammatical features unique to it. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology.

Some slang words and set expressions are becoming widespread and are used to make speech expressive. For example: homeless person, homeless person, breaker, green, money, biker, party, chaos, reach the handle, take it to the gun. Individual words and phrases are currently not perceived as slang, since they have long been included in the literary language and are colloquial or neutral. For example: cheat sheet, mood, rocker, snickers, be on fire.

Sometimes the word argo is used as a synonym for the word jargon. So, for example, they talk about student, school slang, meaning jargon.

The main purpose of argot is to make speech incomprehensible to strangers. The lower classes of society are primarily interested in this: thieves, swindlers, cheaters. There was also professional argot. It helped artisans (tailors, tinsmiths, saddlers...), as well as merchants (peddlers who sold small goods by peddling and peddling in small towns, villages, villages) when talking with their own people, to hide the secrets of their craft and the secrets of their business from outsiders.

IN AND. Dahl, in the first volume of the Explanatory Dictionary, in an article with the title word afenya, ofenya, gives an example of the argotic speech of merchants: Ropa smear, half-fading, loose smokers will smoke. This means: It's time to sleep, it's midnight, the roosters will crow soon.

In addition to territorial and social dialects, the national language includes vernacular.

Vernacular speech is one of the forms of the national Russian language, which does not have its own signs of systemic organization and is characterized by a set of linguistic forms that violate the norms of the literary language. Speakers of the vernacular (city dwellers with a low level of education) are not aware of such a violation of norms; they do not grasp or understand the difference between non-literary and literary forms.

The following are considered colloquial:

In phonetics: driver, put, sentence; ridiculitis, colidor, rezetka, colander;

In morphology: my callus, with jam, doing, on the beach, driver, without a coat, running, lying down, lodges;

In vocabulary: pedestal instead of pedestal, semi-clinic instead of clinic.

Vernacular speech, like territorial and social dialects, has only an oral form.

The concept of Russian literary language

The highest form of the national language is the literary language. It is presented in oral and written form. It is characterized by the presence of norms that cover all levels of language (phonetics, vocabulary, morphology, syntax). Literary language serves all spheres of human activity: politics, culture, office work, legislation, everyday communication.

The norms of a literary language are reflected in dictionaries: spelling, spelling, explanatory, dictionaries of difficulties, phrases.

Literary language has two forms - oral and written. They differ in four parameters:

1 Form of implementation.

2. Attitude to the addressee.

3. Generation of form.

4. The nature of oral and writing.

When implementing each form of literary language, the writer or speaker selects words, combinations of words, and composes sentences to express their thoughts. Depending on what material the speech is constructed from, it takes on a bookish or colloquial character. This also distinguishes the literary language as the highest form of the national language from its other varieties. Let us compare, for example, the proverbs: Desire is stronger than compulsion and Hunting is stronger than bondage. The idea is the same, but framed differently. In the first case, the verbal nouns na - nie (desire, compulsion) are used, giving the speech a bookish character, in the second - the words hunting, pushche, giving a touch of colloquialism. It is not difficult to assume that in a scientific article or diplomatic dialogue the first proverb will be used, and in a casual conversation - the second. Consequently, the sphere of communication determines the selection of linguistic material, which in turn forms and determines the type of speech.

Book speech is built according to the norms of the literary language, their violation is unacceptable; sentences must be complete and logically connected to each other. IN book speech Abrupt transitions from one thought, which is not brought to its logical conclusion, to another are not allowed. Among the words there are abstract, bookish words, including scientific terminology and official business vocabulary.

Colloquial speech is not so strict in observing the norms of the literary language. It allows the use of forms that are classified in dictionaries as colloquial. The text of such a speech is dominated by commonly used, colloquial vocabulary; preference is given to simple sentences, participial and adverbial phrases are avoided.

So, the functioning of literary language in the most important areas of human activity; the various means for transmitting information embedded in it; availability of oral and written forms; the distinction and contrast between book and colloquial speech - all this gives reason to consider the literary language the highest form of the national language.

I would like to draw your attention to the features that characterize the functioning of the literary language in beginning of XXI century.

Firstly, the composition of participants in mass communication has never been so numerous and diverse.

Secondly, official censorship has almost disappeared, so people express their thoughts more freely, their speech becomes more open, confidential, and relaxed.

Thirdly, spontaneous, spontaneous, unprepared speech begins to predominate.

Fourthly, the variety of communication situations leads to changes in the nature of communication. It frees itself from rigid formality and becomes more relaxed.

New conditions for the functioning of language, the emergence of a large number of unprepared public speeches lead not only to the democratization of speech, but also to a sharp decline in its culture.

Jargon, colloquial elements and other extra-literary means poured into the pages of periodicals and into the speech of educated people: grandma, piece, piece, stolnik, bastard, pump out, wash, unfasten, scroll and many others. The words party, showdown, lawlessness have become commonly used even in official speech; the last word in the meaning of “lawlessness that has no limits” has gained particular popularity.

For speakers and public speakers, the level of admissibility has changed, if not completely absent. Curses, “obscene language”, “unprintable words” can be found today on the pages of independent newspapers, free publications, and in the texts of works of art. In stores and at book fairs, dictionaries are sold that contain not only slang and criminal words, but also obscene ones.

There are many people who declare that swearing and swearing are considered a characteristic, distinctive feature of the Russian people. If we turn to oral folk art, proverbs and sayings, it turns out that it is not entirely legitimate to say that the Russian people consider swearing an integral part of their life. Yes, people are trying to somehow justify it, to emphasize that swearing is a common thing: Swearing is not a reserve, and without it it won’t last for an hour; Swearing is not smoke - it won't hurt your eyes; Hard words break no bones. She even seems to help in the work; you can’t do without her: If you don’t curse, you won’t get the job done; Without swearing, you won’t be able to open the lock in the cage.

But I think something else is more important: It’s okay to argue, but it’s a sin to scold; Do not scold: what comes out of a person is what defiles him; Swearing is not tar, but akin to soot: if it doesn’t stick, it gets dirty; People wither away from abuse, but get fat from praise; You can’t take it with your throat, you can’t beg it with abuse.

This is not only a warning, it is already a condemnation, it is a ban.

The Russian literary language is our wealth, our heritage. He embodied the cultural and historical traditions of the people. We are responsible for his condition, for his fate.

The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people. This is the language of science and culture. For centuries, masters of words (A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, A. Tvardovsky, K. Paustovsky, etc.) and philologists (F. Buslaev, I. Sreznevsky, L. Shcherba, V. Vinogradov, etc.) improved the Russian language, brought it to the point of subtlety, creating for us a grammar, a dictionary, and model texts.
The arrangement of words, their meanings, the meaning of their connections contains that information about the world and people that introduces one to the spiritual wealth created by many generations of ancestors.
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky wrote that “every word of the language, every form of it is the result of human thoughts and feelings, through which the nature of the country and the history of the people are reflected in the word.” The history of the Russian language, according to V. Kuchelbecker, “will reveal... the character of the people who speak it.”
That is why all means of language help to most accurately, clearly and figuratively express the most complex thoughts and feelings of people, all the diversity of the surrounding world. The national language includes not only the standardized literary language, but also folk dialects, vernacular forms of the language, and professionalisms.
The education and development of a national language is a complex, lengthy process. The history of the Russian national language begins in the 17th century, when the Russian nation finally took shape. The further development of the Russian national language is directly related to the development of the history and culture of the people. The Russian national language was formed on the basis of the dialects of Moscow and its environs. Literary language forms the basis of the national language and is obliged to maintain its internal unity despite the differences in the means of expression used. The norm of a language is the generally accepted use of linguistic means, the rules that determine the exemplary use of linguistic means. The creator of the Russian literary language is A. Pushkin, who combined the literary Russian language of previous eras with the common spoken language. The language of Pushkin's era has essentially been preserved to this day. Literary language unites living generations; people understand each other because they use the same language norms.
Literary language exists in two varieties - oral and written. The main advantages of the Russian national language are embodied in Russian fiction.
The peculiarity of the Russian national language is that it is the state language in Russia and serves as a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation.
The Law “On Languages” defines the main areas of functioning of the Russian language as the state language: the highest bodies of state power and administration; publication of laws and other legal acts of the republics within the Russian Federation; holding elections; in the activities of government bodies; in official correspondence and office work; in the all-Russian media.
Studies carried out in the Russian republics and a number of CIS countries indicate recognition of the fact that on modern stage It is difficult to solve the problem of interethnic communication without the Russian language. Playing the role of an intermediary between all the languages ​​of the peoples of Russia, the Russian language helps solve the problems of the political, economic and cultural development of the country. In international relations, states use world languages, legally proclaimed by the United Nations as official and working languages. These languages ​​are English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic. In any of these six languages, interstate political, economic, scientific and cultural contacts can be carried out, international meetings, forums, conferences can be held, correspondence and office work can be conducted on the scale of the UN, the CIS, etc. The global significance of the Russian language is due to the richness and expressiveness of its vocabulary, sound structure, word formation, syntax.
In order to communicate and disseminate experience in teaching the Russian language abroad, the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was created in Paris in 1967. On the initiative of MAPRYAL, Russian language Olympiads are held among schoolchildren around the world. The philosopher Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin (1882-1954), speaking at the Pushkin anniversary in 1937, said this about the Russian language: “And our Russia has given us one more gift: this is our wondrous, our mighty, our singing language. All of it is our Russia. It contains all her gifts: the breadth of unlimited possibilities, and the wealth of sounds, and words, and forms; both spontaneity and clarity; and simplicity, and scope, and guy; and dreaminess, and strength, and clarity, and beauty.
Everything is accessible to our language. He himself is submissive to everything worldly and supramundane, and therefore has the power to express, depict and convey everything.
It contains the hum of distant bells and the silver of nearby bells. It contains gentle rustles and crunches. There are grassy rustles and sighs in it. There is a squeal and a roar, and a whistle, and the chirping of birds. In it are thunders of heaven and roars of beasts; and unsteady whirlwinds and barely audible splashes. The whole singing Russian soul is in him; the echo of the world and human groans, and the mirror of divine visions...
This is the language of a sharp, cutting thought. The language of a tremulous, nascent presentiment. The language of strong-willed decisions and accomplishments. The language of soaring and prophecy. The language of elusive transparency and eternal verbs.
This is the language of a mature, distinctive national character. And the Russian people, who created this language, are themselves called to reach mentally and spiritually the height to which their language calls them...”

2 The Russian language is the primary element of great Russian literature. Wealth, beauty, expressiveness of the Russian language. Literary text in the study of the Russian language.

1) aesthetic function of the word; 2) direct and figurative meanings of a word in a literary text; 3) verbal image. II. Wealth, beauty, expressiveness of the Russian language: 1) flexibility and expressiveness of the phonetic system, sound writing; 2) the richness and diversity of the word-formation system of the Russian language; 3) the lexical richness of the Russian language, the main poetic tropes (epithet, metaphor, personification, words-symbols - traditional metaphors in Russian literature), figures of speech (gradation, antithesis); 4) expressiveness of the morphology and syntax of the Russian language, visual techniques based on grammatical * The proposed ticket material can be used by the student as a reference for analyzing the text in the exam. mathematical basis (inversion, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, comparison). III. Linguistics about literary text: 1) philological and linguistic concepts of the text and its features, structure of the text: expressiveness, articulation, autonomy, coherence, orderliness, integrity; theme, jt idea, plot, composition; given and new, microtext, micro-|rotheme, paragraph; 2) connection of sentences in the text; 3) speech styles; 4) types of speech. I. The word, according to M. Gorky’s definition, is the “primary element” of literature, and language itself is the material of verbal art. The famous linguist D.P. Zhuravlev wrote that fiction is highest form organization of language, when everything is important: the depth of the meaning of the word, the rhythm, and the music of sounds full of meaning. Words as elements of artistic, poetic | speech have not only semantic (semantic) information, but also aesthetic information; They not only communicate something to the mind, but also influence the senses with their uniqueness, imagery, sound organization, unusual word formation, special word order in a sentence, diversity of word meanings, and rhythm. The literary text is full of words with both direct meaning and figurative-figurative meaning. Verbal image (a separate word, paragraph, stanza - part literary work ) shows how the writer sees and artistically depicts the world. The writer has the ability, observing language norms, to choose from the possible options the most successful ones for creating a verbal image. Vivid examples of speech mastery are the works of art of outstanding Russian writers. Gogol wrote about Pushkin’s poems: “There are few words, but they are so precise that they mean everything. There is an abyss of space in every word; every word is immense, like a poet.” In the language of a work of art, an exact word is not only a word that accurately designates an object, phenomenon, action, sign, but also a word precisely chosen to express the artistic intention of the author: - To me, Russian speech is like music: In it the word sounds, sings , The Russian soul breathes in it, its Creator - the people. And I dive into this speech, Like into a river, And there, from the bottom, I extract treasures, In which spring sings. (Ya. Brown.) II. The Russian language is rich, beautiful and expressive. The flexibility and expressiveness of the Russian phonetic system delights many. One of the most powerful techniques is sound writing. It is achieved by selecting words of similar sound, a masterly combination of sounds, repetition of the same sound or combination of sounds, and the use of words whose sound resembles the sound impressions of the depicted phenomenon. The repetition of similar consonants is called alliteration, and the repetition of vowels is called assonance. Methodist scientist S.I. Lvova in the book “Literature Lessons” says: “So, the sonorous trembling elastic sound [r] is associated in our minds with the meaning of active noise, thunder, roar, peal, solemn ringing: A roar of thunder passed across the blue sky . (S. Marshak.) ...Persistent repetition of the sound [u] can enhance the mood of slight sadness and tenderness: I love Russian birch, sometimes light, sometimes sad. (A. Prokofiev.) "The huge number of morphemes in the Russian language is a sign of its wealth and a source of special expressiveness. V. G. Belinsky wrote: “The Russian language is unusually rich in expressing natural phenomena... what wealth... for depicting the phenomena of natural reality lies only in Russian verbs that have the following forms: swim, swim, swim, swim, swim, sail, sail, to sail, to sail, to swim, to swim, to float away, to float away, to float, to float, to swim up, to swim up, to melt, to spread out, to float, to swim. It’s all one verb to express twenty shades of the same action!” Belinsky drew attention to the expressiveness of multi-prefix verbs. In Russian folk songs and fairy tales, diminutive suffixes are often used: oak forest, path-path, berezki, hostess, wild little head, red sun, silky handkerchief. Writers and poets often play on the internal form of a word (the meaning of morphemes): I spent the whole winter in this region. I say that I settled down because I buried myself in the steppe. (P. Vyazemsky.) The vocabulary of the Russian language is surprisingly diverse. It includes synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, words with a figurative meaning. These linguistic means are the foundation for the construction of various poetic tropes and figures of speech. In works of Russian literature one can find adjectives-epithets that characterize an object, emphasize its qualities, properties, and create a certain image: wind - violent, wandering, frisky (in Baratynsky), fleeting, volatile, deserted (in Pushkin), sighing (in Balmont ), yellow, blue-cold (from Yesenin), sweet, precious (from Vasiliev). There are many examples of metaphor, a path where words or expressions are brought together by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast: the sleepy lake of the city (by Blok), grains of eyes, a fire of red rowan (by Yesenin), the sea of ​​​​the sky (by Khlebnikov), heavy emerald of sea water ( by Mandelstam), stream of smiles (by Svetlov). Often in works of folklore and fiction there are personifications - when inanimate objects are endowed with the properties of living beings (the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel): The sleepy birch trees smiled... (S. Yesenin.) What are you howling about, night wind... (F. Tyutchev.) Synonyms are the basis of such a stylistic figure of speech as gradation - the arrangement of words according to the degree of strengthening or weakening of their semantic or emotional meaning: In two hundred to three hundred years, life on Earth will be unimaginably beautiful, amazing. (A. Chekhov.) Antithesis is a stylistic figure of contrast, a sharp opposition of concepts: I will laugh with everyone, but I don’t want to cry with anyone. (M. Lermontov.) Homonyms, outdated words, dialectisms, professionalisms, phraseological combinations They also have amazing artistic abilities. The Russian language is rich in syntactic figurative means. Intonation gives syntactic constructions a natural, emotional sound. The inversion in the language has been polished for centuries: It’s a sad time! charm of the eyes! (A. Pushkin.) She gives the poem more expression, emotionality, and changes its intonation. A rhetorical question, a rhetorical (poetic) appeal creates a special emotionality, a conversational flavor: Familiar clouds! How do you live? (M. Svetlov.) III. To better understand artistic speech and its originality, you need to know well the laws of functioning of the Russian language. Artistic reproduction of the reality depicted in a literary work presupposes that the reader has the ability to understand the meaning of words, the presence of special knowledge from various fields of science, history and culture of the people and, of course, knowledge of linguistic theory. 20 In a broad philological understanding, a text is a work of literature. In a narrow sense, a text is a combination of sentences expressed orally or in writing, separated from each other by final signs (period, question mark or exclamation mark) and related in meaning (topic and main idea) and grammatically. The main means of grammatical connection of sentences in a text are the order of sentences, the order of words in sentences, and intonation. Each subsequent sentence is built on the basis of the previous one, incorporating one or another part of it. The repeating part is called “given” (what is known, given to the speaker - D), the speaker builds on it, constructing a new sentence that develops the topic of the statement. The part of a sentence that contains new information and falls on logical stress, received the name “new” (N). The text has a beginning and an end, that is, it is a relatively complete statement. In the text, sentences are arranged in a certain order. The structure of the text is connected by theme and idea, plot and composition. The content of the text is revealed only through its verbal form. The theme is what is described in the text, what the narrative is about, the reasoning unfolds, and the dialogue is conducted. The title can name the topic. The titles of works of art can be directly related to the theme, or can represent a metaphorical image leading to the theme (“Hero of Our Time”, “ Dead Souls"). The topic can be narrow and broad (“Autumn” is a broad topic, “Autumn Day” is a narrow topic). The main idea is the main idea, the intention of the work, what is said about the subject of speech. Plot - in a literary text - the sequence and connection of the description of events. Composition - structure, relationship and mutual arrangement parts of a work of art. How are the sentences connected to each other in the text? There are two ways to connect sentences in a text, two ways to unfold a text - sequential and parallel (see ticket M° 25). A person, a writer, has at his disposal a whole set of language options, each of which is intended for use in a specific area of ​​life. Variants of the literary language, which are determined by various areas of communication, are called functional styles of speech (see ticket No. 27). There are three main functional and semantic types of text: narration, description, reasoning.

3 Classification of vowels and consonants. Strong and weak positions of sounds

Speech sounds are studied in a branch of linguistics called phonetics. All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants. Vowel sounds can be in strong and weak positions. A strong position is a position under stress, in which the sound is pronounced clearly, for a long time, with greater force and does not require verification, for example: city, earth, greatness. In a weak position (without stress), the sound is pronounced indistinctly, briefly, with less force and requires verification, for example: head, forest, teacher. All six vowel sounds are distinguished under stress. In an unstressed position, instead of [a], [o], [z], other vowel sounds are pronounced in the same part of the word. So, instead of [o], a slightly weakened sound [a] - [vad]a is pronounced, instead of [e] and [a] in unstressed syllables, [ie] is pronounced - a sound intermediate between [i] and [e], for example: [ m"iesta], [h"iesy], [p"iet"brka], [s*ielo]. The alternation of strong and weak positions of vowel sounds in the same part of a word is called positional alternation of sounds. The pronunciation of vowel sounds depends on which syllable they are in in relation to the stressed one. In the first pre-stressed syllable, vowel sounds change less, for example: st[o]l - st[a]la. In other unstressed syllables, the vowels change more, and some do not differ at all and in pronunciation approach zero sound, for example^: transported - [p''riev'6s], gardener - [s'davot], water carrier - [v'davbs] (here ъ кь denote an unclear sound, zero sound). The alternation of vowel sounds in strong and weak positions is not reflected in writing, for example: to be surprised is a miracle; in the unstressed position, the letter is written that denotes the stressed sound in this root: to be surprised means “to meet with a marvel (miracle).” This is the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, providing for uniform spelling of significant parts of a word - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of position. The designation of unstressed vowels, verified by stress, is subject to the morphological principle. There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language. Consonant sounds of the Russian language are those sounds during the formation of which the air encounters some kind of obstacle in the oral cavity; they consist of voice and noise or only noise. In the first case, voiced consonants are formed, in the second - voiceless consonants. Most often, voiced and voiceless consonants form pairs based on voicedness-voicelessness: [b] - [p], [v] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [zh] - [ w], [h] - [s]. However, some consonants are only voiceless: [x], [ts], [ch"], [sh] or only voiced: [l], [m], [n], [r], [G]. There are also hard and soft consonants. Most of them form pairs: [b] - [b"], [c] - [c"], [d] - [g"], [d] - [d"], [z] - [z"] , [k] - [k"], [l] - [l"], [m] - [m*], [n] - [n*], [p] - [p"], [r] - [p"], [s] - [s"], [t] - [t"], [f] - [f"], [x] - [x"]. Hard consonants [zh], [sh], [ts] and soft consonants [h"], [t"] do not have paired sounds. In a word, consonant sounds can occupy different positions, that is, the location of the sound among other sounds in the word. A position in which the sound does not change is strong. For a consonant sound, this is the position before the vowel (weak), sonorant (true), before [v] and [v*] (twist). All other positions are weak for consonants. At the same time, the consonant sound changes: the voiced sound in front of the deaf becomes voiceless: hem - [patshyt"]; the deaf before the voiced becomes voiced: request - [prbz"ba]; the voiced one is deafened at the end of the word: oak - [dup]; no sound is pronounced: holiday - [praz"n"ik]; hard before soft can become soft: power - [vlas"t"].

4 The word as a unit of language. Lexical meaning of the word. Groups of words by lexical meaning

Man needed a word in order to give a name to everything that is in the world. After all, in order to talk about something and even think about it, you need to call it something, give it a name. Each word has its own sound, letter shell, individual lexical (the meaning of the word) and typical grammatical (signs of the word as a part of speech) meanings, for example: [t"ul1] - tulle; individual lexical meaning - “thin mesh fabric"; the word tulle - noun, masculine, 2nd declension, singular, nominative case.
All the words of a language form its vocabulary, or vocabulary. The branch of language science that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology. In lexicology, independent words are studied from the point of view, first of all, of lexical meaning, as well as use and origin. The lexical meaning of a word is the main idea that we think about when we pronounce a word, the semantic content of the word, which is equally understood by people speaking a given language.
There are several ways to explain the lexical meaning of words: 1. Interpretation (clarification) of the word in the dictionary entries of explanatory dictionaries. The largest number - 200,000 words - is contained in the famous four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”, compiled by V. I. Dal one and a half hundred years ago.
The most complete interpretations of words are provided by the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, compiled by scientists of the Academy of Sciences. It explains the meaning in 120,000 words. Currently, this dictionary is being published in its 2nd edition in 20 volumes. Recently, a one-volume “Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” appeared, edited by S. A. Kuznetsov. It explains the meaning of 130,000 words, including those that have appeared in the Russian language in recent decades.
2. Selection of synonyms: joy - fun, revival, holiday, celebration, jubilation.
3. Interpretation, which includes the same root words: teacher - the one who transmits knowledge, ant - the one who lives in the grass-ant, shepherd - the one who grazes, drives animals to pasture.
4. Illustration of the meaning of the word, drawing.
A word can have one lexical meaning; such words are called unambiguous, for example: dialogue, purple, saber, on guard. A word can have two or more lexical meanings, such words are called polysemantic, for example: the word root is polysemantic, in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova four meanings of this word are indicated: 1. The underground part of the plant . The apple tree has taken root. 2. The inside of a tooth, hair, nail. Turn red to the roots of your hair. 3. transfer The beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. The root is the significant part of the word.
If the meaning of a word directly indicates an object, action, phenomenon, then such a meaning is called direct: parsley root, tooth root, tree root. If the direct meaning of a word is transferred to another object, then such a meaning is called figurative: the root of the family, the root of evil. In everyday speech, a person constantly uses words in a figurative meaning: Golden autumn, blood pressure drops, silver voice, easy-going character. Poets and writers use the special expressiveness of the figurative meaning of a word and create special means of artistic representation: metaphor, epithet, personification. This helps them vividly, unexpectedly express their thoughts and feelings: Just as a tree quietly drops its leaves, so I drop sad words... (S. Yesenin.)
The Russian language has a huge number of words. All of them are divided into groups depending on what lexical feature of the word is meant. 1. Words are unambiguous, ambiguous, using words in a figurative meaning. This group emphasizes the features of the lexical meaning of words: iceberg, brochure, lecture hall - unambiguous; earth, run, turquoise - ambiguous; iced tea (direct) - cold colors (translated) - cold heart (translated).
2. Synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, homographs, homophones. This group reflects the semantic connection of different words in the language.
Synonyms are words that are close in lexical meaning: spoke - said, said, responded, muttered; short - short, short; eyes - eyes. Antonyms are words that have opposite lexical meanings: work - idleness, talk - remain silent, cheerful - sad.
Homonyms are words that are completely different in meaning, but sound and spell the same (onion - “plant” and onion - “weapon”). Homographs are words that have differences in stress (atlas and atlas). Homophones are words that have differences in spelling, but at the same time sound the same (rinse the kitten and rinse the laundry).
You cannot mix polysemantic words and homonym words. Polysemy differs from homonymy in that different meanings of one polysemantic word retain some commonality in the interpretation of their meaning. Therefore, in the dictionary, polysemantic words are listed in one dictionary entry and are given as one word with all meanings listed. Homonyms are different words, the meanings of which have nothing in common, and in explanatory dictionaries homonyms are described in different dictionary entries.
3. Common vocabulary, dialectisms, professionalisms; neutral, bookish, colloquial words; outdated vocabulary. These words are allocated to a special group due to the peculiarities of their use in speech. Common words are words that all people use: grass, earth, black, three, eyes.
Dialecticisms are local words that are understandable to residents of a particular area: kurnik - “pie with chicken meat”, kosokhlest - “slanting rain with the wind”. Professionalisms are special words that are used by specialists, people of a certain profession: a book publisher uses the words font, flyleaf, binding; scientist-linguist - lexicology, professionalism; doctor - injection, syringe, anesthesia.
Neutral words are not associated with any style of speech and are appropriate in various speech situations. Book words are assigned to any style of speech: artistic, scientific, official business, journalistic. Colloquial words are used in communication. This can be seen in a number of synonymous words: leave (neutral) - bow out, leave (book) - evaporate (colloquial). Words that are no longer used in Everyday life due to the disappearance of the corresponding concepts, they are called obsolete, for example: chain mail, smerd, serf, mayor, policeman, guard. But they are used in stories, comedies, novels, if we are talking about antiquity. Instead of outdated words, new ones appear based on those that already exist in the language: pen (quill) - I write with a pen, pen (steel) - golden pen. 4. Original Russian words and borrowed vocabulary. This group of words reflects the characteristics of their origin.
The original Russian vocabulary includes those words that were formed directly in the Russian language. Among the native Russian words, the following stand out: common Slavic words (mother, shepherd, yard, porridge, kvass, birch, field, morning), East Slavic words (uncle, nephew, spoon, ravine, flower) and Russian proper (grandmother, grandfather, fork, fairy tale, calf, duck).
There are many borrowed words in the Russian language. According to scientists, approximately every tenth word is borrowed. In the 16th century The Russian language was enriched with German and Dutch words (master, storm), in the 19th century. a large number of borrowings were from French(ballet, dressing table, landscape), in the 20th century. the main borrowings are English words(marketing, manager, rally, football). Borrowed words reflect historical changes in the life of the state, in science, technology, economics, and art. These words can be identified by certain characteristics: if the word begins with a vowel a or e (diamond, era, echo), if the root of the word contains the combination ke, ge, he, ey, mu, byu or pyu (layout, coat of arms, diagram, engraving, puree, bust), if the letter f appears in a word (owl, focus, rhyme), if two or more vowels are adjacent to the root (poet, duet, theater), we can safely say that the word came into Russian from another language.

5 Groups of words by use and origin

Words that are not known to all Russian speakers are called non-common words. These include dialect and slang vocabulary, as well as professional and terminological vocabulary.
Uncommon words used in a certain area are called dialectal, for example: kuren - house.
Uncommon words used by certain groups of people to name objects that have their own names in the literary language are called jargon, for example: limite - TV.
Professional and terminological vocabulary is vocabulary used in a certain field of human activity. It makes it easy to distinguish a medical worker from a miner, a steelworker from a hunter, etc.
Among professional words, there are terms denoting scientific concepts and highly specialized words, for example: scalpel, bronchoscopy, part of speech, phoneme, grammatical basis.
Depending on their origin, all words in the Russian language can be divided into two large categories: native vocabulary and vocabulary borrowed from other languages.
Original Russian words are the basic words that were included in the original vocabulary of the Russian language or were subsequently formed from the lexical material of the language. Words from the most ancient layer of words, for example: mother, brother, sister, water, etc., are found in other Indo-European languages ​​(they just sound slightly different).
Among the borrowed vocabulary, a large group of Old Church Slavonic words stands out: gates, valor, zlato, words borrowed from other Slavic languages: borscht, feta cheese (Ukrainian), skarb, cord (Polish), etc., as well as borrowings from non-Slavic languages : cotton wool, wardrobe (German), station, football (English), luggage, chef (French), etc.
Borrowed words, when included in the vocabulary of the Russian language, usually lose the specific phonetic and morphological features of the original language and acquire sound and grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language.

6 Phraseologism: its lexical meaning, function in a sentence and text

Phraseologism can be replaced with one word, for example: hack on the nose - remember; like looking into the water - foreseeing. The lexical meaning of a phraseological unit is close to the lexical meaning of one word.
Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms, for example, the phraseological unit grated kalach (meaning “experienced person”) has a phraseological unit synonymous with shot sparrow; the phraseological unit has a lot of edges (in the meaning of “many”) there is an antonym phraseological unit one or two and miscalculated (in the meaning of “few”).
Most of the phraseological units reflect the history of Russia, the customs of their ancestors, their work, for example, the expression to beat the thumbs in the meaning of “do nothing” arose on the basis of the direct meaning of “split a block of wood into thumbs (chocks) to make spoons and ladle out of them,” i.e. to make a simple, easy task.
Many phraseological units were born from songs, fairy tales, parables, and proverbs of the Russian people, for example: good fellow, shedding burning tears, rivers of milk.
Some phraseological units are related to professional speech: in an hour, a teaspoon - from medical vocabulary; to leave the stage - from the speech of the artists. Phraseologisms/and appeared in the process of borrowing. Everyone knows borrowed phraseological units from the Bible, for example: the prodigal son, Balaam’s donkey. Many phraseological units come from ancient Greek and Roman mythology: Achilles' heel, Procrustean bed. Many quotes and popular words from foreign classical literature have become phraseological units, for example: to be or not to be (from W. Shakespeare’s tragedy “Hamlet”).
Phraseologism characterizes all aspects of a person’s life: attitude to work (golden hands, kick ass); attitude towards other people (bosom friend, disservice); personal strengths and weaknesses (lead by the nose, turn up your nose, don’t lose your head).
In a sentence, an idiom is one member: subject, predicate, object or adverbial - depending on which part of speech it can be replaced, for example, in the sentence The guys are working with their sleeves rolled up, the idiom rolling up their sleeves can be replaced with the adverb well (diligently). Consequently, this phraseological unit will serve as an adverbial circumstance of the course of action.
Phraseologisms are found in texts of artistic style: in Russian folklore as proverbs, sayings, winged words (there is no truth in the legs), in the sayings of literary heroes (dotting the i; the golden mean), in aphoristic phrases (the legend is fresh, but hard to believe - from A. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”), in turns of colloquial speech (in full Ivanovskaya, with Gulkin’s nose).
Phraseologisms give speech imagery, expressiveness, make it richer and more beautiful.

7 Groups of morphemes (significant parts of words): root and auxiliary (suffix, prefix, ending). Derivational and inflectional service morphemes.

The root is the main significant part of the word, which contains general meaning all similar words. Words with the same root are called co-root words: “winter,” “wintering,” “winter,” “winter.”
A suffix is ​​a significant part of a word that is located after the root and serves to form new words and forms of words: lamplighter, stylist. A word can have not one, but several suffixes: reader, prudence.
A prefix is ​​a significant part of a word that is located before the root and serves to form new words: run - ^run - run - "run. A word can have not one, but two or more prefixes: not uninteresting. In some words, the prefixes have merged with the root and no longer stand out: adore, respond, disappear.
Among the prefixes there are synonymous (fashionable, best) and antonymous (fly - ^fly).
So, word-forming morphemes are suffixes and prefixes; they clarify and specify the lexical meaning of a word, form words with a new lexical meaning and are attached to part of a word or to a whole word. The main ways of their formation differ depending on which morpheme is used to form words: prefixal, suffixal, prefix-suffixal, suffixless.
The prefix method is used to form nouns (luck - "failure"), adjectives (important - most important), pronouns (something - something), verbs (cook - prepare), adverbs (where - "nowhere"). All independent parts of speech are formed by the suffix method, but it is the main one for nouns, adjectives and adverbs (whiteness, foggy, whiten black). The suffix is ​​not added to the whole word, but to its generating stem (original part). For example, the suffix -tel (with the meaning “person, occupation, profession”) is added to the base of the word (purchase), and a new word is formed - buyer.
For example, nouns with the suffix -nik (with the meaning “person, object, profession”) are formed using the prefix-suffix method. For example, the word snowdrop means “that which grows under the snow.” The prefix sub1- and the suffix -nick- are simultaneously added to the base (snow). Other parts of speech are also formed in this way, for example: land, “desktop, seaside,” “nabelo.”
The suffixless way of forming words is that the ending is discarded from the word (green] - greenery) or the ending and suffix are discarded at the same time (otlete\тъ\ - departure). Thus, the main function of prefixes and suffixes is word formation. In addition to endings, inflectional service morphemes also include formative suffixes. For example, suffixes of participles (speaking, reading, made, ground, fallen), comparative and superlative suffixes of adjectives, adverbs, as well as formative postfixes (highest, more, unwell). Formative suffixes, like endings, can be zero: carried - carried, sokh - dried, baked - baked.

8 Basic ways of forming words in Russian

In Russian, new words can be formed by adding a prefix to original word. This way of forming words is called prefixes. For example, by adding (attaching) the prefix za1- (with the meaning “beginning of action”) to the productive base (to prepare), we form the word izgoto-vit; the adverb “less” is also formed with the help of the prefix Ho1- attached to the base (less).
Forming words using a suffix is ​​called the suffix method. For example, the adjective scarlet is formed by adding to the stem (al)(y) the suffix -enk- with a diminutive meaning. The noun bookbinder is formed using the suffix -chik- (meaning “profession”) attached to the stem (binder) (binder is one who knows how to bind); the word switch is formed using the suffix -tel- (with the meaning “object”), connected to the stem (turning off (switch is an object with which you can turn it off); the verb carpenter (i.e., act as a carpenter) is formed using the suffix -nicha-, connected to the base (carpenter); the adjective swampy (“swamp-like”) is formed using the suffix -ist-, connected to the base (marsh); the noun worker is formed using the suffix -nik- and the base (works)( A).
New words can be formed by adding a prefix and a suffix at the same time. This method of formation is called prefix-suffixal. For example, the adjective foreign (“located abroad”) is formed using the prefix za1- (with the meaning “beyond something”) and the suffix -n- (the meaning of the attribute); The adverb zasvetno (in the light season) is formed using the prefix za1- (with the meaning “beginning”) and the typical adverb suffix -o.
The suffixless method is that the ending is discarded from the word (green\y] -» green) or the ending is simultaneously discarded and the suffix is ​​cut off (povrit1t\ -» repeat). The method of addition is that new words are formed by connecting words (sofa-bed), adding the stems of words without connecting vowels (sports ground, physical education, half of Europe) or using connecting vowels (snowfall, tiller, five-day week, diesel locomotive, linguist) , using connecting vowels (interfixes) one, connecting part of a word with a whole word (new building, frost-resistant, decorative and applied), adding stems with the addition of a suffix (dizzy, five-year plan), abbreviated stem and word (Sberbank).
Nouns in the Russian language have unique methods of formation, with the help of which complex abbreviated words are created: adding syllables or parts of words of the full name: spetskor (special correspondent), trade union committee (trade union committee); adding the names of the initial letters of the phrase: ATS - pronounced [atees] (automatic telephone exchange), RF - [eref] (Russian Federation); addition of the initial sounds of a phrase: UN - [un] (United Nations), Research Institute - [n"ii] (research institute); mixed method (adding a syllable with a sound, a sound with a syllable, letters with a sound): glavk (main Committee).
The grammatical gender of compound abbreviated words is determined by the main word of the phrase: MSU (Moscow State University) began accepting students.
Complex and compound words can serve as the basis for the formation of new words: university (higher educational institution) - university student (university student), collective farm (collective farm) - collective farmer (person working in a collective farm).
The listed methods of word formation are called morphological. In addition to them, there is a lexical-semantic method - the formation of homonyms (barley is a grain crop, barley is an inflammation of the eyelid); morphological-syntactic method - transition from one part of speech to another ice cream (verbal adjective) milk - delicious ice cream (noun); lexical-syntactic method - the formation of a word from a phrase (ever + green = evergreen, that + hour = immediately).

9 Parts of speech in the Russian language, criteria for their identification

In modern Russian there are independent and auxiliary parts of speech, interjections and onomatopoeic words. Independent (nominative) parts of speech name objects, their qualities, properties or actions or indicate them. They have their own grammatical meanings, bear verbal stress and serve as the main or minor members of a sentence. Independent parts of speech include nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs, adverbs. Some scientists - authors of textbooks (V.V. Babaytseva, L.D. Chesnokova) consider the participle and the gerund to be independent parts of speech. But more often, scientists attribute participles and gerunds to special forms of the verb (N. M. Shansky, M. M. Razumovskaya). Functional parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) do not name phenomena of reality, but indicate various relationships between words (prepositions), words and sentences (conjunctions) or give semantic and emotional shades to words and sentences (particles). They do not have inflectional forms, do not have verbal stress, and are not members of a sentence. Interjections in Russian express, but do not name, the speaker’s feelings: Oh! Yes! Alas! etc. Onomatopoeic words reproduce sounds, screams: ku-ka-re-ku, mu-u-u, etc. Neither interjections nor onomatopoeic words are members of a sentence.

10 Nominal parts of speech, their common and distinctive features

Nominal parts of speech in Russian are a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun. The features of these parts of speech are studied by morphology.
Nominal parts of speech are independent (having meaning), changeable (inflected) parts of speech, and are members of a sentence.
The noun occupies one of the main places in our speech. Everything that exists in the world is named by a word - a noun. Nouns denote an object and answer the questions who? What? (young man, cat, blizzard, decision, Moscow, blue, excitement). A subject in grammar is anything about which you can ask: who is this? what is this?, for example: who is this? - Human; What is this? - textbook. Nouns are divided into groups depending on their lexical meaning:
1) concrete - they call objects of the surrounding world (living or inanimate nature): a house, a picture, a TV; boy, dog, bullfinch, oak;
2) real - they call substances: gold, oil, gas, salt, polyethylene;
3) abstract - they call phenomena perceived mentally: properties, qualities: whiteness, kindness, stupidity; actions: running, changing, pushing; states: joy, sleep, laziness; natural phenomena: blizzard, rainbow; social phenomena: parade, reform;
4) collective - they call many identical objects as one whole: foliage, children.
Nouns denoting generalized names of homogeneous objects (phenomena) are called common nouns, for example: river, mountain, city, kindness, uprising, tit. Nouns denoting the names of individual (separate) objects are called proper nouns, for example: Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, Yuri Dolgoruky, cat Marquis, Europe, Arbat. Nouns are divided into animate (Volzhanin, carpenter, little bear) and inanimate (house, newspaper, Meshchera).
The division into animate and inanimate nouns does not always coincide with the division of everything that exists in nature into living and inanimate, for example, the names of plants, the words people, kids, pack, youth are inanimate, and the words doll, dead man, dead man, ace, jack, trump card (card terms) - to the animate.
Nouns belong to the masculine (man, house, tiger), feminine (sister, hut, tigress), neuter (generation, impression, patronymic) gender. Usually it is not difficult to determine the gender of nouns, but there is a group of words for which the gender can be correctly determined only by consulting a dictionary: swan - masculine; shampoo - masculine; chassis - neuter; callus is feminine.
Some masculine nouns denoting a profession or occupation can be used to denote both male and female persons (lawyer, geologist, salesman).
Foreign language nouns are often neuter (cafe, menu, atelier); the masculine gender includes nouns that name male persons or animals (maestro, kangaroo); to feminine - nouns naming female persons (Miss, Madame, Frau, Lady).
The gender of geographical names is determined by the gender of the associated common nouns (Tbilisi - city - masculine gender).
Depending on their gender, nouns belong to the 1st declension (masculine, feminine with endings -а, -я, words of the general gender - egoz®); to the 2nd declension (masculine gender with zero ending, neuter gender with endings -о, -е); to the 3rd declension (feminine gender with zero ending), for example: hotels®, Ban@ - 1st declension, del\o±, nail^ - 2nd declension, youth^), sensitivity^] - 3rd declination.
So, nouns have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning (subject), are divided into groups depending on their meaning, and have constant morphological features (proper - common noun; animate - inanimate; gender, declension).
Adjectives denote a characteristic of an object and answer the questions: what? which? which? which? Using adjectives, an object can be described with various points vision. If adjectives indicate the quality of an object, which can be manifested to a greater or lesser extent (smart - smarter (comparative degree) - the smartest ( superlative), they are called quality. Qualitative adjectives characterize an object: ruddy, kind, big, warm.
Adjectives indicating that the object they define is related to another object are called relative: silver - related to silver, made of silver; Moscow - related to Moscow. The belonging of an object to a person or animal is determined by possessive adjectives: mother’s (dress), fox’s (footprints), Petina (book).
So, adjectives have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning (a feature of the subject) and a constant feature - a rank in meaning (qualitative, relative, possessive). In the Russian language there are many words that have the meaning of number, count, for example: two, deuce, double, doubled, doubling. But only word two is a numeral.
A numeral is a nominal part of speech that denotes a number, the number of objects (two days), their order when counting (second student) and answers the questions how many? Which? which? (by count).
Numeral names are divided by meaning into quantitative (they answer the question how many? - five, fifteen, twenty-five, one hundred and twenty-five) and ordinal (they answer the question which? or which? - fifth, fifteenth, twenty-fifth).
Cardinal numbers can denote whole numbers (five), fractions (one-fifth) or have a collective meaning (five).
Numeral names are simple (consisting of one word), complex and compound (consisting of two or more words): eleven, five hundred, one thousand two hundred and thirty-one.
So, numerals have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning (numbers) and constant morphological features: they can be ordinal and quantitative, simple, complex and composite, integer, fractional and collective (quantitative only).
Pronouns are words that are used instead of a name, denote persons (I, you, we, you, he, she, it, they), indicate objects, characteristics of objects, the number of objects, without naming them specifically (that, that, every , so much). Pronouns differ from all other nominal parts of speech in that they themselves do not have an independent meaning, but in speech, in the text, this meaning becomes specific because it correlates with a specific person, object, sign, quantity: There was a vase on the table. It [the vase] was of an unusual shape. This happened in a city that [the city] is known to everyone. Based on their meaning and grammatical features, nine categories of pronouns are distinguished: 1) personal (I, we; you, you; he, she, it; they); 2) returnable (self); 3) possessive (my, yours, ours, yours, yours); 4) demonstrative (this, that, such, such, such, so much); 5) attributive (himself, most, all, every, each, other); 6) relative (who, what, which, which, which, how many, whose); 7) interrogative (who? what? which? whose? which? how many? where? when? where? from where? why? why? what?); 8) negative (nobody, nothing, nobody); 9) indefinite (someone, something, someone, anyone, anyone, someone). Pronouns have morphological characteristics of the part of speech with which they relate.
So, all nominal parts of speech are independent, have specific lexical and general grammatical meanings and constant morphological features (grammatical meanings).
The initial form for nominal parts of speech is nominative case, singular, masculine (except for nouns). Fickle signs are also common. Nominal parts of speech change by case, number, gender (except for the noun). Let's prove this by changing sequentially all the words in a phrase consisting of nominal parts of speech.
For qualitative adjectives, a variable sign is a change in the form of the word (full or short), degree of comparison (comparative and superlative).
Nominal parts of speech in a sentence act as main or secondary members.

11 The verb as a part of speech and its inconjugated (special) forms, their unifying feature

The initial form of a verb is called the infinitive (indefinite form). Verbs in the indefinite form answer the questions what to do? what to do?, for example: see, take, consider.
In modern Russian, there are two types of verbs: perfect and imperfect.
Imperfective verbs answer [interrogation what to do? and indicate the incompleteness of the action, for example: decide, read.
Perfective verbs indicate the completion of an action, its end or result and answer the question what to do?, for example: decide, read.
A verb of one type may correspond to a verb (of another type with the same lexical meaning.
Such verbs form a species pair: bloom (in May) - bloom (on time); save (friend) - save (friend).
There are verbs that do not form forms of another type, for example, the verbs to regret, sing along, etc. do not form paired forms of the perfect form, and the verbs to walk, rush, etc. - do not form paired forms of the imperfect form. There are verbs that are used in the same forms in both the perfective and imperfective meanings. Such verbs are called bi-specific, for example: marry, execute, use.
Verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive.
Verbs that are or can be combined with a noun or pronoun in the accusative case without a preposition are called transitive: I love my native side in all its modest attire, birch, fir and pine in the thoughtful and dark forest. (M. Isakovsky.) Transitive verbs denote an action that passes to another object: I love (what?) - side, birch, fir tree, pine, which means the verb love is transitive.
Verbs are intransitive if the action does not directly transfer to another object: walk (on skis), swim (in the sea), implement (in life).
Verbs change according to mood, that is, the same verb can be used in the form of the indicative, imperative and conditional mood.
The indicative mood of a verb denotes a real action occurring in the present, past or future, for example: I read, I read, I will read.
The imperative mood of the verb expresses the will of the speaker - a request, an order, for example: read, speak, light.
The conditional mood of the verb denotes desired or possible actions, the implementation of which depends on certain conditions, for example: I would read, I would speak, I would light a fire. Verbs in the indicative mood change tenses. The category of time reflects the relationship of action to the moment of speech. The present tense shows that the action occurs at the moment of speech about it, for example: it shines, it arrives. The past tense denotes an action that happened or happened before the speech about it began, for example: shining, arriving. The future tense denotes an action that will take place after the end of speech about it, for example: I will return when our white garden spreads its branches like spring. (S. Yesenin.) From verbs of the perfect form the future simple tense is formed: I will read; from imperfect verbs - future compound i tense: I will read.
Changing verbs according to persons and numbers is called conjugation. According to their personal endings, verbs are divided into two conjugations: first and second.
Conjugation II includes verbs in -it (except shave and lay), seven verbs in -et (twist, offend, see, depend, hate, watch, endure) and four verbs in -at (drive, hold, breathe, hear) . These verbs have personal endings -у (-у), -ish, -it, -im, -ite, -am (-yat).
All other verbs belong to the I conjugation (including shave, lay), have personal endings -у (-у), -ест, -ет, -ем, -ет, -ут (-ут).
The conjugation of verbs is determined by the indefinite form. If the verb has an unstressed personal ending, then you need to: 1) put the verb in an indefinite form: work - work, do - do; 2) determine which letter comes before -т (what the verb ends with).
If the personal ending of the verb is stressed, then the conjugation is determined by the 3rd person form plural(-ut (-yut) - I spr.; -am (-yat) - II spr.) and by vowels at the end (e - I spr.; and - II spr.). Person category: indicates the speaker (listen - 1st person), the speaker's interlocutor (love - 2nd person), a person not participating in the speech (fly away - 3rd person).
All verbs with the suffix -sya (-s) are called reflexive.
Verbs that denote actions that occur on their own, without an actor (object), are called impersonal: it is getting dark, it is chilling, it is unwell, it is frozen, it is evening, etc. Impersonal verbs usually denote natural phenomena or the state of a person: It is already dawn. But I can't sleep.
As a rule, verbs act as predicates in a sentence. The verb has two inconjugated (special) forms, the participle and the gerund*. A common feature for participles and gerunds is that they carry some grammatical features of the verb.
A participle is a special form of a verb that denotes an attribute of an object by action and answers the questions: what? which? which? what?, for example: cities (how?) surprising.
As a form of a verb, the participle has the grammatical meanings of the verb: transitivity or intransitivity: adhesive - washing, perfect or imperfect form: read - audible, tense (present, past): throwing - throwing.
The participle combines, in addition to the characteristics of a verb, the characteristics of an adjective: it changes by gender, number and case, and has a full and short form. In a sentence it is more often a definition or part of a compound nominal predicate.
* IN educational complex authors V.V. Babaytseva, L.D. Chesnokova, A.Yu. Kupalova, G.K. Lidman-Orlova and others. participle and gerund are considered as independent parts of speech.
Participles can be active (ball bounced) or passive (lesson learned).
A gerund is a special form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb and answers the questions what are you doing? what did you do?, for example: deifying nature, rushing past. The gerund denotes an additional action, while the main action is expressed by a predicate verb.
Like an adverb, a gerund remains unchanged.
As a form of a verb, the gerund has some of its grammatical meanings: it can be perfect and imperfect: flooding - bay, transitive and intransitive: lowering (what?) the eyes - transitive, trying - intransitive.
In a sentence, the adverbial participle is an adverbial adverbial clause.

12 The place of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech

A participle is a special form of a verb that denotes an attribute of an object by action and answers the questions: what? which? which? what?, for example: cities (how?) falling asleep. As a form of a verb, the participle has the grammatical meanings of the verb: transitivity or intransitivity: building - carried away, perfect or imperfect form: pasted over - persecuted, tense (present, past): falling asleep - fallen asleep.
The participle combines, in addition to the characteristics of a verb, the characteristics of an adjective: it changes by gender, number and case, and has a full and short form. In a sentence, a participle is often a modifier or part of a compound nominal predicate.
Participles can be active and passive. Active participles denote a sign that is created by the action of the object itself: a loving mother. Passive participles denote a feature that is created in one object by the action of another object: a problem solved by the student.
A gerund is a special form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb and answers the questions what are you doing? having done what?, for example: loving nature, flashing a dagger. The gerund denotes an additional action, while the main action is expressed by a predicate verb. Like an adverb, a gerund remains unchanged.
As a form of a verb, the gerund has some of its grammatical meanings: it can be perfect and imperfect: flooding - flooding, transitive and intransitive: lowering (what?) the eyes - transitive, trying - intransitive. In a sentence, the adverbial participle is an adverbial adverbial clause.
Participles and gerunds are used more often in written language than in spoken language. The place of participles and gerunds in the modern Russian language has not been fully determined. Thus, some scientists - authors of textbooks (V.V. Babaytseva, L.D. Chesnokova) consider the participle and the gerund to be independent parts of speech.

13 Unchangeable independent parts of speech. Their morphological and syntactic features.

An adverb is an independent part of speech that denotes a sign of an action (driving quickly, rotating slowly) or a sign of another sign (extremely cold, laughing merrily, very brightly).
In a sentence, an adverb is usually an adverb and answers the questions how? to what extent? Where? Where? where? When? Why? For what? Most often, an adverb refers to a verb (to write correctly), less often to an adjective, participle, gerund, or another adverb (a cold day in winter, a short-lived bush, walking happily jumping, surprisingly easy to explain).
According to their meaning, adverbs are divided into groups:
1) adverbs of manner of action (answer the questions how? in what way?): amicably, quietly, three of us;
2) adverbs of measure and degree (answer the questions to what extent? to what extent? to what extent?): very, too, three times, completely;
3) adverbs of place (answer the questions where? ku-d a? o t k u d a?): close, to the left, above, forward, from afar, f. not far away;
4) adverbs of time (answer the questions when? how long about?): late, yesterday, autumn, long ago, late;
5) adverbs of reason (answer questions about what? Why?): because, rashly, blindly, involuntarily, accidentally;
6) adverbs of purpose (answer the questions why? | for what?): on purpose, out of spite, intentionally, then, why, for show.
An adverb is an unchangeable part of speech; it is not inflected, conjugated, or consistent with other words. I The adverb does not and cannot have an ending. In a sentence, the adverb is an adverb: Autumn. Overhead, the leaves on the trees gradually begin to turn yellow, turn red, and turn brown. (According to V. Bianchi.) Scientists note that there are approximately six thousand adverbs of manner of action, measure and degree, and their number is actively growing. There are very few adverbs of cause and purpose. Some scientists also classify gerunds and state category words as unchangeable independent parts of speech.
In the textbook “Russian language. Theory. grades 5-9” by V.V. Babaytseva, L.D. Chesnokova, the gerund is characterized as an independent part of speech on the basis of the gerund’s designation of an additional action, a sign of action, like an adverb, specific questions, what have you done? what am I doing?, morphological features that combine the features of a verb and an adverb, typical morphemic indicators (suffixes -a, -ya, -v, -lice, -shi), syntactic function of adverbial: looking, shouting, making, smiling, crouching. The gerund is formed from a verb and is associated with it by the grammatical meaning of its aspect, and also has the characteristics of an adverb. As a result, many scientists still consider the gerund to be a special form of the verb, and not an independent unchangeable part of speech.
Scientists characterize words of the category of state in different ways, attributing them both to a special part of speech and to predicative adverbs (adverbs in the role of a predicate). Words of the state category were singled out by L.V. Shcherba in 1928, including in this special, as he believed, part of speech words that denote the state of man and the environment. L. V. Shcherba considered the grammatical features of words in the category of state to be immutability and the ability to be used with a connective. To this part of speech he attributed the words joyfully, it is possible, it is impossible, it is stuffy, it is necessary, it is dark. Words of the state category superficially coincide with adverbs, but their syntactic functions are different. Words of the state category are predicates in a one-part sentence, adverbs are circumstances: She looked at me with a smile. I'm cold. There is still no uniformity in the interpretation of these words, but many scientists consider the words of the state category to be an independent part of speech.

14 Functional parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles. Their categories according to meaning, structure and syntactic use

Functional parts of speech, unlike independent ones, do not have a specific lexical and general grammatical meaning, do not change, are not separate members of the sentence, they perform only service functions in the sentence.
Prepositions are used to express the relationship of a noun, numeral and some pronouns to other words in speech. Prepositions help connect words in a phrase, clarify the meaning of a statement, and add adverbial meanings. So, in the sentence I’ll come to Moscow at five o’clock in the evening there are no excuses for the train being late. Although in general the phrase is understandable, still the prepositions from (expresses spatial relations - from Moscow), in (expresses temporal relations - at five in the evening), as a result of, due to (express circumstantial, causal relations - due to being late) would help faster and more accurately comprehend what was said.
The use of prepositions, taking into account grammatical norms, is a prerequisite for good and correct speech. Thus, the preposition in correlates only with the preposition from, and the preposition with - with the preposition on. One can say (came) to school - from school (but not “from school”), (came) from the Caucasus - to the Caucasus (but not “from the Caucasus”); You can’t say “due to being late” - only because of being late. We must remember that the prepositions according to, in spite of, thanks to are used with nouns in the dative case: according to the order, despite criticism, thanks to a friend. Prepositions usually come before | the word with which they are used. Conjunctions are function words that connect homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence.
Coordinating conjunctions (and, neither-nor, also, also, but, but, however, or, either, something) connect homogeneous members of a sentence and parts of a complex sentence: A light breeze woke up and then subsided. (I. Turgenev.) Only the heart beats, and the song sounds, and the string quietly rumbles. (A. Surkov.) Coordinating conjunctions are divided into three categories according to their meaning:
1) connective (“and this and that”): yes (= and), and-and, neither-nor, also, also, not only-but and, how-so and;
2) adversative (“not this, but this”): but, a, yes (= but), but, however; 3) dividing (“either this, or that”): either, either, this, not this, not that. Subordinating conjunctions (that, that, because, as if) connect parts of a complex sentence: The sun was already high when I opened my eyes. (V. Garshin.)
Subordinating conjunctions are divided into categories according to their meaning:
1) explanatory (indicate what they are talking about): what, in order, as if, as if to others;
2) temporary: when, barely, how, as soon as, before, etc.;
3) causal: because, since, etc.;
4) targeted: in order to, in order to, in order to, etc.;
5) conditional: if, once, if, etc.;
6) concessional: although, despite the fact that, etc.;
7) investigative: so;
8) comparative: as, as if, as if, etc.
In complex sentences, the role of a conjunction connecting parts of a sentence can be played by relative pronouns (which, whose, which, who, what, how much) and adverbs (where, where, when, from where, why, why, why). They are called allied words. Unlike conjunctions, allied words are members of a sentence: We approached the house where my friend lives.
Particles serve to form the forms of words and to express different shades of meaning in a sentence: The same word, but I wouldn’t have said it that way. (Proverb.) - the particle would (say would) forms the conditional form of the verb; What a delight these tales are! (A. Pushkin.) - the particle expresses delight, adds an exclamatory meaning; Let everyone be happy! - let the particle form the imperative mood of the verb to be.
The particles involved in the formation of verb forms are called formative.
Particles that convey different meanings are called modal. Modal particles can express*: 1) negation: not, nor; 2) strengthening: even, after all, after all; 3) question: really, really; 4) exclamation: so what? 5) doubt: unlikely, hardly; 6) clarification: exactly, just; 7) allocation, limitation: only, only; 8) indication: over there, here.
Particles neither and nor are often found in our speech. The particle does not convey negation: not you, couldn’t, not a friend, but in double negation (couldn’t help but know) and in interrogative-exclamation sentences (Who doesn’t know Pushkin’s fairy tales!, i.e. everyone knows) the particle does not lose its negative meaning .
The particle no most often has an intensifying meaning; it strengthens the negation when it is expressed by the particle not or words meaning “no, it’s impossible”: Neither rain nor snow stopped us, i.e. neither rain nor snow stopped us; There is not a cloud in the sky, that is, there are no clouds in the sky. The particle is not found in set expressions (neither alive nor dead), in the subordinate part of a sentence like No matter how many times I read this book, I am always interested, that is, although I have read this book many times, I am still interested. Particles are not and are written separately from the words they refer to.

15 Collocation as a unit of syntax. Types of connections between words in phrases. Types of phrases based on the morphological properties of the main word

A phrase is a combination of at least two significant words that are related grammatically and in meaning.
A phrase consists of a main and a dependent word.
According to the morphological affiliation of the main word, phrases are divided into: nominal (the main word is expressed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun).
into verbal ones (the main word is expressed by personal forms of the verb, as well as special forms of the verb - participle and gerund).
There are three types of subordinating connections between the main and dependent words: agreement, control, adjunction.
Agreement is a type of subordinating connection in which the dependent word is used in the same forms as the main word (tiny creature, grown flower).
Management is a type of subordinating connection in which the dependent word is placed with the main word in a certain case (to be interested in art, to be at the guardhouse).
Adjunction is a type of subordinating connection in which the words in a phrase are connected only by meaning (speak while smiling, invite to enter).
Thus, the grammatical connection between words in a phrase is expressed using the ending of a dependent word or ending and a preposition; unchangeable words are connected in phrases with the main word only by meaning, that is, the grammatical connection is determined by the morphological features of those parts of speech from which the phrase consists.
Word combinations can be free or non-free. In free ones it is easy to identify the main and dependent words; they have the same meaning: a shady garden is an object and its sign. Non-free phrases are not divided into parts: kindergarten- the meaning of the object, not the object and its attribute. Non-free phrases are similar to a word; in a sentence they are one member of the sentence.
A phrase serves to name (more accurately than a word) objects, their actions and characteristics. By specifying the meaning of a word, a phrase narrows it. For example, the word house is broader in meaning than the phrase brick house, and the phrase is more precise, since it not only names an object, but also indicates its attribute.
The phrase is like and. the word serves as building material for the sentence. For example, in the sentence Snowflakes fall to the ground, you can select the word snowflakes, which is the subject, and the phrase fall to the ground, which is the predicate group.
Subject and predicate, homogeneous members of a sentence, a word with a preposition do not form phrases, for example: it is raining; shines, but does not warm; by the sea, near the sea.

16 A simple sentence, its types according to the purpose of the statement. Exclamatory and non-exclamatory sentences

A sentence is a word or combination of words that is grammatically formatted and expresses a message, question or motivation. A simple sentence is a basic syntactic unit that has one grammatical basis, consisting of two (or one) main members. The content of a particular proposal is endlessly varied.
Thus, the sentence is a separate statement and has semantic and intonation completeness.
The intonation of a sentence is its sound side. The “pattern” of intonation is created by changes in the strength and pitch of the voice, so its basis is vowel sounds, and its element is pauses. The most important types of sentence intonation are narrative, interrogative and incentive. According to the purpose of the statement, sentences are narrative (contain a message, a message): It’s time for exams; interrogative (contain a question): Are you tired?; motivating (contain motivation, “wake up”): Guys, learn and love the Russian language!
According to the emotional coloring, sentences are exclamatory (if the statement is accompanied by a strong feeling) and non-exclamatory. Logical stress helps highlight the main semantic element in a sentence. With the help of logical stress, meaningful sentence options are created. The sentence Good in the forest in early spring, in addition to the general meaning, can convey additional information depending on which word the logical emphasis falls on: it is good, not bad; precisely in the forest, and not in another place; precisely in the spring, and not at any other time of the year. Punctuation marks help convey the structural features and intonation of a sentence in writing. Period, question mark, exclamation mark, ellipsis are end-of-sentence marks.

17 Complete and incomplete sentences. Two-part and one-part sentences. Common and uncommon offers

The grammatical basis of two-part sentences consists of two main members - the subject and the predicate. For example: A lonely sail is white in the blue fog of the sea. (M. Lermontov.)
The grammatical basis of one-part sentences consists of one main member - the subject or predicate.
If a sentence has only a subject, such a sentence is called a nominal sentence. For example: Winter! The peasant, triumphant, renews the path on wood. (A. Pushkin.) Nominal sentences are pronounced with the intonation of a message that some object or phenomenon exists in the present.
One-part sentences, in which the main member of the sentence is the predicate, are divided into definitely personal, indefinitely personal, generalized personal, and impersonal.
Sentences with a predicate verb in the 1st and 2nd person forms are called definite-personal. Definitely personal sentences are synonymous in meaning with two-part sentences, since the specific person (object) performing the action is easy to restore in meaning. For example: I’ll leave and won’t know how your efforts will end. (A. Chekhov.)
In indefinite-personal sentences, the person performing the action is not determined. The predicate verb is expressed by the 3rd person plural in the present and future tenses and in the form singular in the past time. For example: They were mowing across the river. There was a smell coming from there. freshly cut grass.
In generalized personal sentences, the action denoted by the predicate verb can be attributed to any person, to a group of persons (i.e., to a generalized person). Usually the verb in such sentences is used in the 2nd person singular form. For example: What goes around comes around. The 3rd person plural form can also have a generalized meaning. For example: After a case they don’t go for advice. Proverbs often take the form of such sentences.
Impersonal sentences are sentences with one main member - the predicate, in which there is not and cannot be a subject. For example: In late autumn it gets dark quickly. The predicate in such sentences is expressed by impersonal verbs or personal verbs with the meaning of impersonal. For example: The wind blew away the roofs of neighboring houses. Verbs in the indefinite form can act as predicates: There is nothing to build from, as well as adverbs starting with -o (-e): It’s light and crowded on the street.
Based on the presence of minor members, simple sentences can be uncommon or common. A simple sentence consisting only of a grammatical basis is called non-"common, for example: Autumn has come. It has gotten colder.
A simple sentence, which in addition to the grammatical basis includes minor members, is called common, for example: From under a bush, a silver lily of the valley nods its head in a friendly manner. (M. Lermontov.) Based on the presence or absence of the necessary members of the sentence, simple sentences are divided into complete and incomplete.
Incomplete sentences are those in which any member of the sentence is missing - main or secondary. Missing members in incomplete sentences are easily restored thanks to previous sentences.
Incomplete sentences are often used in dialogue:
- Do you feel pain now?
- Now it’s very small. (F. Dostoevsky.) The omission of members of a sentence in speech can be expressed by a pause, and in writing it is indicated by a dash: In summer it gets light early, and in winter it gets late.

18 Secondary members of the sentence. Basic morphological ways of expressing minor members of a sentence

Supplement - a minor member of a sentence that denotes the subject and relates to the predicate or other members of the sentence. Additions answer questions of indirect cases and are expressed by indirect cases of nouns and pronouns, for example: The old man was catching (what?) fish with a seine. (A. Pushkin.) Additions can also be expressed by words of other parts of speech in the meaning of a noun in the indirect case, for example: Old Taras thought (about what?) about a long time ago. (N. Gogol.) Tomorrow will not be like (what?) today. Nine is divisible by (what?) three. The indefinite form of the verb can also act as an object, for example: Everyone asked her (about what?) to sing. (M. Lermontov.)
Definition - a minor member of a sentence that denotes a feature of an object and explains the subject, object and other members of the sentence expressed by nouns. Definitions answer the questions: what? whose? Relating to nouns, definitions as dependent words are associated with them either by the method of agreement - agreed definitions, or by other means (control, adjacency) - inconsistent definitions, for example: (how am I?) The attic staircase was very steep ( agreed definition). - The staircase (how am I?) to the attic was very steep (inconsistent definition). An application is a definition expressed by a noun and agreed with the word being defined in the case, for example: A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant rock. (M. Lermontov.)
A circumstance is a minor member of a sentence that explains a word with the meaning of an action or attribute. The circumstances explain the predicate or other members of the sentence. According to their meanings, circumstances are divided into the following main groups: mode of action (how? in what way?): The cuckoo was ringing/cuckooing in the distance. (N. Nekrasov.); degree (how? to what extent and?): She changed to the point of familiarity; places (where? where? where from?): Corncrakes were screaming all around. (F. Tyutchev.); time (when? how long? since when? proof?): Yesterday I arrived in Pyatigorsk. (M. Lermontov.); conditions (under what conditions and?): With effort you can achieve great success; reasons (why? why?): In the heat of the moment, he did not feel pain; goals (why? for what?): Alexey Meresyev was sent to Moscow for medical treatment. (B. Polevoy.) The circumstance of the goal can be expressed in the indefinite form of the verb, for example: I came (why?) to visit you.

19 Homogeneous members of the sentence. Generalizing words for homogeneous sentence members

Any members of a sentence can be homogeneous, both main (In the distance there is an oak forest, and it shines and turns red in the sun - I. Turgenev.), and secondary (The sun is mine. I will not give it to anyone. Not for an hour, not for a ray, not at a glance. - M. Tsvetaeva.) Homogeneous members of a sentence can be arranged in a row or separated from each other by different members of a sentence, for example: Now there are meadows, vegetable gardens, fields, groves stretching along the banks. (I. Turgenev.) The wind rose and swirled the fallen leaves.
Homogeneous members of a sentence can be expressed in words of one part of speech or different parts of speech, for example: The moon has appeared from behind the mountain and is shining on the whole world. (N. Gogol.) I like to walk in the forest quietly, with stops, with freezing. (M. Prishvin.)
The following are not homogeneous members of the sentence: repeated words that have an intensifying meaning (far, far; ran, ran); phraseological units (both day and night, etc.).
The means of expressing homogeneity are intonation and conjunctions. Homogeneous members of a sentence, in which there are no conjunctions, are separated in writing by commas.
Homogeneous members of the sentence are pronounced with enumerative intonation, each of them receives logical stress, for example: The speaker spoke clearly, understandably, in simple language.
If homogeneous members are combined coordinating conjunctions, then a comma is placed in the following cases:
1. Before adversative conjunctions a, but, yes (= but), but, however, for example: I was struck by the sounds of strange, but extremely pleasant and sweet music.
Before the second part of the double conjunction.
A comma is not placed before repeated connecting or disjunctive conjunctions:
1. Between homogeneous members of a sentence connected by single connecting or disjunctive conjunctions;
2. With a repeated union and if homogeneous members form a close semantic unity;
3. In phraseological units: laughter and sin, neither fish nor fowl, neither this nor that, neither back nor forth.
With homogeneous members there may be generalizing words that have a broader meaning and generally express the meaning homogeneous members, giving a general name to what is listed, for example: In Oblomovka they believed everything: werewolves and the dead. (I. Goncharov.)
Punctuation marks for generalizing words are placed as follows: 1. If homogeneous members are preceded by a generalizing word, then a colon is placed after it;
2. If a generalizing word comes before homogeneous members, and after them the sentence continues, then a colon is placed before the homogeneous members, and a dash after them;
3. If a generalizing word follows homogeneous members, then a dash is placed in front of it.
If after generalizing words there are explanatory conjunctions namely, that is, like that, then a comma is placed before them and a colon after them, for example: Khor understood reality, that is: he settled down, saved up some money, got along with the master and other authorities. (I. Turgenev.) If, after homogeneous terms, before a generalizing word, introductory words are used in one word, a word, then a dash is placed before the latter, and a comma after them.
Homogeneous members clarify and specify the generalizing word, which is most often expressed by a pronoun. The generalizing word answers the same question as the homogeneous members and is the same member of the sentence. Homogeneous members of a sentence are used in different styles of speech to more accurately describe objects and phenomena.

20 Sentences with addresses, introductory words and plug-in constructions

An address is a word or combination of words that names the person being addressed.
Addresses in oral speech serve to attract attention to the message and at the same time to express the speaker’s attitude towards the interlocutor. Such appeals are expressed by animate nouns, less often by adjectives or participles in the meaning of such nouns, for example: Mourners, we ask you to vacate the carriages.
In letters, addresses are used to express one or another attitude of the writer to the addressee. Here are some examples from A.P. Chekhov’s letters: Dear Nikolai Nikolaevich, thank you very much for your congratulations and kind words; Dear Alexey Maksimovich, I am answering two letters at once; Dear Misha, hello; Thank you, Sasha, for your troubles.
In artistic speech, poetic addresses can be inanimate nouns. This is one of the techniques of personification, for example: Don’t make noise, rye, with a ripe ear! (I. Koltsov.)
The appeal can be at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the sentence.
The address in the sentence is separated by commas, for example: I was born, my dear grandchildren, near Kiev, in a quiet village. If the appeal is at the beginning of a sentence and is pronounced with a special feeling, then an exclamation mark is placed after it, and the sentence that follows begins with a capital letter, for example: Friends! I congratulate you!
Introductory words are special words or combinations of words with which the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is communicating, for example: Luckily for me, the weather was magnificent all the time. These meanings can be expressed not only by introductory words, but also introductory sentences: The blizzard will certainly end soon (introductory word) and the blizzard, I am sure, will end soon (introductory sentence).
When spoken, introductory words and sentences are highlighted by intonation (pauses and relatively quick pronunciation), and in writing - by commas, for example: Apparently, the journey was nearing its end. You, I know, are unpretentious. (I. Turgenev.)
Thus, introductory words and sentences allow you to express shades of thought, indicate the source of the message, and convey various feelings.
Plug-in structures contain additional messages and related remarks. On the letter plug-in structures highlighted with brackets or dashes, for example: One evening (it was at the beginning of October 1773) I was sitting at home alone... (A. Pushkin.) or:
If I get sick
I won’t go to doctors.
I appeal to friends
(don't think this is crazy):
lay out the steppe for me,
curtain my windows with fog,
put it at the head
night star.
(Ya. Smelyakov.)

21 Complex sentence and its types: allied and non-union sentences. Compound and complex sentences.

Complex sentences, like all sentences, serve for communication between people, express a message, a question or an incentive to action and have the obligatory features of a sentence - the presence of a grammatical basis and ending intonation. It brings us closer together complex sentences with simple ones, for example: The sky was again covered with clouds, and it began to rain. (M. Gorky.)
In terms of their structure and meaning, complex sentences are very diverse; according to the types of connections between parts, complex sentences are divided into non-union and allied.
Unconjunct sentences are complex sentences whose parts are connected only by intonation, for example: The mountain ash turned red, the water turned blue. (S. Yesenin.)
Conjunctive sentences are complex sentences whose parts are connected using intonation and conjunctions or allied words, for example: He [Pushkin] is for Russian art what Lomonosov is for Russian enlightenment in general.
In writing, parts of complex sentences are separated by punctuation marks.
Sentences with conjunctions and allied words are divided into two groups: complex and complex.
Compound sentences are those in which simple sentences are equal in meaning and are connected by coordinating conjunctions and intonation, for example: The dusk became thicker, and the stars shone higher. (I. Bunin.)
Complex sentences are those in which one of the sentences is subordinate in meaning to another and is connected with it by intonation and a subordinating conjunction or a conjunctive word, for example: We went to the barely green fields, over which sunlight The lark sang hotly, fluttering its wings. (A. Tolstoy.)
An independent sentence as part of a complex sentence is called the main one, and a dependent sentence, subordinate to the main one in meaning and grammatically, containing a means of communication (conjunction, allied word), is called a subordinate clause.
The three broadest groups of complex sentences in terms of meaning are distinguished: with attributive clauses, explanatory clauses and adverbial clauses.

22 Foreign speech and the main methods of its transmission

The main ways of transmitting someone else's speech are direct, indirect and improperly direct speech.
Direct speech is a word-for-word reproduction of someone else's speech. At the same time, all its lexical and grammatical features are preserved. In this case, someone else's speech and the speech of the speaker are clearly distinguished: He suddenly stopped, extended his hand forward and said: “This is where we are going.” (I. Turgenev.) Direct speech is always presented by the speaker (writer) as someone else’s speech accurately, literally conveyed. Features of the structure of sentences with direct speech - author's words and direct speech.
Author's words are a construction with a verb of speech (say, speak, utter, ask, answer, etc.), to which direct speech directly relates. Introductory words (author's) can characterize the character's behavior during speech, his facial expressions, posture, stages of speech, for example: “Take them!” - the old man barked, stamping his foot on the ground. (M. Gorky.)
Direct speech from the point of view of structure consists of simple and complex sentences, one-part and two-part, complete and incomplete. Addresses, forms of the imperative mood, interjections, emotional-expressive particles, personal pronouns and verbal forms in the first person are characteristic features of direct speech. Punctuation system for direct speech:
A: "P".

A: “P?(!)”
"P", - a.
“P?(!)” - a.
"P, - a, - p."
“P, - a. - P".
“P, - a. - P?(!)"
“P?(!) - ah. - P". - A. -
Direct speech, which is a conversation between two or more persons, is called dialogue. The words of each person participating in the conversation are called replicas. The author's words may accompany the remark or be absent. If dialogue lines are given each from a new paragraph, then they are not enclosed in quotation marks and are preceded by a dash, but if dialogue lines are written in a line and it is not indicated who they belong to, then each of them is enclosed in quotation marks and separated from the adjacent dash.
In a sentence with indirect speech, someone else's speech is not conveyed verbatim, but while preserving its content. These are, as a rule, complex sentences consisting of two parts (the words of the author, representing the main sentence, and indirect speech, formatted as a subordinate clause): Pugachev said that Grinev was deeply to blame for him; The captain ordered the boats to be launched.
A question conveyed in indirect speech is not posed by a naming sign, for example: The forester asked if I saw swans on the lake. The author's words are usually preceded by indirect speech and separated from it by a comma.
Improperly direct speech is a way of conveying someone else’s speech in which someone else’s speech merges with the author’s speech, for example: Alexander ran out as if the ceiling had collapsed in the house, looked at his watch - it was late, he wouldn’t be in time for dinner. (I. Goncharov.) Improperly direct speech combines the properties of direct and indirect speech. Improperly direct speech, like direct speech, retains the features of the vocabulary and syntax of someone else’s speech and, like indirect speech, is not written in quotation marks and is conducted on behalf of the author of the narrative.
In addition to the methods listed above, someone else’s speech can be formatted as a quote.
A quotation is a verbatim excerpt from a text or someone’s exact words quoted. Quotes are used to support or clarify the idea being expressed with an authoritative statement. In writing, quotations are enclosed in quotation marks or in bold font. If citations are not given in full, the omission is indicated by an ellipsis.
Someone else's speech can be transmitted simple sentence m, and often only the topic of the speech is indicated. The content of someone else's speech is conveyed by an addition expressed by a noun in the prepositional case, an indefinite form of a verb with a direct object: I began to ask about the way of life on the waters and about remarkable persons. (M. Lermontov.) I was here; the conversation started about horses, and Pechorin began to praise Kazbich’s horse. (M. Lermontov.)
Someone else's speech can be conveyed in a simple sentence; the content of someone else's speech is reflected in the sentence itself, and introductory words (sentences) replace words
centuries ate (- author's words)
!_ author: The roach took, as fishermen say, almost on a bare hook. (Yu. Nagibin.)

23 Text as a speech work, main features of the text

What are the characteristics of the text?
1. Expressiveness. The text is always expressed in oral or written form.
2. Limitedness (autonomy). Every text, even the smallest one, has clear boundaries - a beginning and an end.
3. Connectivity. The linguistic units that make up the text are interconnected in a certain order.
The diagram of coherent speech from the point of view of its constituent units can be represented as follows: sentence - prose stanza - fragment; chapter - part - finished work.
There are texts consisting of one sentence (less often two). These are aphorisms, riddles, proverbs, chronicle notes in a newspaper, etc. There are texts equal to a prose stanza or fragment: a note in a newspaper, a poem or a fable in prose. And there are, of course, texts of considerable length.
4. Integrity. The text, in terms of content and construction, is a single whole; to understand the structure of the text, the relationship between content and form is of utmost importance. The structure of the text is connected by theme and idea, plot and composition.
The content of the text is revealed only through its verbal form.
5. The content is relevant to the topic. The theme is what is described in the text, what the story is about, the reasoning unfolds, the dialogue is conducted, etc. In non-fiction texts, the theme is usually indicated in the title. The titles of works of art can be directly related to the theme (“Woe from Wit”, “Undergrowth”). Works of fiction, even relatively small in volume (for example, stories), can reveal several topics, and stories, novels, and plays are almost always multi-themed.
6. Orderliness. All linguistic units that form the text, all its parts and all meaningful, semantic aspects are ordered and organized in a certain way.
7. Articulation. The ways of connecting words in a sentence and parts of a complex sentence are well known. There are sequential (chain) and parallel connections of sentences. In parallel communication, sentences are not linked, but compared. The features of this type of connection are the same word order, the members of the sentence are expressed in the same grammatical forms, sometimes by repetition of the first word of the sentences. For example: I love guests. I love to laugh. ...I really like to stand behind the car when it snorts, sniffing gasoline. I like a lot of things. (According to V. Dragunsky.)
With a sequential connection of sentences, one sentence seems to flow into another: each next sentence begins with how the previous one ended. For example: I have often marveled at the shrewd impudence of crows. They cheated me more than once, as if jokingly. (A. Platonov.)
Based on everything said above about the text, we can give the following definition. Text is expressed in
written or spoken form, an ordered sequence of linguistic units united into a whole by theme and main idea.

24 Features of texts of different types: narration, description, reasoning

Narration is a story about events, incidents, actions; The organizing role in this form of verbal expression belongs to verbs, especially past perfect forms. They indicate successive events and ensure the unfolding of the narrative. Sentences in a narrative, as a rule, are not too long or complexly constructed. The expressive and visual power of storytelling lies primarily in the visual representation of actions, the movement of people and phenomena in time and space. It is no coincidence that researchers have repeatedly noted that Pushkin “removes” everything secondary from the narrative, strives to leave only the subject and predicate in the sentence, so that the narrative is livelier and more dynamic. For example: Dunya sat down in the wagon next to the hussar, the servant jumped onto the handle, the coachman whistled, and the horses galloped (“Station Master”); The clock struck one and two o'clock in the morning, and he heard the distant knock of a carriage. An involuntary wave
nie-possessed him. Karsta drove up and stopped. He heard the sound of the running board being lowered. There was a fuss in the house. People ran, voices were heard, and the house lit up (“The Queen of Spades”).
A description is a verbal depiction of a phenomenon of reality by listing its characteristic features: a description of an object (what object), a place (where it is), the state of the environment (what it is like here), the state of a person (what it is like for him here). In the description there are more words than in the narration, denoting the qualities and properties of objects. Verbs in the description are usually in the imperfective form, often in the past tense. These features are clearly visible in an excerpt from M. Bulgakov’s novel “The White Guard”: Like a multi-tiered honeycomb, the Beautiful City smoked and rustled and lived in the frost and fog on the mountains above the Dnieper. For days on end, smoke spiraled upward from countless chimneys into the sky. The streets were smoking with haze, and the downed giant snow creaked. The houses were piled high on five, six, and seven floors. During the day their windows were black, and at night they burned in rows in the dark blue heights. Electric balls shone in chains as far as the eye could see, like precious stones, suspended high on the squiggles of long gray poles. During the day, trams with plump yellow straw seats, similar to those made abroad, ran with a pleasant, even hum.
For special clarity and figurativeness of the description, present tense forms of verbs can also be used in it, as, for example, in the well-known poetic description of late autumn from Chapter IV of “Eugene Onegin” by A. Pushkin:
Dawn rises in the cold darkness; In the fields the noise of work fell silent; With his hungry wolf, a wolf comes out onto the road; Having sensed it, the road horse snores - and the cautious traveler
Rushes up the mountain at full speed; At dawn the shepherd no longer drives the cows out of the barn, and at the midday hour his horn does not call them into a circle; In the hut, singing, the maiden spins, and, friend of winter nights, a splinter crackles in front of her.
It is important that in the description the forms of the verb tense do not denote a sequential change of details, parts, but their location on the same plane, as if on one painting canvas.
Reasoning is verbal evidence (why it is this way and not otherwise; what follows from this), an explanation (what it is), reflection (how to be; what to do). It differs from narration and description, first of all, in more extended and complexly constructed sentences (with isolated phrases, various types of non-conjunctive and allied connections) and abstract vocabulary, i.e., a significant number of words denoting concepts (in narration and description, words denoting specific objects and phenomena). Let's give an example of reasoning: A truly strong person is always kind. (Thesis.) One day a new person came to our section. I don’t remember exactly, but for some reason I didn’t like him. The newcomer, of course, didn’t know how to do anything, but I decided to prove it to him. I applied two or three painful techniques and saw that he was almost crying. The coach came up and took me aside:
- You are strong. Why are you targeting the weak?..
Even my ears turned red. And really, why? (Rationale.)
Since then (and many years have passed) I have never raised my hand against the weak. I understand: fighting with an equal is fair. Hitting the weak is an unworthy occupation. (Logical conclusion.)
In any argument there is a thesis and justification for the thought expressed, a logical conclusion from everything said.
In scientific and business speech, complete reasoning is usually used, the parts of which are connected by conjunctions because, since, therefore, thus, so, therefore. In colloquial and artistic speech, abbreviated reasoning without conjunctions predominates.

25 Speech styles, their functions and scope of use

Among the variety of varieties of language use, two main ones stand out: spoken language and literary (book) language.
Colloquial language (colloquial style of speech) is usually used orally.
Depending on the sphere of use of the literary language, scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic styles of speech are distinguished.
The most important features of each style are determined taking into account the following: a) for what purpose we are speaking; b) in what environment we are speaking; c) speech genres; d) linguistic means of expression; e) stylistic features of speech.
The conversational style is used for direct communication, when we share our thoughts or feelings with others, exchange information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.
The conversational style is characterized by emotionality, imagery, concreteness, and simplicity of speech, for example: A month before leaving Moscow, we ran out of money - it was dad who was preparing for fishing... And then the fishing began. The father sat down on the shore, laid out all his belongings, lowered the fishpond into the water, threw out the fishing rods - there were no fish. (A. Yashin.)
In colloquial speech, the emotionality of a statement, unlike artistic style, is not the result of special creative work or artistic skill. She is a living reaction to events, to the actions of people around her.
The relaxed atmosphere of communication leads to greater freedom in the choice of emotional words and expressions: colloquial words (stupid, rotozey, talking shop, giggle, cackle), colloquial words (neighing, rokhlya, ahovy, disheveled), slang words (parents - ancestors", iron, worldly) are more widely used ).
Scientific style is the style of scientific communications. Its genres are scientific articles and educational literature. Terminological and professional vocabulary is widely used.
The main purpose of a scientific text is to study phenomena, objects, name them and explain them. The most common features of vocabulary scientific style are: the use of words in their literal meaning; lack of figurative means: epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, hyperboles; widespread use of abstract vocabulary and terms, for example: The most important economic and biological characteristics of varieties are: resistance to growing conditions (climate, soil, pests and diseases), durability, transportability and shelf life. (G. Fetisov.)
The official business style is used for communication and information in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style
serves for the preparation of documents: laws, orders, regulations, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates.
In the official business style there is no place for the manifestation of the author's individuality; the style features are formality and precision. For example:
Receipt.
I, Elena Tikhonova, a student of grade 9 “B” at school No. 65, received 5 (five) copies of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova from the school library for teaching a Russian language lesson. I undertake to return the books on the same day.
March 23, 2000 E. Tikhonova
The journalistic style serves to influence people through the media. It is found in the genres of article, essay, reportage, feuilleton, interview, oratory and is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal. This style is used in the sphere of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. Information is intended not for a narrow circle of specialists, but for broad sections of society, and the impact is aimed not only at the mind, but also at the feelings of the recipient.
Artistic style influences the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, and is characterized by imagery, emotionality, and specificity of speech.
The emotionality of an artistic style differs significantly from the emotionality of colloquial and journalistic styles. The emotionality of artistic speech performs an aesthetic function. Functional-stylistic boundaries in modern language are very subtle and complex. Units of one
styles can be used in other functional varieties of language.